Science and Humanities Department

Course: Physics
A.Y.: 2023-24 (Even Semester)
Lab Manual

Name:_____________________________________________________________

Branch: ________________________ Div:_______________________

Enrolment No.:___________________ Batch:_______________________

Term:___________________________
 Page
Sr. No.
Name of Experiment Date Signature Marks
No.

0 Error Analysis 1

1 Hall Effect: Semiconductor 4

2 Hall Effect: Metal 11

3 Four Probe Method: Silicon 16

4 Four Probe Method: 21

Germanium
5 Laser beam Divergence and 23
Spot Size: He-Ne Laser
6 Laser beam Divergence and 27
Spot Size: Ar Laser
7 Planck’s Constant 29

8 Boltzmann’s Constant by pn- 32

junction diode
9 Ultrasonic Interferometer: 34
Water
10 Ultrasonic Interferometer: 40
Glycerin

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr/Ms ___________________________________________________

Enrolment No. _______________________ from Branch ____________ Batch __________

SEM-I/II has successfully completed practical work for Physics (3110011/18) during term

___________________________________________________________.

Date: __________________ Faculty Sign. _________________________

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Objective:

The objective of this lab is to teach students, the importance of physics through
involvement in experiments. This lab helps to have knowledge of the world due
to constant interplay between observations and hypothesis, experiment and
theory in physics. Students will gain knowledge in various areas of physics so
as to have real time applications in all engineering streams.

Outcomes:

After completing this course the student must demonstrate the knowledge and
ability to:

1. Understand the world around us.

2. Understand the concept of error and its analysis.

3. Develop experimental skills

4. Design new experiments in Engineering.

5. Compare the theory and correlate with experiment.

6. Identify the appropriate application of particular experiment.

7. Understand and apply fundamental electronic circuits.

8. Analyze the experimental result.

9. Understand the applications of physics experiments in day to day life.

10. Examine ideas about the real world.

 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
The students must follow the instructions very strictly to perform an experiment
systematically and neatly. It is also to be noted that they should prepare in
advance sufficiently about the experiment that they are going to do before
coming to the lab. Questions relevant to the experiment will be asked and marks
allotted depending on the performance of the students.

1. All the students are supposed to bring the following items.

a. Lab manual

b. Calculator

c. Pencil, scale & eraser

d. Graph sheets

2. Do not borrow calculator, scale, pencil, eraser or any such items from others.
Do not move from your allotted working table. Call the attender to your
working place to receive any required material, apparatus, graph paper or
logarithm tables.

3. Do not consult with others. If you get any doubt, report to the teachers for
clarification.

4. Before you begin to do the experiments read the following particulars in your
lab manual.

a. Aim

b. Apparatus

c. Formula: with the name of the parameters in it and their units.

d. Schematic /circuit diagram of the apparatus

e. Tabular form

f. Use pen to enter readings.

5. Students must mention units whenever require.

 Error Analysis
Experiment No.:_________________ Date: ______________________

Aim:
To find out average deviation, standard deviation (R.M.S.) and the probable error for a given
physical quantity.

Calculate the possible correct value of physical quantity (diameter of given cylinder/ length
of an object).

Apparatus: Cylinder, Micrometer screw/ Vernier callipers, Calculator etc.

Formula:

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
1. Arithmetic mean 𝑥̅ =
𝑛
2. Deviation 𝑋𝑖 = 𝑥̅ − 𝑥𝑖
∑𝑛
𝑖=1|𝑋𝑖 |
3. Average deviation 𝜂 =
√𝑛(𝑛−1)
∑𝑛 2
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
4. Standard deviation (R.M.S.) 𝜇 =√
√𝑛(𝑛−1)

5. Probable error 𝛾 = ±0.6745 𝜇

6. Possible value of physical quantity 𝑋 = 𝑥̅ ± 𝛾
Procedure:
 With the help of micrometer screw/ vernier callipers find the diameter/ length of an object
15 times say 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … . 𝑥15
 Calculate the arithmetic mean 𝑥̅ of all observations using formula (1).
 Calculate Deviation 𝑋𝑖 for each observation using formula (2).
 Calculate sum of deviation of all observations and then find average deviation using
formula (3).
 Calculate Standard deviation (R.M.S.), Probable error and possible value of physical
quantity using formula (4), (5) and (6) respectively.

