Stress and Job Satisfaction

among Symphony Musicians

John Breda and Patrick Kulesa

Symphony Orchestra Institute

1618 Orrington Avenue, Suite 318, Evanston, Illinois 60201
Telephone: 847.475.5001
 Stress and Job Satisfaction
among Symphony Musicians

John Breda and Patrick Kulesa

Research Study Series

No. 2

Symphony Orchestra Institute

The Symphony Orchestra Institute

The mission of the Symphony Orchestra Institute is to improve the effectiveness of

symphony orchestra organizations, to enhance the value they provide to their
communities, and to help assure the preservation of such organizations as unique
and valuable cultural institutions.

Publications in the Research Study Series present insights based on scholarly research
and analysis typically focusing on particular dimensions of symphony orchestra
organizations. These research-based publications are written especially for
communication with symphony organizations practitioners: staff and orchestra
employees, volunteers, and others closely involved in the operation and funding of
orchestral organizations.

© 1999 Symphony Orchestra Institute. All rights reserved. No part of this study
may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without the permission in writing of the publisher. Reprints may be requested
from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America.
 Symphony Orchestra Institute

Stress and Job Satisfaction

among Symphony Musicians

Preface
In spring 1996, the Symphony Orchestra Institute awarded a doctoral research
grant to John Breda, who was in his final year of training to become a medical
doctor. Prior to entering medical education, John had been a professional
symphonic clarinetist. He holds two bachelor’s and a master’s degree from the
New England Conservatory. From 1978 to 1982, he performed as a freelance
symphonic musician, and from 1982 to 1989, played with the Oregon Symphony.
In his doctoral research funding request, John proposed to collect and compare
data relating to the psychological distress of orchestral musicians, which included
related questions about job satisfaction and other aspects of orchestral work
and life. John developed an extensive questionnaire, circulated it to more than
2,500 musicians, and by the end of 1996 had received responses from about
700 musicians. During 1997 and into 1998, the extensive scale of the
questionnaire and responses, and the intense pressures of medical internship,
forced a long deferral in the tasks of processing the responses and analyzing
and interpreting the data.

In fall 1998, with the consent of John Breda, the Institute engaged Patrick
Kulesa to collaborate and assist in completing the analysis and interpretation
of the data. Patrick Kulesa has recently received his Ph.D. in psychology from
Northwestern University, completing a doctoral dissertation exploring the impact
of attitudes on memory. His research interests are in attitudes and their impact
on individual behavior and organizational effectiveness.

Working together this past year, Breda and Kulesa, as researcher and author,
have completed the analysis and interpretation presented in the report which
follows and which the Institute is now pleased to publish and distribute. We
hope this study will further advance our understanding of various factors
influencing the careers and lives of symphony orchestra musicians.

December 1999 Paul R. Judy, Founder & Chairman

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 Symphony Orchestra Institute

Stress and Job Satisfaction

among Symphony Musicians
John Breda
Patrick Kulesa

Purposes
The purposes of this research were to examine the levels of stress and job
satisfaction reported by symphony musicians and to determine what musician
and orchestral characteristics are associated with higher levels of stress and
job satisfaction. A survey was developed assessing satisfaction, stress, and
musicians’ evaluations of their orchestras, music directors, and chosen
profession.

In addition, the survey included several items from an earlier study by

Allmendinger, Hackman, and Lehman (1994) that examined satisfaction levels
in a variety of organizations, including symphony orchestras. Use of these items
permitted comparisons between this report and Allmendinger et al.’s 1994 results.
Moreover, this survey included a standardized measure of perceived stress
developed by Lambert and Burlingame (1996). Using norms established by
these researchers, the level of stress reported by symphony musicians could be
compared with psychiatric patient and non-patient samples.

Research Methods
Respondents and Procedure
Surveys were mailed to a sample of 2,563 musicians chosen from the 1995-
1996 directory of the International Conference of Symphony and Opera
Musicians (ICSOM). The ICSOM directory included 37 orchestras which were
part of symphony organizations and 7 which were part of opera or ballet
organizations. In an effort to ensure more equal representation across orchestral
sections, surveys were mailed to all (1,398) nonstring players in the directory,
and to one of every two string players (1,165), selected alternately as their
names appeared in the directory. Surveys were sent to a small number of
professional musicians who were members of 2 non-ICSOM orchestras and
responses from these players constituted less than 3 percent of the total replies,
which numbered 698, yielding a response rate of about 28 percent.

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In a letter accompanying the survey, participants were informed that the

purpose of the survey was to understand the nature and causes of stress
experienced by symphony musicians. Respondents were provided postage-paid
envelopes in which to return the surveys.

Overview of Survey
The survey consisted of eight sections. The first was a set of nine items measuring
job satisfaction. Respondents rated the extent of their satisfaction with various
aspects of their jobs (e.g., pay and fringe benefits, feelings of accomplishment,
support and respect received from management), using 7-point scales (1 =
extremely dissatisfied, 7 = extremely satisfied).

Section 2 contained 18 items concerning satisfaction with various aspects

of orchestras and conductors, including clarity of musical standards, orchestral
morale, musician voice in decision making, and the role of orchestral
management in settling controversies. Respondents rated the extent to which
each item was an accurate description of their orchestras, using 7-point scales
(1 = very inaccurate, 7 = very accurate).

The third section was the 45-item Outcome Questionnaire (OQ) developed
by Lambert and Burlingame (1996). The OQ originally developed as a diagnostic
tool for patients undergoing psychotherapy, is used to assess the extent of
symptoms associated with stress-related illnesses. In the context of this survey,
the OQ served as a measure of the subjective level of stress experienced by
symphony musicians. As described by Lambert, Hansen, Umpress, Lunnen,
Okiishi, Burlingame, Huefner, and Reisinger (1996), the items of the OQ concern
how the respondent feels inside (e.g., “I feel weak” and “I feel fearful”), how
well the respondent gets along with others (e.g., “I have frequent arguments”
and “I am satisfied with my relationships with others”), and how well the
respondent is performing at work or school (e.g., “I find my work/school
satisfying” and “I feel stressed at work/school”). Respondents rated each item
for frequency of occurrence over the past week, using 5-point scales (1 =
never, 5 = almost always). Standard procedures described by Lambert et al.
(1996) were used to compute scores on the OQ for each respondent. Scores
could range from 0 to 180, with higher values indicating greater perceived
stress.

