3

Disadvantages of sand casting

(a) Rough surface.
(b) Poor dimensional accuracy.
(c) High machining tolerances.
(d) Coarse Grain structure.
(e) Limited wall thickness: not higher than 2.5-5 mm.

Pattern
The pattern is the primary tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the
addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to
be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the
finished product. The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material
of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and the related
equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting.

Functions of the Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting
requires a core and need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold
cavity may form a part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Types of pattern
1. Single piece pattern (or) solid pattern

This is the simplest type of pattern, exactly like the desired casting.
For making a mould, the pattern is accommodated either in cope or drag. Used
for producing a few large castings, for example, stuffing box of steam engine.
Refer Figure 1.2

2. Split pattern or Cope and drag pattern

These patterns are split along the parting plane (which may be flat or irregular surface) to facilitate the
extraction of the pattern out of the mould before the
pouring operation. The two part of the pattern are joined together
with the help of dowel pins. For a more complex casting, the pattern
may be split in more than two parts. Refer Figure 1.3

3. Match Plate pattern

A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and

drags portions mounted on opposite sides of a plate (usually
metallic), called the "match plate" that conforms to the contour of
the parting surface. The gates and runners are also mounted on the
 4

match plate, so that very little hand work is required. This results in higher
productivity. This type of pattern is used for a large number of castings.
Several patterns are mounted on one match plate if the size of the casting is
small. Generally match plate pattern are used for moulding by moulding
machine. Piston rings of I.C. engines are produced by this process. Refer
Figure 1.4

4. Loose piece pattern

When a one piece solid pattern has projections or back drafts

which lie above or below the parting plane, it is impossible to with draw it
from the mould. With such patterns, the projections are made with the help
of loose pieces. A loose piece is attached to the main body of the pattern by
a pin or with a dovetail slide. While moulding, the sand was rammed
properly, then the loose piece was removed. One drawback of loose feces is
that their shifting is possible during ramming. Refer Figure 1.5

5. Gated pattern

A gated pattern is simply one or more loose patterns having

attached gates and runners. Because of their higher cost, these patterns are
used for producing small castings in mass production systems and on
molding machines. Refer Figure 1.6

6. Sweep pattern

A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is

rotated about one edge to shape mould cavities having shapes of rotational
symmetry. This type of pattern is used when a casting of large size is to be
produced in a short time. Large kettles of C.I. are made by sweep patterns.
Refer Figure 1.7

7. Skeleton pattern

For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton patterns are used. Just like sweep patterns,
these are simple wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be
cast and are also used as guides by the molder in the hand shaping of
the mould. This type of pattern is also used in pit or floor molding
process. Refer Figure 1.8

8. Segmental pattern

Its function is similar to sweep pattern in the sense, that both

employ a part of the pattern instead of a complete pattern, for getting the
required shape of the mould. The segmental pattern is in the form of a
segment, (refer figure 1.9) and is used for making moulding parts
having circular shapes. To create the mould, it is rotated about the post
in the same way as in sweep pattern, but it is not revolve continuously about the post to prepare the mould. Rather it
prepares the mould by parts. When one portion of the mould is completed, the pattern is lifted up and moves to the
next portion to make the next segment of the mould. This process is continued until the entire mould is completed.
Example of product: Big gears and wheel rims (refer figure 1.9).
 5

9. Shell pattern
It is a hollow pattern. The outer shape is used as mould, the core is placed inside the pattern, and hence it is also
named as block pattern. This pattern is made of two half similar to split pattern but only for curved path, joined by
dowel pin (refer figure 1.10. Example of product: curved drainage fitting.

Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages,
limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic,
plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern material is
wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main
disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence,
proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.

Based on the above factor, we can choose the pattern material as follows:

Short run production or piece production : Wood

Large scale and mass production : Metal

Batch Production : Plastic, gypsum and cement

Wood:

Wood is a common material for the preparation for pattern and it should be dried and seasoned. It should
not contain more than 10% moisture to avoid warping and distortion during subsequent drying. It should be straight
grained and free from knots.
 6

Merits: Demerits:
1. Light in weight 1. Non-uniform structure
2. Comparatively inexpensive 2. Possess poor wear and abrasion resistance
3. Good workability 3. Cannot withstand rough handling
4. Lends itself to gluing and joining 4. Absorbs and gives off moisture
5. Holds well varnishes and paints
6. Can be repaired easily.

Types of wood
Commonly used material are : White pine, Mahogany, Maple, Birch, Cherry
Others material like : teak kail, shisham, deodar
Metal:

A metal pattern can be either cast from master wooden pattern or may be machined by using the usual
methods of machining. Metal pattern are widely used for machine moulding. These types of pattern mostly used for
large number of casting are to be manufactured.