1
Observation Table:

Sr. No. 𝒙𝒊 cm ̅ − 𝒙𝒊 cm
𝑿𝒊 = 𝒙 𝑿𝟐𝒊 cm2

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

2
Calculations:

Result:
The possible correct value of the physical quantity is: _________________

3
 Hall Effect Experiment: Determination of charge carrier density
Experiment No.:_______________ Date: ________________

Aim:
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.
Apparatus:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall Effect
apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall
probe).

Theory:
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential
difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and
current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall Effect is an
important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines
both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is

applied in X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through
the sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is
given by,

Jx=I/wt (1)

Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect

CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
4
 ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage
If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the
charge carriers (say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge
carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample.
This develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is
called Hall Effect.

A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference
between its top and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field
B=0, the voltage difference will be zero. We know that a current flows in response to an
applied electric field with its direction as conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes
in the direction of current or the movement of electrons backward. In both cases, under the
application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz force, 𝑭𝒎 = 𝒆(𝝊 𝑿 𝑩) causes the carriers
to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge
imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces an electric field which counteracts with
the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The vertical electric field can be
measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically
we can express it as,

𝒆𝑬 = 𝒆𝝊𝑩 (2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic
field and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,

𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝑨𝝊 (3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l, breadth 'w' and
thickness’t’. Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

𝑰𝑩
𝑽𝑯 = 𝑬𝑾= 𝝊𝑩𝒘 = (4)
𝒏𝒆𝒕

5
Rearranging eqn (4) we get

𝑽𝑯 𝒕
𝑹𝑯 = (5)
𝑰𝑩

Where, RH is called the Hall coefficient.

𝟏
𝑹𝑯 = (6)
𝒏𝒆

Experimental Set-Up:

Procedure:
Controls
Combo box
Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.
1) Magnetic field Vs Current.
2) Hall Effect setup.
Select Material: This slider activate only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used to
select the material for finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.

Button
Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between the
solenoid.
Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used to
display the Hall voltage/ current in the digital meter.

Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.

6
Slider
Current: This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.
Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current
Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.
Procedure for doing the simulation:
 To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid.
 Select Magnetic field Vs Current from the procedure combo-box.
 Click Insert Probe button and placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the
wooden stand in the simulator.
 Using Current slider, varying the current through the solenoid and corresponding
magnetic field is to be noted from Gauss meter.
TABLE: I

Sr. No: Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

10

7
Hall Effect apparatus:

 Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box.

 Click Insert Hall Probe button.

 Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.

 Set "current slider" value to minimum.

 Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.

 Select the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.

 Vary the Hall current using the sllider Hall current.

 Note down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage” button.

 Then calculate Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of that material using the
equation,
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼∗𝐿
Where RH is the Hall coefficient,

1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
And n is the carrier concentration.

 Repeat the experiment with different magnetic field and thickness of the sample.

8
 TABLE: II

Magnetic Field Applied: ___________________

Thickness of the sample: ___________________

Sr. Hall current Hall Voltage RH

No:
1

10

Calculations:

Result:

Hall coefficient of the material = …......................

Carrier concentration of the material =….......................

9
 TABLE: III

Magnetic Field Applied: ___________________

Thickness of the sample: ___________________

Sr. Hall current Hall Voltage RH

No:
1

10

Result:
Hall coefficient of the material = .........................

Carrier concentration of the material =..........................

10
 Hall Effect Experiment: Metal
Experiment No.:_______________ Date: ________________

Aim:
3. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
4. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.
Apparatus:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall Effect
apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall
probe).

Procedure:
Controls
Combo box
Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.
1) Magnetic field Vs Current.
2) Hall Effect setup.
Select Material: This slider activate only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used to
select the material for finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.