The fourth section of the survey consisted of 24 items assessing respondents’

satisfaction with being musicians in their orchestras. These items were more
specific in content than the items in the first section. In particular, items in
Section 4 addressed the impact of the orchestra on family life, trust in the music
director, the effect of being a musician on general health, and the tendency to
report or work through physical pain due to performing. Respondents rated
their extent of agreement with each item, using 7-point scales (1 = disagree
strongly, 7 = agree strongly).

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Section 5 of the survey contained 13 items evaluating the music director,

including clarity of expectations, quality of teaching, and acceptance of
suggestions from musicians. Respondents rated each item for frequency of
occurrence, using 5-point scales (1 = never, 5 = always).

Section 6 consisted of 13 items assessing feelings about symphony orchestra

performing as a profession, including adequacy of union representation, career
choice satisfaction, and control over career path. Respondents rated their extent
of agreement with each item, using 7-point scales (1 = disagree strongly, 7 =
agree strongly).

The seventh section of the survey addressed the prevalence of performance

anxiety and the use of beta-blocking drugs to control that anxiety. Respondents
indicated the frequency with which they had experienced levels of performance
anxiety severe enough to affect their ability to perform to their capabilities (1-
9 times per month, 10-20 times per month, or more than 20 times per month).
Respondents also indicated whether they had used beta-blocking drugs, if they
did so under the guidance of a physician, and if they had sought help from a
physician to discontinue use of beta-blocking drugs. Finally, respondents
indicated whether they had successfully used any of the following techniques
to control performance anxiety: physical exercise routine, meditation, deep
breathing, deep muscle relaxation, focusing techniques, desensitization, and
cognitive restructuring.

The last section of the survey asked for the following information from
each respondent: gender, marital status, age (divided into six levels: under 20,
20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-65, or over 65), length of service in current orchestra
(collapsed into three levels: fewer than 9 years, 9-25 years, or more than 25
years), tenure (yes or no), position in the orchestra (principal/assistant principal
or other), instrument group (string player or other), number of different orchestral
positions held as a full-time employee, use of additional job to supplement
income (yes or no), length of orchestral season (fewer than 29 weeks, 30-39
weeks, or 40-52 weeks), and counseling sought for work-related problems (yes
or no). Finally, each respondent read a list of orchestras divided into five groups
based on published wage scales for ICSOM orchestras as of the 1994-1995
season. They indicated into which of these five groups their current orchestra
was placed. Level of annual wage is indicated in this report as first ($60,000 or
more), second ($50,000-60,000), third ($40,000-50,000), fourth ($30,000-
40,000), or fifth level (under $30,000).

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Research Findings
Describing the Sample
Among the musicians who completed and returned the survey, 63 percent are
male and 68 percent are married. Their average age is between 30 and 39 years
and their average length of service in their current orchestras is about eight
years. Fewer than one-half (42 percent) indicated they are principal or assistant
principal players and about that number (39 percent) are string players. Most
are tenured (92 percent). On average, the musicians have held two different
full-time orchestral positions, and the majority of them (60 percent) currently
work in another position to supplement their orchestral salaries. Most (63
percent) are in orchestras with a season length of 40 to 52 weeks. Fifty-two
percent of the musicians have taken beta-blocking drugs to control performance
anxiety. Most (62 percent) have used drugs while under the care of a physician,
and a small minority (15 percent) report seeking the guidance of a physician to
discontinue use of beta-blocking drugs. One-third report seeking counseling
for problems associated with their work.

These demographic characteristics indicate that the musicians in the sample

are somewhat younger and less experienced than average. Data obtained from
15 ICSOM orchestras for the years 1987, 1992, and 1997 showed that the
average age of ICSOM players was about 45 (compared with a range of 30 to 39
in this survey), and the average length of experience was just over 16 years
(compared with about 8 years in this survey). These differences between average
musicians and the sample used in this survey should be considered when
interpreting the findings in this report.

Creating Scales from Survey Items

Because many sections of the survey contain a large number of items, several
measures were created by averaging responses to various groups of items. In
this way, the large pool of survey items was reduced to a smaller set of measures
to simplify subsequent analyses. Two approaches were taken to determine which
items should be grouped together and averaged. When a set of items was
designed to measure opinions about the same aspect of orchestral performing,
a statistic called coefficient alpha was calculated for that group of items.
Coefficient alpha is a single number that expresses how well a set of items form
a group. Alphas can range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating the items
form a group to a greater extent. Although there is no definitive rule concerning
the appropriate level of alpha, values 0.60 or higher are often considered
acceptable. To illustrate the use of this statistic, all of the items in Section 1
measure job satisfaction. Consequently, a coefficient alpha could be calculated
for these nine items to determine how well they form one group. Because all of
the items in Section 1 measured job satisfaction, all of the items in Section 3
measured perceived stress, all of the items in Section 5 measured music director

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evaluation, and all of the items in Section 6 measured evaluation of the profession,
separate coefficient alphas were calculated for each of these sections.

The second method used to determine which items could be grouped

together was a statistical technique called factor analysis. Factor analysis
identifies groups of items from a larger pool that are strongly related to each
other and can be combined into several sets of items, each concerning the
same underlying idea. For example, if respondents who strongly agree with the
statement “I frequently think of quitting this job” tend to strongly agree with
the statement “I look forward to moving on to a new position,” scores on these
two items would be strongly related to each other, and these two items would
likely be identified by a factor analysis as members of the same group. Job
dissatisfaction could be the underlying idea expressed by these two items and
other items with which they are highly related. Factor analysis is well suited to
a context in which respondents have answered a diverse set of items, and
researchers seek to specify several groups of items within the larger set. Because
Sections 2 and 4 of the survey fit this description, separate factor analyses were
performed on the 18 items in Section 2 and the 24 items in Section 4.

Coefficient Alphas of Sections 1, 5, and 6

Separate coefficient alphas were calculated for the nine items in Section 1, the
13 items in Section 5, and the 13 items in Section 6. Results are shown in Table
1, along with the items from each section. As shown by the adequate value of
the coefficient alpha (.86), the nine items in Section 1 assessing job satisfaction
adequately form a group, and scores on these items were averaged into a
measure. Similarly, based on adequate coefficient alpha values, scores on the
13 items in Section 5 were averaged into a measure (alpha = .89), subsequently
called music director evaluation, and scores on the 13 items in Section 6 were
averaged into a measure (alpha = .83), subsequently called evaluation of
profession.

As indicated in Table 1, some items were reverse-scored before they were

averaged together with other items. Reverse-scoring assures that all the items
in a measure are scored in the same direction. Prior to averaging, all items were
scored such that a higher number reflected a more favorable opinion. For
instance, because high scores on the item asking whether the music director
“is more loyal to the management than to the musicians” reflect an unfavorable
evaluation of the music director, scores on this item were reversed before
determining an average across all of the items of the musician director measure.
Consequently, the overall averages for each measure (shown in bold in Table 1)
indicate the extent to which opinions are favorable. The values shown in the
table for each item are the actual averages for each item before any necessary
reverse-scoring.

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Table 1

Measures Derived from Items in Sections 1, 5, and 6

Measures and items Average

Job Satisfaction (Section 1—rated on 7-point scales) 4.54
alpha = .86
The feeling of accomplishment I get from doing this job. 5.52
The amount of support I receive from orchestra management. 3.92
The amount of pay and fringe benefits I receive. 4.45
The degree of respect and fair treatment I receive from management. 4.21
The amount of personal growth and development I get in doing this job. 4.64
The degree to which my job has opened up new choices in my life. 4.35
The degree to which my job has opened up other professional opportunities. 4.52
The amount of security for the future my job provides. 4.01
The degree of challenge my job provides. 5.20

Music Director Evaluation (Section 5—rated on 5-point scales) 2.84

alpha = .89
Frequently acts as an advocate for musicians. 2.70
Is quite approachable and is available to musicians at times other than scheduled
rearsals and performances. 3.00
Actively and appropriately coaches individual players, has much to teach and is
deserving of the title “Maestro.” 2.47
Is clear and explicit about what he or she wants and expects from us. 3.37
Freely accepts suggestions from musicians and actively considers them. 2.71
Many times defers to the musical and technical judgments of the players. 2.64
Takes initiative to improve the organizational structure of the orchestra. 2.49
Holds different musicians in the orchestra to different musical standards.* 3.03
Can be trusted. 2.96
Can be unpredictable and fickle in matters of tenure and termination.* 2.72
Shares the responsibility of musical leadership with the concertmaster and
principal players. 3.10
Is more loyal to the management than to the musicians.* 3.06
Always gets his or her way.* 3.82

Continued on next page.

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Table 1 Continued
Measures Derived from Items in Sections 1, 5, and 6
Measures and items Average

Evaluation of Profession (Section 6—rated on 7-point scales) 4.45

alpha = .83
Being a symphonic musician is what I expected it to be. 4.77
Knowing what I know today, I would choose the same career path. 5.01
Our musicians’ union competently represents the orchestra’s interests. 4.03
I am confident that our union would adequately represent and support my
individual position. 4.08
I feel that symphony orchestras are ethically run. 3.53
We as symphony musicians are in need of a strong professional society that is
capable of being our advocate.* 5.79
The audition process is fair. 4.34
There is sufficient opportunity for my professional growth. 4.08
I am tired of looking and waiting for the career opportunities I really want.* 3.40
I feel I have significant control over my career path. 4.19
Generally, I am very satisfied with my career choice. 5.44
I have no doubt that I can have a fulfilling future in my chosen profession. 4.88
My training is so specialized there is little else I could do to earn a salary
comparable to my present salary.* 5.25

Note: Items marked with an “*” were reverse scored when calculating averages for each measure.
Values in bold are the averages across all of the items in each measure.

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Table 2
Measures Derived from Factor Analyses of Sections 2 and 4
Measures and items Average
Evaluation of Orchestra (Section 2—rated on 7-point scales) 4.14
alpha = .67
Excellent playing pays off in this orchestra. 4.27
Musical standards and standards of conduct in this orchestra are vague and unclear.* 3.75
Accurate rehearsal schedules and programming information are readily available well in
advance, so that players always know what is expected of them. 5.43
Morale is excellent in our orchestra. 3.39
Members of this orchestra tend to focus on their individual needs as opposed to the
common good.* 4.66
In controversies with management involving an individual player, our orchestra comes
together in support and solidarity. 4.23
Orchestra tours and run-out concerts provide a welcomed diversity to the work schedule. 4.07

Musician Voice (Section 2— rated on 7-point scales) 3.88

alpha = .77
Ideas suggested by the players are considered and many are incorporated into our
orchestra’s operations. 3.73
In this orchestra, players are kept in the dark about current developments and future plans.* 4.05
Managers in this orchestra rarely consult players on issues that may improve the
orchestra or make the musicians’ jobs easier.* 4.19
There is little opportunity for mobility in this orchestra: Once a player occupies a given
chair, he or she stays there indefinitely.* 4.74
The music director and management are willing to grant leaves or sabbaticals to enable
musicians to participate in other professional activities important for their
professional growth. 5.06
Members of our orchestra expect management to take an adversarial stand.* 4.99
Members of our orchestra have a voice in decisions that affect the orchestra and its members. 4.33

Job Satisfaction (Section 4— rated on 7-point scales) 4.98

alpha = .81
My opinion of myself goes up when I do this job well. 6.07
Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job. 5.11
This job is not at all challenging and I am frequently bored.* 2.98

Continued on next page.

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Table 2 Continued
Measures Derived from Factor Analyses of Sections 2 and 4
Measures and items Average

Before coming to this orchestra, I used to care a great deal about my job performance,
now I don’t care.* 1.91
I live and breathe my job. 3.33
My job and my work environment reinforce my motivation to excel. 4.34
The work I do challenges me and stretches my skills. 4.90

Job Dissatisfaction (Section 4— rated on 7-point scales) 3.43

alpha = .80
I frequently think of quitting this job. 2.90
My work as a musician has a general negative effect on my health. 2.86
I am very critical of myself, many times feeling unjustifiably bad about the way I do my job. 3.99
I frequently envision myself in another profession. 2.94
I look forward to moving on to another position. 3.35
Our orchestra schedule interferes significantly with my family life. 3.97
My job fails to give me a sense of security for the future which in turn affects
personal life choices. 3.78
It disturbs me to think about orchestra matters when not at work. 3.68

Anti-Management Sentiment (Section 4— rated on 7-point scales) 3.65

alpha = .63
Management’s excessive presence has a negative effect on our performance. 2.79
I feel as though I can rely on what is said to me by the music director and management.* 3.82
Finances and budgets take priority over music in this orchestra. 5.03
The term “tenure” as applied to this orchestra has real meaning.* 5.40

Reports of Physical Distress (Section 4— rated on 7-point scales) 4.43

alpha = .45
I would never acknowledge to my employer that I have an injury that could affect
my performance.* 3.16
When I experience physical pain in my performance, I continue to practice and perform.* 4.57
When I experience physical pain in my performance, I seek medical attention. 5.02

Note: Items marked with an “*” were reverse scored when calculating averages for each measure.
Values in bold are the averages across all of the items in each measure.