Button
Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between the
solenoid.
Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used to
display the Hall voltage/ current in the digital meter.

Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.

Slider
Current: This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.
Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current
Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.
Procedure for doing the simulation:
 To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid.
 Select Magnetic field Vs Current from the procedure combo-box.

11
 Click Insert Probe button and placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the
wooden stand in the simulator.
 Using Current slider, varying the current through the solenoid and corresponding
magnetic field is to be noted from Gauss meter.
TABLE: I

Sr. No: Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

10

12
Hall Effect apparatus:

 Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box.

 Click Insert Hall Probe button.

 Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.

 Set "current slider" value to minimum.

 Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.

 Select the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.

 Vary the Hall current using the sllider Hall current.

 Note down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage” button.

 Then calculate Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of that material using the
equation,
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼∗𝐿
Where RH is the Hall coefficient,

1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
And n is the carrier concentration.

 Repeat the experiment with different magnetic field and thickness of the sample.

13
 TABLE: II

Magnetic Field Applied: ___________________

Thickness of the sample: ___________________

Sr. Hall current Hall Voltage RH

No:
1

10

Calculations:

Result:

Hall coefficient of the material = …......................

Carrier concentration of the material =….......................

14
 TABLE: III

Magnetic Field Applied: ___________________

Thickness of the sample: ___________________

Sr. Hall current Hall Voltage RH

No:
1

10

Result:
Hall coefficient of the material = .........................

Carrier concentration of the material =..........................

15
 Four Probe Method to Find Resistivity: Silicon

Experiment No.:_________________ Date: ______________________

Aim: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by four probe Method.

Apparatus: The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C,
constant current generator , oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring voltage
and current).

Working Mechanism:

Importance of the four point probe method.

Conventional method like two probe method to determine resistivity has following
disadvantages.

1. Probe (metal)–Semiconductorcontacts are rectifying in nature.

2. Contact resistance generates error in accurate measurement.It is difficult to solder some
type of material to make contact with probe.
3. In semiconductor material heating of semiconductor during the process of soldering
results in injection of impurities into the semiconductor which affects the intrinsic
resistivity of material.
4. Furthermore, metal-semiconductor contact forms schottky barrier in semiconductor.

Measurement Setup of Four Probe Diagram:

 The four point probe set up contains four equally spaced tungsten metal tips with finite
radius.

 Each tip is supported by spring on the other end to minimize possibility of sample
damage during probing.
16
 Four spring loaded tips are at equal equidistant about 1 mm.

 The system head applies enough pressure to ensure near ohmic contacts between probes
and semiconductor sample.

 High impedance D.C.current source is uses to supply current though the outer two probes
while voltage is measured between the inner two probes by high impedance voltmeter.

Theory:

At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and

inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 (1)
𝐴

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that

of a conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic
property of decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.

According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into
two bands, valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field
it is electrons in the valence band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical
conductivity of semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in
between the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band
lies above the Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction
band remains unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As
temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in
decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.

Resistivity Measurement of semiconductor by four probe method:

1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.

2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying
electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on
conductivity is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a
straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be
small compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is
hemispherical and small in diameter.The surface of semiconductor material may be
17
 either conducting and non-conducting. A conducting boundary is one on which material
of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has been plated. A non-conducting
boundary is produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in contact with insulator.
Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are
adequately far from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For
this case of a slice of thickness w and the resistivity is computed as
𝜌0
𝜌= 𝑤 (2)
𝑓( )
𝑠

The function, f (w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w
and S. We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is
greater than the distance between the probes,
𝑉
𝜌0 = × 2𝜋𝑆 (3)
𝐼

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Applications:

1. Remote sensing areas

2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation
5. Characterization of fuel cells bipolar plates

Procedure:

1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.

2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range of current.
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from the default
250C to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.

18
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10. Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature using
equation (2) and (3).
11. A Graph is plotted with Temperature along x-axis and resistivity of semiconductor along
y-axis.