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Coefficient Alpha of Section 3

A coefficient alpha was also calculated for the 45-item OQ measure from Section
3 of the survey. Because this value of alpha was acceptable (.94), these 45
items were averaged into a measure, referred to subsequently as perceived
stress.

Factor Analysis of Items from Section 2

Results of the factor analysis of the 18 items in Section 2 identified two groups
of items. As shown in Table 2, one group included seven items concerning
evaluations of orchestras. Because these items also displayed an adequate
coefficient alpha (.67), scores on these items were averaged into a measure,
referred to subsequently as evaluation of orchestra. The content of these items
reflects perceptions of orchestral morale, group solidarity, and the clear
communication of musical standards and rehearsal and programming schedules.

The second group of items identified by the factor analysis of Section 2

included seven items concerning perceptions of musician voice in the affairs of
the orchestra (see Table 2). Because these seven items also displayed an adequate
coefficient alpha (.77), scores on these items were averaged into a measure,
referred to subsequently as musician voice. The content of these items reflects
the use of ideas generated by musicians, consultation with players on important
issues, and freedom for musicians to pursue professional growth opportunities.
As indicated in Table 2, several items from the evaluation of orchestra and
musician voice scales were reverse-scored.

In the course of creating two groups of items from Section 2, scores on four
items (not shown in Table 2) were excluded. Such loss of individual items based
on the results of factor analysis is very common and reflects the fact that not all
items fit adequately into a group with other items. The disadvantage incurred
from the loss of individual items is minimal compared with the advantage gained
by grouping items together for use in other statistical analyses.

Factor Analysis of Items from Section 4

Results of the factor analysis of the 24 items in Section 4 identified four groups
of items. As shown in Table 2, one group included seven items concerning job
satisfaction. These items displayed an adequate coefficient alpha (.81). Because
the content of these seven items overlaps to a large extent with the nine job
satisfaction items in Section 1, all 16 of these items were averaged together to
form a single job satisfaction measure that also displayed an adequate coefficient
alpha (.90). This 16-item job satisfaction measure is used in subsequent analyses
in this report.

The second group of items identified by the factor analysis of Section 4

included eight items that concern dissatisfaction with the job of symphony

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musician. Because these items also displayed an adequate coefficient alpha

(.80), scores on these items were averaged into a measure, referred to
subsequently as job dissatisfaction. The content of these items reflects the desire
to leave the job of symphony musician, concerns about the effects of the job on
health and family life, and feelings of insecurity about the future stemming
from the job.

The third group of items identified by the factor analysis of Section 4 included
four items concerning views of symphony management. Because these items
also displayed an adequate coefficient alpha (.63), scores on these items were
averaged into a measure, subsequently referred to as anti-management
sentiment. The content of these items reflects a general negative view of
management, a mistrust of management, and the perception that management
is more concerned with budgets than musical performance.

Finally, the fourth group of items identified by the factor analysis of Section
4 included three items concerning willingness to report physical discomfort
from performance. Although these items displayed a slightly less than adequate
coefficient alpha (.45), scores on these items were averaged into a measure,
subsequently referred to as reports of physical distress. Because alpha levels
become smaller as the number of scale items in a measure decreases, this
relatively low value was not unexpected. The reports of physical distress measure
was retained due to the research interest in stress and its effects on performance,
which would be expected to include the need to seek attention for physical
discomfort.

Based on the results of the factor analysis of Section 4, scores on two items
(not shown in Table 2) were excluded. Also, consistent with the results of Section
2, a number of items were reverse-scored before averaging (see Table 2).

Extent of Agreement
It is informative at this point to step back and look at the general extent of
agreement with each of the measures formed from the prior analyses. Examining
the average score across the items of each measure is especially useful in this
context. In addition, it is also possible to look at agreement with each item
individually. For items rated on 7-point scales, which include all of the items
except those measuring music director evaluation, an average above the scale
midpoint of 4.00 suggests some level of agreement with that measure or item,
and an average below 4.00 suggests some level of disagreement. Similarly, for
items rated on 5-point scales (i.e., those measuring music director evaluation),
an average above the scale midpoint of 3.00 suggests some level of agreement,
and an average below 3.00 suggests some level of disagreement.

Recall that the items in Section 1 measuring job satisfaction were rated on
7-point scales, with higher numbers indicating more satisfaction. As shown in

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bold under the column labeled “average” in Table 1, the average level of
satisfaction among the musicians surveyed is 4.54, suggesting a slight amount
of overall satisfaction. Among the individual job satisfaction items, respondents
were generally dissatisfied with the amount of support they receive from
management (average = 3.92), but quite satisfied with the feeling of
accomplishment and challenge associated with the job (average = 5.52). Items
measuring music director evaluation were rated on 5-point scales. As shown in
Table 1, respondents reported a slightly unfavorable overall evaluation of the
music director (average = 2.84). General dissatisfaction was expressed with
how frequently the music director coaches individual players (average = 2.47),
defers to the judgments of players (average = 2.64), and takes initiative to
improve the organizational structure of the orchestra (average = 2.49), but
overall satisfaction was expressed with music directors’ clear expectations
(average = 3.37) and willingness to share responsibility for musical leadership
(average = 3.10). Also shown in Table 1 is a slightly overall positive evaluation
of the profession of symphony musician, evidenced by the average of 4.45 on a
7-point scale. In general, respondents reported they were satisfied with their
career choice (average = 5.44), perceived their career as fulfilling (average =
4.88), and would choose the same career path again (average = 5.01).
Nonetheless, there was a slight level of disagreement expressed with the
statement that orchestras are run ethically (average = 3.53).

As shown in Table 2, respondents reported a very slight favorable evaluation

of their orchestras (4.14 on a 7-point scale). They were especially happy with
the communication of scheduling information (average = 5.43), rewards for
excellent playing (average = 4.27), and the solidarity of the players in disputes
(average = 4.23), but respondents viewed orchestral morale as less than
excellent (average = 3.39). In contrast, musicians reported slight dissatisfaction
overall with their voice in the orchestra (3.88 on a 7-point scale). Respondents
reported they expect an adversarial stance from management (average = 4.99),
and they were slightly critical of the amount of consideration given to their
ideas (average = 3.73). They also indicated a lack of opportunities for mobility
(average = 4.74) and a somewhat inadequate level of consultation with
managers (average = 4.19). Moreover, similar to Section 1, job satisfaction as
measured by the seven items in Section 4 was quite favorable (4.98 on a 7-
point scale). Musicians reported they feel good about themselves when they
perform well (average = 6.07), were generally satisfied with their jobs (average
= 5.11), and disagreed that their jobs lack challenge (average = 2.98). The
average for the combined job satisfaction measure containing the nine items
from Section 1 and the seven items from Section 4 was also slightly favorable
(4.76 on a 7-point scale).

Consistent with these findings, overall job dissatisfaction was low (3.43 on
a 7-point scale). Average agreement with the items in this measure, which
would indicate dissatisfaction, never exceeded the midpoint of 4.00 (see Table

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2). Also shown in Table 2 is the overall average for anti-management sentiment
(3.65 on a 7-point scale), which suggests slight overall satisfaction with
orchestral management. Players generally disagreed that management is
intrusive and negatively affects their performance (average = 2.79); however,
they agreed overall that finances and budgets take priority over music (average
= 5.03). Finally, musicians indicated a general willingness to report physical
distress from performing (4.43 on a 7-point scale). They reported seeking medical
attention for pain (average = 5.02), but they also admitted a general tendency
to continue performing despite the discomfort (average = 4.57).

Although opinions are not strongly favorable, this analysis of level of

agreement paints a somewhat positive picture of musicians’ opinions.
Respondents reported moderate levels of job satisfaction and a low level of job
dissatisfaction. Generally, they viewed their orchestras favorably, were not overly
critical of management, felt free to report physical discomfort, and evaluated
their chosen profession positively. Nonetheless, they were generally dissatisfied
with the behavior of their music directors and their voice in orchestral matters.

Comparing Stress Levels on the OQ to Lambert et al. (1996)

In their discussion of the OQ, Lambert et al. (1996) reported the average OQ
scores of a sample of individuals not seeking psychiatric counseling, a group to
which musicians’ OQ scores could be compared reasonably. Specifically, they
indicated that the average OQ score for a non-patient sample was 45.19. That
average for the musicians in this sample is 46.82, suggesting little or no difference
between the two samples. In contrast, the average OQ total score of a psychiatric
patient sample in the Lambert study was 83.09. It is thus clear that the stress
levels reported by musicians in this sample are well within the range expected
for well-functioning individuals.

Comparing Response Levels to Allmendinger et al. (1994)

Nine items in this survey were also included in a study of symphony musicians’
opinions conducted by Allmendinger et al. (1994). Each item was rated on a 7-
point scale in both the prior research and this survey, permitting comparisons
between the opinions expressed. Because the musicians in the Allmendinger
sample were on average older and from a wider range of orchestras than our
sample, we made comparisons between the two studies by ranking the opinions
expressed on the nine common items from most to least favorable. Items were
scored such that higher values reflected more favorable opinions. As shown in
Table 3, the top three favorable items from Allmendinger et al.’s results and our
research were identical and concerned job satisfaction generally. Two items
were higher in rank in our research than in the prior study. Specifically,
satisfaction with pay and benefits and with opportunities for personal growth
and development ranked higher among the nine items in our research than in
the earlier study. These findings suggest that satisfaction with these factors

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Table 3
Comparisons of Favorability Rank of Nine Items
Also Included in Allmendinger et al. (1994)

Rank in Rank in
Allmendinger Current Change
Items et al. (1994) Research in Rank

My opinion of myself goes up when I do this job well. 1 1 0

Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job. 2 2 0
I frequently think of quitting this job.* 3 3 0
There is little opportunity for mobility in this orchestra:
Once a player occupies a given chair, he or she stays
there indefinitely.* 9 9 0
Satisfaction with the amount of pay and fringe benefits
I receive. 8 5 +3
Satisfaction with the amount of personal growth and
development I get in doing this job. 5 4 +1
Excellent playing pays off in this orchestra. 4 6 -2
In this orchestra, players are kept in the dark about current
developments and future plans.* 7 8 -1
Satisfaction with the amount of respect and fair treatment
I receive from management. 6 7 -1

Note. Items marked with an “*” were reverse scored when calculating averages.

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may have increased somewhat since the earlier work. In contrast, satisfaction
with involvement and degree of respect and fair treatment, as well as the
perception that excellent playing pays off, ranked lower in our research than in
Allmendinger et al., suggesting that satisfaction with these factors may have
decreased over time. Also, satisfaction with opportunities for mobility remained
lowest among the nine items in both surveys. Note that the items showing an
increase in favorability concern personal work experiences, whereas the items
showing a decrease concern treatment of musicians by symphony organizations.
Although it is difficult to make firm conclusions based on a small number of
items, these results may signal increasing satisfaction with the job of symphony
musician accompanied by increasing dissatisfaction with the functioning of
symphony organizations.

Although these results suggest that general job satisfaction levels remain
high and may be increasing in some areas, they should be considered in light of
Allmendinger et al.’s finding that symphony musicians report moderately low
levels of satisfaction relative to other professions. Specifically, the Allmendinger
study found that musicians’ reported satisfaction level was only about eighth
highest among thirteen professions surveyed. Our results, showing relative
stability in levels of general job satisfaction, suggest that musicians have probably
not gained much ground on other professions in recent years.

Coping with Performance Anxiety

Just more than one-half (54 percent) of those surveyed reported experiencing
anxiety severe enough to affect their performances one to nine times per month.
Nine percent reported severe anxiety 10 to 20 times per month, and three percent
report severe anxiety more than 20 times per month.

As shown in Table 4, physical exercise, deep breathing, and focusing

techniques are the most common methods used to control performance anxiety.
Less common are meditation, deep muscle relaxation, cognitive restructuring,
and desensitization.

Exploring Differences in Levels of Stress and Satisfaction

In this part of the report, we explore differences between the perceptions of
various groups of musicians. For example, are older musicians more satisfied
than younger musicians? In the analyses that follow, appropriate statistical
tests were performed to determine whether differences in opinions between
various groups of respondents (e.g., the job satisfaction expressed by men versus
women) are meaningful in a statistical sense, and only such meaningful
differences are discussed. Our results are summarized in Table 5, which presents
average opinions within selected groups of musicians. Only meaningful statistical
differences are included in the table. Blank entries in Table 5 indicate cases for
which the differences in opinions between groups of musicians were not

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Table 4
Frequency of Use of Techniques to Control Performance Anxiety
Anxiety-controlling technique Percent of musicians reporting use of technique

Physical exercise routine 51.0

Deep breathing 50.0
Focusing techniques 45.1
Meditation 29.1
Deep muscle relaxation 17.2
Cognitive restructuring 14.8
Desensitization 9.1

statistically meaningful. For example, the findings presented in Table 5 for age
groups compare musicians under 40 to those over 40. Reading across the table,
the results show that younger and older musicians differ in terms of their
perceived stress, job satisfaction, job dissatisfaction, evaluation of the orchestra,
and evaluation of the profession, but as indicated by the blank entries under
the far right column, younger and older musicians do not differ in their
evaluations of the music director.