Observations and Calculations:

Temperature T Voltage V Current I Resistivity  Resistivity 𝟎

19
Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,

Distance between the probes, S= 0.2cm and

Thickness of the sample, w = 0.05cm.

From standard table f (w/S) = 5.89

𝜌
𝜌 = 𝑓(𝑤0 ) = ......................
𝑠

𝑉
𝜌0 = 𝐼 × 2𝜋𝑆 = .....................

Result:

The resistivity of the given semiconductor by four probe Method =................................

20
 Four Probe Method to Find Resistivity: Germanium

Experiment No.:_________________ Date: ______________________

Aim: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by four probe Method.

Apparatus: The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C,
constant current generator , oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring voltage
and current).

Procedure:

1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.

2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range of current.
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from the default
250C to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10. Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature using equation
(2) and (3).
11. A Graph is plotted with Temperature along x-axis and resistivity of semiconductor along
y-axis.

21
Observations and Calculations:
Temperature T Voltage V Current I Resistivity  Resistivity 𝟎

Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,

Distance between the probes, S= 0.2cm and

Thickness of the sample, w = 0.05cm.

From standard table f (w/S) = 5.89

𝜌
𝜌 = 𝑓(𝑤0 ) = ......................
𝑠

𝑉
𝜌0 = 𝐼 × 2𝜋𝑆 = .....................

Result:

The resistivity of the given semiconductor by four probe Method =................................

22
 Laser Beam Divergence and Spot Size: He-Ne Laser
Experiment No.:_____________________ Date: ________________

Aim: To calculate the beam divergence and spot size of the given laser beam.

Laser:

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a mechanism for emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of
stimulated emission. The laser was the first device capable of amplifying light waves
themselves. The emitted laser light is a spatially coherent, narrow low-divergence beam.
When the waves (or photons) of a beam of light have the same frequency, phase and
direction, it is said to be coherent. There are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light, or
emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. According to the encyclopedia of laser
physics and technology, beam divergence of a laser beam is a measure for how fast the beam
expands far from the beam waist. A laser beam with a narrow beam divergence is greatly
used to make laser pointer devices. Generally, the beam divergence of laser beam is
measured using beam profiler.
Lasers usually emit beams with a Gaussian profile. A Gaussian beam is a beam of
electromagnetic radiation whose transverse electric field and intensity (irradiance)
distributions are described by Gaussian functions.
For a Gaussian beam, the amplitude of the complex electric field is given by

𝓌0 −𝑟 2 −𝑟 2
𝐸 (𝑟, 𝑧) = 𝐸0 exp( ) exp(−𝑖𝑘𝑧 − 𝑖𝑘 + 𝑖𝜁(𝑧))
𝓌(𝑧) 𝓌(𝑧) 2 2𝑅(𝑧) 2

Where,
r - Radial distance from the centre axis of the beam

z - Axial distance from the beam's narrowest point

i - Imaginary unit (for which i2 = − 1)

k - Wave number (in radians per meter).

𝓌(𝑧) - Radius at which the field amplitude drops to 1/e and field intensity to 1/e 2 of their
axial values, respectively.

𝓌0 - Waist size.

E0 = |E (0, 0) |

R (z) - radius of curvature of the beam's wavefronts

ζ (z) - Gouy phase shift. It is an extra contribution to the phase that is seen in beams which
obey Gaussian profiles.
23
The corresponding time-averaged intensity (or irradiance) distribution is

|𝐸 (𝑟, 𝑧)|2 𝓌0 2 −2𝑟 2

𝐼( 𝑟, 𝑧) = = 𝐼0 ( ) exp( )
2𝜂 𝓌(𝑧) 𝓌(𝑧) 2

Where I0 = I(0,0) is the intensity at the center of the beam at its waist. The constant is defined
as the characteristic impedance of the medium through which the beam is propagating.

For vacuum,
𝜂 = 𝜂0 ≈ 377 𝑂ℎ𝑚

Beam parameters:
Beam parameters govern the behaviour and geometry of a Gaussian beam. The important
beam parameters are described below.

Beam divergence:
The light emitted by a laser is confined to a rather narrow cone. But, when the beam
propagates outward, it slowly diverges or fans out. For an electromagnetic beam, beam
divergence is the angular measure of the increase in the radius or diameter with distance from
the optical aperture as the beam emerges.

The divergence of a laser beam can be calculated if the beam diameter d1 and d2 at two
separate distances are known. Let z1and z2 are the distances along the laser axis, from the end
of the laser to points “1” and “2”.

Usually, divergence angle is taken as the full angle of opening of the beam. Then,

𝑑2 − 𝑑1
Θ=
𝑧2 − 𝑧1

Half of the divergence angle can be calculated as

𝓌2 − 𝓌1
Θ=
𝑧2 − 𝑧1

24
 Where, w1 and w2 are the radii of the beam at z1 and z2. Like all electromagnetic beams,
lasers are subject to divergence, which is measured in milliradians (mrad) or degrees. For
many applications, a lower-divergence beam is preferable.
Spot size:
Spot size is nothing but the radius of the beam itself. The irradiance of the beam decreases gradually
at the edges.

The distance across the center of the beam for which the irradiance (intensity) equals 1/e2 of
the maximum irradiance (1/e2 = 0.135) is defined as the beam diameter. The spot size (w) of
the beam is defined as the radial distance (radius) from the center point of maximum
irradiance to the 1/e2 point.

Performing the simulator:

 The experimental arrangement is shown in the simulator. A side view and top view of the
set up is given in the inset.
 The start button enables the user to start the experiment.
 From the combo box, select the desired laser source.
 Then fix a detector distance, say 100 cm, using the slider Detector distance, z.
 The z distance can be varied from 50 cm to 200 cm.
 For a particular z distance, change the detector distance x, from minimum to maximum,
using the slider Detector distance, x.
 The micrometer distances and the corresponding output currents are noted. The x
distances can be read from the zoomed view of the micrometer and the current can be note
from the digital display of the output device.
 Draw the graph and calculate the beam divergence and spot size using the steps given
above.
 Show graph button enables the user to view the beam profile.
 Using the option Show result, one can verify the result obtained after doing the
experiment.
25
 Observation and calculation:

Least Count (L.C) =......................

z1 =....................... z2 = ................

Distance X Current Distance X Current

M. S. R. V. S. R. Total M. S. R. V. S. R. Total

1/e2 of maximum intensity,Ie =................ 1/e2 of maximum intensity,Ie =................

Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie, Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie,

d1= .................. d2= ..................

𝑑2 −𝑑1
Divergence angle Θ = = ........................
𝑧2 −𝑧1

26
 Laser Beam Divergence and Spot Size: Ar Laser
Experiment No.:_____________________ Date: ________________

Aim: To calculate the beam divergence and spot size of the given laser beam.

Performing the simulator:

 The experimental arrangement is shown in the simulator. A side view and top view of the
set up is given in the inset.
 The start button enables the user to start the experiment.
 From the combo box, select the desired laser source.
 Then fix a detector distance, say 100 cm, using the slider Detector distance, z.
 The z distance can be varied from 50 cm to 200 cm.
 For a particular z distance, change the detector distance x, from minimum to maximum,
using the slider Detector distance, x.
 The micrometer distances and the corresponding output currents are noted. The x
distances can be read from the zoomed view of the micrometer and the current can be note
from the digital display of the output device.
 Draw the graph and calculate the beam divergence and spot size using the steps given
above.
 Show graph button enables the user to view the beam profile.
 Using the option Show result, one can verify the result obtained after doing the
experiment.

Observation and calculation:

Least Count (L.C) =......................

z1 =....................... z2 = ................

Distance X Current Distance X Current

M. S. R. V. S. R. Total M. S. R. V. S. R. Total

27
1/e2 of maximum intensity,Ie =................ 1/e2 of maximum intensity,Ie =................

Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie, Diameter of the beam corresponds to Ie,

d1= .................. d2= ..................