Musician characteristics. Characteristics related to the musicians in the sample

include gender, age, length of service in current orchestra, use of medication to
control performance anxiety, and seeking counseling for problems related to
work. Examining the results by age level showed that musicians above age 40
differ from those below age 40 on a number of the measures in this survey. As
shown in Table 5, relative to musicians over age 40, younger musicians
experienced more perceived stress (as shown by higher scores on the OQ),
indicated lower job satisfaction, report more job dissatisfaction, and evaluate
their orchestras and the profession less favorably. Also found, but not shown in
the table, were the following: younger musicians had a more negative view of
management (average = 3.75) than older musicians (average = 3.45) and
perceived less musician voice (average = 3.80) than their older colleagues
(average = 4.04).

Many of these same factors distinguish those who have sought counseling
for work-related problems from those who have not (see Table 5). Specifically,
relative to those not seeking counseling, those in counseling reported more
stress, less job satisfaction, more job dissatisfaction, and a more negative view
of the orchestra, the profession, and the music director. Also (but not shown in
Table 5), those who had sought counseling reported a more negative view of
management (average = 3.80) than other musicians (average = 3.58).

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Figure 1: Effects of Length of Service

5.00 F F
4.75
H
Agreement with Measure

F Job Satisfaction
H F
4.50 H Evaluation of
Profession
B B Evaluation of
4.25 B H
Orchestra

4.00 B

3.75
Less than 9 years 9-25 years More than 25 years
Length of Service in Current Orchestra

The relationship between musician opinion and length of service in current

orchestra is more complex. In particular, those with a moderate length of service
(9 to 25 years) tended to report more negative opinions than those with very
little experience (fewer than 9 years) or quite a bit of experience (more than 25
years) in their current orchestras. As shown in Figure 1, this pattern is true for
job satisfaction and evaluations of the orchestra and the profession.

Several meaningful gender differences were found. As shown in Table 5,

women indicated more job dissatisfaction than men, and they also evaluated
their orchestras and the profession less favorably than men. In addition (but
not shown in Table 5), women showed a greater tendency to report physical
distress (average = 4.60) than men (average = 4.33).

Finally, those who said they used medication to control performance anxiety
reported higher levels of stress, more job dissatisfaction, and a more negative
evaluation of the profession than those who did not use medication (see Table
5).

Orchestral characteristics. Characteristics related to the respondents’ orchestras

were musician status, orchestral section, orchestral season length, and 1994-
1995 wage level. Wage level emerged as the most important of these factors. As
shown in Figure 2, musicians from higher paying orchestras (as indicated by
wage levels closer to the first level) tended to report more job satisfaction, and
they also indicated more positive evaluations of the orchestra, music director,
and profession. In addition, as shown in Figure 3, musicians from higher paying
orchestras tended to report less job dissatisfaction and anti-management
sentiment. It is also generally true that higher paid musicians reported less
perceived stress on the OQ measure. Respondents from the highest paid
orchestras report less stress (average = 44.34) than those at the second (average

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 Table 5
Effects of Musician Factors on Stress, Satisfaction, and Other Perceptions

Perceived Job Job Evaluation Evaluation Music director

Measures and groupings n stress (OQ) satisfaction dissatisfaction of orchestra of profession evaluation
Age
Under 40 469 48.02 4.66 3.60 4.04 4.28 ——
Over 40 219 44.00 4.97 3.07 4.36 4.81 ——
Sought counseling
Yes 226 55.57 4.60 3.89 4.00 4.16 2.70
No 465 42.44 4.83 3.21 4.22 4.60 2.91
Gender
Male 449 —— —— 3.34 4.21 4.54 ——
Female 238 —— —— 3.60 4.02 4.29 ——
Use beta-blocking drugs
Yes 358 48.24 —— 3.59 —— 4.34 ——
No 331 45.04 —— 3.25 —— 4.57 ——
Musician status
Principal/assistant principal 291 —— 4.97 —— —— 4.58 2.91
Other 399 —— 4.76 —— —— 4.36 2.78
Orchestral section
String player 267 —— 4.58 —— —— 4.33 ——
Other 423 —— 4.87 —— —— 4.53 ——

Note: Only comparisons that produced meaningful statistical differences are presented. Blank entries indicate cases for which differences between groups

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were not meaningfully different statistically. The total n for each comparison varies due to missing responses.
Symphony Orchestra Institute
 Symphony Orchestra Institute

Figure 2: Effects of Wage Level

5.50

F
5.00 F
J J
Agreement with Measure

F F H F Job Satisfaction
4.50
J J H
F
H H Evaluation of
4.00
J H Profession

H B Evaluation of
3.50 Orchestra

B J Evaluation of
B
3.00 Music Director
B B
2.50
B
5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st
1994-95 Wage Level

Figure 3: Effects of Wage Level

4.00 H
F
3.75 H
F
Agreement with Measure

F
3.50 H H F Job Dissatisfaction
H
3.25
F H Anti-Management
Sentiment

3.00 F
2.75

2.50
5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st
1994-95 Wage Level

Figure 4: Effects of Length of Season

5.00
F
4.75 F
Agreement with Measure

F
4.50
F Job Satisfaction
4.25
H H
4.00
H Evaluation of
Orchestra
3.75
H
3.50

3.25

3.00
29 weeks or less 30-39 weeks 40-52 weeks
Length of Season

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= 44.60), fourth (average = 46.62), and fifth (average = 48.86) levels, although
those at the third level reported the most stress (average = 53.44).

As shown in Table 5, musicians at the principal or assistant principal level

reported more job satisfaction and evaluated the music director and the
profession more favorably than other players. Also, string players reported less
job satisfaction and evaluated the profession less favorably than other players.
String players were also more likely to report physical distress (average =
4.55) than other players (average = 4.36).

Season length also produced a few meaningful differences. Specifically, as

shown in Figure 4, musicians from orchestras with a medium length of season
(30 to 39 weeks) reported less job satisfaction and a more unfavorable evaluation
of the orchestra than musicians from orchestras with a short length of season
(29 weeks or less) or a long length of season (40 to 52 weeks). We also found
that musicians from orchestras with a long length of season evaluated the
profession more highly (average = 4.59) than all other musicians (average =
4.21), and reported less job dissatisfaction (average = 3.29) than all other
musicians (average = 3.65).