𝑑2 −𝑑1
Divergence angle Θ = = ........................
𝑧2 −𝑧1

28
 Planck’s Constant
Experiment No.:_________________ Date:___________________

Aim: Determination of Planck’s constant.

Apparatus:
0-10 V power supply, a one way key, a rheostat, a digital milliammeter, a digital voltmeter, a 1 K
resistor and different known wavelength LED’s (Light-Emitting Diodes).

Theory:
Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist named Max
Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck’s constant is that ‘quanta’ (small packets of energy) can
be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It describes the behavior of particle
and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of light.
An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential
barrier is developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an external
voltage in the forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across the p-n junction is
reduced. At a particular voltage the height of potential barrier becomes very low and the LED starts
glowing, i.e., in the forward biased condition electrons crossing the junction are excited, and when
they return to their normal state, energy is emitted. This particular voltage is called the knee
voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee voltage is reached, the current may increase but the
voltage does not change.
The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as,

𝐸 = ℎ𝑐⁄𝜆 (1)
Where
c -Speed of light.
h -Planck’s constant.
λ -wavelength of light.

If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee
voltage), the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,

𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉 (2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get

𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑐⁄𝜆 (3)

The knee voltage V can be measured for LED’s with different values of λ (wavelength of light).
1
𝑉 = ℎ𝑐⁄𝑒 (𝜆) (4)

29
 Now from equation (4), we see that the slope of a graph
of V on the vertical axis vs. 1/λ on the horizontal axis is

𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = ℎ𝑐⁄𝑒 (5)

To determine Planck’s constant h, we take the slope s

from our graph and calculate
ℎ = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∗ 𝑐⁄𝑒
using the known value

Alternatively, we can write equation (3) as

Calculate h for each LED, and take the average of our results.

Procedure:
Place the mouse pointer over the components and click to drag wire.

1. After the connections are completed, click on ‘Insert Key’ button.

2. Click on the combo box under ‘Select LED’ button.
3. Click on the ‘Rheostat Value’ to adjust the value of rheostat.
4. Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter, which is the knee voltage.
5. Repeat, by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.

30
6. Calculate ‘h’ using equation

7. The wave length of infrared LED is calculated by using equation,

Observation Table:

Knee
Wavelength Photo Current
Colour Voltage λ *V 𝒉 = 𝒆𝝀𝑽⁄𝒄
λ (nm) (µA)
(V)

Result:

Plank’s contant (h) =_______________

Work function (

31
 Boltzmann’s Constant by using a semiconductor diode
Experiment No.:_________________ Date: ______________________

Aim: To determine the Boltzmann’s Constant by using a p-n junction diode

Apparatus: The experimental set up consists of p-n junction diode, Ammeter, Voltmeter and
necessary power supply

Theory:

Keeping p-n junction in forward bias condition by applying voltage V then diode current I is,
𝑞𝑉⁄
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 [𝑒 𝑛𝐾𝑇 − 1]

Where Is is the reverse saturation current, q is charge of electron, K is Boltzmann’s constant

and T is absolute temperature, n is numerical constant depends on type of material of the
diode. For Germanium, n=1 and for Silicon n=2.

Fir Silicon diode at room temperature, T=300 K, current is

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 [𝑒 19.3 𝑉 − 1]

For a given voltage can ignore ‘1’ from the above equation, hence first equation can be
written as

𝑞𝑉
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼𝑆 + [ ⁄2.303 ∗ 𝑛𝐾𝑇 ]

𝑞
Plot of Log10I vs V gives ⁄2.303 ∗ 𝑛𝐾𝑇 as the slope from which Boltzmann’s Constant can
be evaluated.