Other Factors Associated with Stress and Satisfaction

In addition to examining the differences in stress and job satisfaction between
different types of musicians and orchestras, it is useful to look at which measures
are most closely related to perceived stress and job satisfaction, the measures
of primary focus in this research. A statistic called a correlation coefficient is
appropriate in this context. A correlation coefficient describes the nature and
strength of the relationship between two measures. Correlation coefficients
can range from -1 to +1. A correlation with a positive value indicates that high
scores on one measure are associated with high scores on the other, and that
low scores are associated with low scores. A correlation with a negative value
indicates that high scores on one measures are associated with low scores on
the other, and that low scores are associated with high scores. For instance, the
correlation between job satisfaction and evaluation of the profession may be
positive, indicating that musicians who are more satisfied with their jobs also
tend to like their profession more. In contrast, the correlation between perceived
stress and evaluation of the profession may be negative, indicating that musicians
who are more stressed tend to like their profession less.

Shown in Table 6 are the correlations between perceived stress and job
satisfaction and the other measures formed from the survey. All of the presented
correlations are meaningfully different from zero. To illustrate how to interpret
correlations, look at the bottom line of the table, which displays the correlations
between job satisfaction and other measures. The value of .62 under the
evaluation of orchestra column means that to the extent musicians report they
are satisfied with their jobs, they also tend to evaluate the orchestra more

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 Table 6
Correlation Coefficients Expressing Relationships Between Perceived Stress, Job Satisfaction,
and Other Perceptions
Anti- Reports
Evaluation Musician Job management of physical Evaluation Music director
Measures of orchestra voice dissatisfaction sentiment distress of profession evaluation

Perceived stress -.31 -.16 .58 .30 -.14 -.49 -.17

Job satisfaction .62 .41 -.63 -.56 .12 .73 .43

Note: All correlation coefficients differ significantly from zero.

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Symphony Orchestra Institute
 Symphony Orchestra Institute

favorably. Reading across the row labeled “Perceived stress” in Table 6, the
results indicate that more perceived stress is associated with more job
dissatisfaction and more anti-management sentiment, as shown by the positive
values of the correlations between these measures and stress. Also, perceived
stress is associated with less positive evaluations of the orchestra, music director,
musician voice, and profession, as shown by the negative values of the
correlations between these measures and stress. Finally, more stress is associated
with less likelihood of reporting physical distress.

Turning to the correlations with job satisfaction, shown along the row
labeled “Job satisfaction” in Table 6, more satisfaction is associated with less
job dissatisfaction and less anti-management sentiment, and more positive
evaluations of the orchestra, music director, musician voice, and profession.
Also, more job satisfaction is associated with an increased tendency to report
physical distress from performing.

It is also important to examine the size of the correlation coefficients in

Table 6. For perceived stress, the correlation with the largest value is the
relationship between stress and job dissatisfaction (.58), suggesting that extent
of dissatisfaction is more relevant to stress than the other measures. For job
satisfaction, the correlation with the largest value is the relationship between
satisfaction and evaluation of the profession (.73), suggesting that evaluation
of the profession is more relevant to job satisfaction than the other measures.

Another way to consider the issue of which measures are most closely
related to stress and job satisfaction is to use a statistical technique called
multiple regression. In short, a multiple regression analysis puts all of the
measures listed along the top row of Table 6 in competition with each other to
find out which ones are most relevant to stress and job satisfaction. The most
relevant measures can be considered “key drivers” of musician stress and
satisfaction. For perceived stress, the results of a multiple regression analysis
showed that job dissatisfaction and evaluation of the profession were the most
relevant factors to consider when trying to explain the sources of stress among
musicians. For job satisfaction, evaluation of the orchestra, anti-management
sentiment, job dissatisfaction, and evaluation of the profession all emerged as
the most relevant factors.

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Summary and Implications

The results of this survey indicate that symphony musicians as a group are
moderately satisfied with their jobs and career choices. Overall, they reported
slightly positive levels of job satisfaction and low levels of job dissatisfaction.
They generally approved of the profession, the management, and the orchestra.
In addition, the levels of stress they reported are no different from those of
average, well functioning individuals. Those reporting more stress were less
willing to report physical discomfort due to performing. Comparisons with
Allmendinger et al.’s 1994 report suggest that satisfaction with pay and fringe
benefits, and opportunities for personal growth and development, may have
increased since the time of the earlier research, and satisfaction with treatment
by management may have decreased. In light of Allmendinger’s prior job
satisfaction findings, ranking musicians eighth out of thirteen professions studied,
it may be that musicians have not improved their standing much. Although
musicians’ reports are moderately positive in many areas, they clearly see room
for improvement in their organizations. Specifically, they are generally dissatisfied
with their voice in matters affecting the orchestra, and they are unhappy with
the job performance of their music directors. Moreover, the correlations in Table
6 suggest that increasing musicians’ perceived voice in orchestral matters, and
improving perceptions of management and music directors, would likely increase
job satisfaction and reduce perceived stress.

The results in Table 5 indicate that musician age has a major effect on
opinions. Specifically, younger musicians are more stressed, less satisfied, and
more critical of their orchestras and their profession than older musicians. The
fact that age level produces differences in many of the concepts measured in
this survey is of interest. Recall that the sample used in this study was on
average younger and less experienced than musicians as a group, indicating
that our results may paint a rather vivid portrait of the critical views of younger
players. It may be true that musicians naturally come to value their jobs and
profession as they become older, indicating that there is little symphony
organizations could do to improve the lives of their younger members. This
perspective would suggest that a longer length of service in an orchestra would
lead to more satisfaction; however, the results shown in Figure 2, indicating
that moderate lengths of service in an orchestra (i.e., 9 to 25 years) are associated
with less satisfaction and more negative evaluations of the orchestra and the
profession (when compared with short or long lengths of service), are
inconsistent with this view. If simply spending more time in an orchestra does
not inevitably improve job satisfaction, then questioning what symphony
organizations can do to assist their younger members becomes more
appropriate. For instance, are there adequate professional development programs
in place to help young musicians develop better skills and more confidence?
How do symphonies assist younger members in meeting the demands of
balancing career and family life, issues likely to be important to many musicians
under age 40?

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Younger musicians are naturally more hopeful. Less experienced musicians

may be quite pleased with their perceived career potential and optimistic about
their futures in their newly chosen profession. However, without sufficient
avenues for professional and personal growth, the positive attitudes of the newest
members of an orchestra organization may be transformed into increased job
stresses and dissatisfaction. Players in the middle of their careers may be beyond
the positive influences of the novelty of the job, but not yet experienced enough
to reap the benefits of more advanced career stages. As years of service to a
given orchestra increase, a musician may see options for career choices
diminishing and, therefore, may be more accepting of present circumstances.
Additionally, players who can look back on long careers in an orchestra may
take great pride in their advanced career status and evaluate their jobs favorably
as a consequence. Alternatively, musicians may turn toward other aspects of
their lives outside the orchestra for fulfillment. In any of these cases, perceived
job stress could be lessened as musicians’ terms of service increase within an
orchestra. Our results suggest that these are important issues for symphony
managements and players to consider.