Procedure:

1. Connect voltmeter across the semiconductor diode and milli-ammeter in series.

2. Set the oven at off position.
3. Switch ON the instrument.
4. Now slowly increase the voltage from zero in steps of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 .......can go up to 1.0 V
and note down corresponding voltage drop across the diode and current I through it. Take
reading till the current is 18 mA.
5. Note down all observation in the table along with temperature from the digital
temperature meter.
6. Plot the graph of V along X-axis and log10I along Y-axis.
7. Can repeat the experiment for different temperature by switching ON the oven.
32
Observation Table:
Temperature = __________________ K

Sr. Current Current I

Voltage V Log10I
No. (mA) (in Ampere)

Calculations:
Boltzmann’s Constant K is
𝑞 1
𝐾= 𝑥
2.303𝑛𝑇 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Result:

Obtained value of K = ____________________

% Error from standard value = ________________

33
 Ultrasonic Interferometer to measure speed of Sound in Liquid Medium:
Distil Water
Experiment No.:_____________________ Date: ________________

Aim:
1. To calculate the velocity of ultrasonic sound through different liquid media.
2. To calculate the adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid.
Apparatus: Ultrasonic interferometer, sample liquids, high frequency generator.
Theory:
Ultrasonic interferometer is a simple device which yields accurate and consistent
data, from which one can determine the velocity of ultrasonic sound in a liquid medium.
Ultrasonic sound refers to sound pressure with a frequency greater than the human
audible range (20Hz to 20 KHz). When an ultrasonic wave propagates through a medium, the
molecules in that medium vibrate over very short distance in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal wave. During this vibration, momentum is transferred among molecules. This
causes the wave to pass through the medium.

34
Generation of ultrasound: Ultrasonic can be produced by different methods. The most
common methods include:

Mechanical method: In this, ultrasonic frequencies up to 100 KHz are produced. But this
method is rarely used due to its limited frequency range.

Piezoelectric generator: This is the most common method used for the production of
ultrasound. When mechanical pressure is applied to opposite faces of certain crystals which
are cut suitably, electric fields are produced. Similarly, when subjected to an electric field,
these crystals contract or expand, depending on the direction of the field. Thus a properly
oriented rapid alternating electric field causes a piezoelectric crystal to vibrate mechanically.
This vibration, largest when the crystal is at resonance, is used to produce a longitudinal
wave, i.e., a sound wave.

Magnetostriction generator: In this method, the magnetostriction method is used for the
production of ultrasonic. Frequencies ranging from 8000 Hz to 20,000Hz can be produced by
this method.
Ultrasonic Interferometer: The schematic diagram of an ultrasonic interferometer is shown
in the figure.
In an ultrasonic interferometer, the ultrasonic waves are produced by the piezoelectric
method. In a fixed frequency variable path interferometer, the wavelength of the sound in an
experimental liquid medium is measured, and from this one can calculate its velocity through
that medium. The apparatus consists of an ultrasonic cell, which is a double walled brass cell
with chromium plated surfaces having a capacity of 10ml. The double wall allows water
circulation around the experimental medium to maintain it at a known constant temperature.

35
 The micrometer scale is marked in units of 0.01mm and has an overall length of 25mm.
Ultrasonic waves of known frequency are produced by a quartz crystal which is fixed at the bottom of
the cell. There is a movable metallic plate parallel to the quartz plate, which reflects the waves. The
waves interfere with their reflections, and if the separation between the plates is exactly an integer
multiple of half-wavelengths of sound, standing waves are produced in the liquid medium. Under
these circumstances, acoustic resonance occurs. The resonant waves are a maximum in amplitude,
causing a corresponding maximum in the anode current of the piezoelectric generator.

If we increase or decrease the distance by exactly one half of the wavelength

(λ/2) or an integer multiple of one half wavelength, the anode current again becomes
maximum. If d is the separation between successive adjacent maxima of anode current, then,

𝜆
𝑑=
2

We have, the velocity (v) of a wave is related to its wavelength (λ) by the relation,

36
 𝜐 = 𝑓𝜆

Where f is the frequency of the wave. Then,

𝜐 = 𝑓𝜆 = 2𝑑𝑓

The velocity of ultrasound is determined principally by the compressibility of the

material of the medium. For a medium with high compressibility, the velocity will be less.
Adiabatic compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the relative volume change of the fluid as
a response to a pressure change. Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus, and is
usually denoted by the Greek word beta (β).The adiabatic compressibility of the material of
the sample can be calculated using the equation,
1
𝛽=
𝜌𝜐 2
Where ρ is the density of the material of the medium and v is the velocity of the sound
wave through that medium.

Procedure for performing the simulator:

 From the combo box Choose medium, select the desired experimental liquid.
 Using the slider Frequency of wave, set the frequency of the ultrasonic sound used. A
lower frequency will give a longer wavelength, which is easier to measure accurately.
 Switch ON the frequency generator using the Power on button.
 Then adjust the GAIN and ADJ knobs such that the ADJ value is greater than GAIN
value.
 At this micrometer setting the ammeter will show a maximum. Do not record the
micrometer reading at this maximum. It could be inaccurate because the first maximum
should be at zero and the micrometer cannot be set to zero.
 In the simulator, right and left arrows are provided to increase or decrease the micrometer
distance. Increase the micrometer setting till the anode current in the ammeter shows a
new maximum. (After the first few clicks, if you click and hold the arrow, the micrometer
setting will increase continuously. A single click increases it by a small increment.) Note
down the micrometer reading at the new maximum.
 Stop when you have recorded micrometer readings for 10 or more maxima.
 The distance between the adjacent maxima is calculated. From the equations, one can
calculate the velocity of sound waves through the medium and also the adiabatic
compressibility of the liquid can be calculated.
37
 A Show cross- section button is provided to see the cross section of the interferometer
cell. The graph can be displayed using the button Show graph if needed.
 Plot the graph of Anode Current (Y-axis) vs Micrometer distance (X-axis).

Observations:
Least count of the micrometer: …………..mm

Frequency of the ultrasound used (f): …………….Hz

Liquid Medium: ____________________
Micrometer Reading Anode Current
Sr. No. Min. /Max.
M. S. R. V. S. R. Total
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

38
 22

23

24

25

Calculations:

Result:

The velocity of the ultrasonic wave through the given liquid medium = ........................

The adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid medium = .................................

39
 Ultrasonic Interferometer to measure speed of Sound in Liquid Medium:
Glycerin

Experiment No.:_____________________ Date: ________________

Aim:
3. To calculate the velocity of ultrasonic sound through different liquid media.
4. To calculate the adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid.
Apparatus: Ultrasonic interferometer, sample liquids, high frequency generator.
Procedure for performing the simulator:
 From the combo box Choose medium, select the desired experimental liquid.
 Using the slider Frequency of wave, set the frequency of the ultrasonic sound used. A lower
frequency will give a longer wavelength, which is easier to measure accurately.
 Switch ON the frequency generator using the Power on button.
 Then adjust the GAIN and ADJ knobs such that the ADJ value is greater than GAIN value.

At this micrometer setting the ammeter will show a maximum. Do not record the
micrometer reading at this maximum. It could be inaccurate because the first maximum
should be at zero and the micrometer cannot be set to zero.

 In the simulator, right and left arrows are provided to increase or decrease the
micrometer distance. Increase the micrometer setting till the anode current in the
ammeter shows a new maximum. (After the first few clicks, if you click and hold the
arrow, the micrometer setting will increase continuously. A single click increases it by a
small increment.) Note down the micrometer reading at the new maximum.

 Stop when you have recorded micrometer readings for 10 or more maxima.

 The distance between the adjacent maxima is calculated. From the equations, one can
calculate the velocity of sound waves through the medium and also the adiabatic
compressibility of the liquid can be calculated.

 A Show cross- section button is provided to see the cross section of the interferometer
cell. The graph can be displayed using the button Show graph if needed.

 Plot the graph of Anode Current (Y-axis) vs Micrometer distance (X-axis).

40
 Observations:
Least count of the micrometer: …………..mm

Frequency of the ultrasound used (f): …………….Hz

Liquid Medium: ____________________

Sr. Micrometer Reading

Min. /Max. λ/2=Xn+1- Xn
No. M. S. R. V. S. R. Total (X)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Calculations:

41
Result:

The velocity of the ultrasonic wave through the given liquid medium = ........................

The adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid medium = .................................

42