Our results also showed that the use of beta blocking drugs to control
performance anxiety is associated with more stress and less job satisfaction,
along with a more negative view of the orchestra and the profession. Use of
such medications was reported by more than one-half of the sample. Moreover,
60 percent of those under age 40 reported using beta-blocking drugs, compared
with just 34 percent of those over 40. Thus, age again emerges as an important
factor for understanding musicians’ opinions and behaviors.

Seeking counseling for work-related problems is another musician factor

closely related to perceived stress and satisfaction. Musicians who seek
counseling tend to be those who are more stressed, less satisfied, and more
critical of their orchestra, profession, and music director. Also, about one-third
of the symphony musicians surveyed experienced enough job-related stress or
dissatisfaction to seek counseling. Clearly, the stress and dissatisfaction
associated with being a musician are very troubling to a substantial number of
respondents.

Not surprisingly, higher wages are associated with more positive opinions
of the job and the profession. Musicians in orchestras offering lower
compensation reported more stress, less job satisfaction, and increased job
dissatisfaction. Different wage levels probably reflect a number of aspects of
symphony organizations. Higher-paying orchestras are often among the most
prestigious and attract and retain the most talented musicians. Consequently,
the importance of wage levels suggests that being a member of a more prominent
symphony orchestra boosts satisfaction levels and generally acts as a buffer
against stress.

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A similarly complex relationship was found between length of orchestral

season and both job satisfaction and evaluation of the orchestra. In particular,
a moderate length of season (i.e., 30 to 39 weeks) is associated with less
satisfaction and more negative evaluations of the orchestra than short or long
lengths of season. Players in orchestras with long season lengths are likely very
invested in their careers and may be members of more prestigious orchestras,
suggesting that the status, prestige, and income they enjoy motivate positive
views of their jobs. Musicians from orchestras with short season lengths are
more likely to hold other jobs to supplement their income. In fact, in this survey,
89 percent of musicians who reported season lengths of 29 weeks or less also
indicated they held other positions to supplement their incomes. These additional
jobs may lead musicians to perceive their orchestral work as an important,
enjoyable, but not a critically necessary part of their lives, potentially motivating
more positive opinions. Also, since these players rely on income sources outside
their orchestras, they may feel they have more control over their careers and
life situations, and are less reliant upon the orchestral management and structure
for their resources. Players from orchestras with moderate lengths of season
may experience more severe economic pressures. For about two-thirds of the
year, their schedules are filled with rehearsals and concerts, and yet their overall
income levels may be less than adequate. In addition, holding other jobs may
be especially difficult given the constraints imposed by the schedule of the
orchestra. These tensions may lead to less job satisfaction and more negative
opinions of the orchestra.

Findings from correlations and multiple regressions point to job

dissatisfaction and evaluation of the profession as most relevant to stress. These
findings suggest that symphony organizations could reduce musician stress by
decreasing job dissatisfaction and bolstering evaluations of the profession. A
focus on job dissatisfaction might involve being more sensitive to the effects of
performing on musicians’ health and ensuring orchestral schedules interfere
less with family life.

In addition, findings also show that job dissatisfaction and evaluations of

the orchestra, the management, and the symphony musician profession are
most relevant to job satisfaction. Consequently, job satisfaction might be
increased by improving perceptions of the orchestra, the management, and the
profession, and also by reducing job dissatisfaction. A focus on improving
evaluations of the orchestra might involve increasing solidarity among players,
bolstering morale, and providing a more diverse work schedule. Improving
perceptions of management might best be achieved by working to alter the
perception that management is more concerned with budgeting and finances
than the quality of music.

The issue of how to address musicians’ evaluation of the profession, which

is relevant to both perceived stress and job satisfaction, is more challenging. It

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is important to note that, in addition to being consequential for job satisfaction

and stress levels, evaluation of the profession also produces meaningful
differences across all of the musician and orchestral factors presented in Table
5. To gain more insight into the relationships among stress, job satisfaction,
and evaluation of the profession, participants were divided into four groups: (a)
those highest in stress and lowest in satisfaction (the most disadvantaged group),
(b) those lowest in stress and highest in satisfaction (the most advantaged
group), (c) those lowest in both stress and job satisfaction, and (d) those highest
in both stress and job satisfaction. Average scores for evaluation of the profession
were then computed for each group. Results show that musicians from the
most disadvantaged group are the least favorable toward the profession (average
= 3.46), whereas musicians from the most advantaged group are the most
favorable toward the profession (average = 5.31). Clearly, musicians benefit in
many ways to the extent they are satisfied with their career choice and are
pleased with the course of their career development. Consequently, devising
ways to promote a more favorable view of the profession may be the most
effective way to make a positive contribution to the lives and careers of symphony
musicians.

References
Allmendinger, Jutta J., J. Richard Hackman, and Erin V. Lehman. 1994. Life and
Work in Symphony Orchestras: An Interim Report of Research Findings. Report
No. 7. Cross National Study of Symphony Orchestras. Cambridge: Harvard University.

Lambert, M.J., and G.M. Burlingame. 1996. Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2).

Stevenson, MD: American Professional Credentialing Services.

Lambert, M.J., N.B. Hansen, V. Umpress, K. Lunnen, J. Okiishi, G.M. Burlingame,

J.C. Huefner, and C.W. Reisinger. 1996. Administration and Scoring Manual for the
OQ-45.2. Stevenson, MD: American Professional Credentialing Services.

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Acknowledgements
Although the conclusions of this research are solely those of the authors, several
persons provided helpful support in the execution and completion of this work.

Dr. Breda would like to recognize and thank Dr. Leonard Doerfler of
University of Massachusetts Medical School and Assumption College for his
assistance in reviewing the initial survey documents, the selection of the
measures of psychological stress, study design, and statistical analysis; Dr.
Robert Boland of Miriam Hospital for his additional help with data analysis and
review; and Dr. J. Richard Hackman of Harvard University for allowing the use
of selected questions from a previous research survey.

Dr. Kulesa would like to thank Tom Hall and Michael Henoch of the Chicago
Symphony Orchestra, and Deborah Sobol of the Chicago Chamber Musicians,
for reading an early draft of this manuscript, and making valuable suggestions
as to data interpretation and possible further analysis.

28.