Merits: Demerits:
1. More accuracy and durability than wooden 1. It cannot be easily modified
material 2. Costlier and heavier than wood
2. Having smooth surface 3. Possibility for corrosion
3. Mass production is possible 4. Not suitable for piece production
4. Possibility for rough handling
5. Resistance to wear, abrasion and swelling
Types of wood
Commonly used material are : cast iron, brass, aluminium, white metal

Gypsum:

Gypsum pattern are capable of producing casting with intricate details and to very close tolerance. There
are two main types of gypsum (1) soft – plaster of paris and (2) hard – plaster

Benefits of gypsum material

1. Easily formed
2. Good plasticity
3. Easy to repair

Plastic:

It is also cast from the wooden pattern.

Benefits of plastic material

1. Light in weight compared with wood and metal

2. More economical in cost and labour
3. No moisture absorption
4. Strong and dimensionally stable
5. Highly resistance to corrosion
 7

Types of plastics
Plastic pattern are composition with based on epoxy, phenol formaldehyde and polyester resin.
Commonly used material are : poly acrylates, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride

Wax:

Wax pattern are generally used in investment casting. Common materials are paraffin wax, shellac wax and
microcrystalline wax.

Benefits of wax material

1. Good surface finish

2. High dimensional accuracy
3. Easy to work
4. Prevent moisture absorption.
5. Low cost

Drawback:

Suitable to small work piece only

Pattern Allowances
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting. Thus, when
the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in the finished component drawing
so that a casting with the particular specification can be made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to
reduce machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as
follows:

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or Contraction
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types:

i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid
state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the
casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.
To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel contracts to a higher degree
compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink rule must be used in laying out the
measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear
blank of 4 inch in diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in measuring it 4 inch would
 8

actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage. The various rate of contraction of various
materials are given below

Machining Allowance

In case the casting designed to be machined, they are cast over-sized in those dimensions shown in the
finished working drawings. Where machining is done, the machined part is made extra thick which is called
machining allowance.

Machining allowance is given due to the following reasons:

1. Castings get oxidized inside mould and during heat treatment. Scale thus formed requires to be
removed.
2. For removing surface roughness, slag, dirt and other imperfections from the casting.
3. For obtaining exact dimensions on the casting.
4. To achieve desired surface finish on the casting.

The dimension of the pattern to be increased because of the extra metal required (i.e. finish or machining allowance)
depends upon the following factors:

1. Method of machining used (turning, grinding, boring, etc.). Grinding removes lesser metal than
turning.
2. Characteristics of metal (ferrous or non-ferrous, hard and easily machinable or soft). Ferrous metals get
oxidised, aluminium does not.
3. Method of casting used. Centrifugal casting requires more allowance on the inner side. Die castings
need little machining, sand castings require more.
4. Size and shape of the casting. For long castings, warpage is more and greater allowance is required.
Thicker sections solidify late and impurities tend to collect there. This necessitates more machining
allowance.
5. Degree of finish required. A higher degree of finishing requires more machining allowance.

The standard machining allowances for different metals and alloys are shown below

Overall length of external surface, cm

Material Cast
0 – 30 30 – 60 60 – 105 105 – 150

Al alloys 1.6 3.2 3.0 4.8

Brass, Bronze 1.6 3.2 3.0 4.8

Cast Iron 2.4 3.2 4.8 6.4

C.S 3.2 4.8 6.0 9.6

 9

Draft Allowance or Taper Allowance

When a pattern is drawn from a mould, there is always a possibility of damaging the edges of the mould.
Draft is taper made on the vertical faces of a pattern to make easier drawing of pattern out of the mould (Fig. 1.3).
The draft is expressed in millimeters per metre on a side or in degrees.

The amount of draft needed depends upon (1) the shape of casting, (2) depth of casting, (3) moulding
method, and (4) moulding material.

Generally, the size of draft is 5 to 30 mm per metre, or average 20 mm per metre. But draft made sufficiently large,
if permissible, will make moulding easier. For precision castings, a draft of about 3 to 6 mm per metre is required.

Table shows different taper allowances used for different moulding methods.

TAPER ALLOWANCES USED FOR DIFFERENT MOULDING METHODS.

Sand Moulding
Height of Pattern
Shell Moulding Metal Wood
mm
Machine drawn Manual drawn Machine drawn

Up to 20 0° 45‟ 1° 30‟ 3° 3°

20 to 50 0° 30‟ 1° 1° 30‟ 1° 30‟

100 to 200 0° 20‟ 0° 30‟ 0° 45‟ 0° 45‟

Rapping or Shaking Allowance

When the pattern is shaken for easy withdrawal, the mould cavity, hence the casting is slightly increased in
size. In order to compensate for this increase, the pattern should be initially made slightly smaller. For small and
medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored. But for large sized and precision castings, however, shaking
allowance is to be considered. The amount of this allowance is given based on previous experience.
 10

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings, because of their size, shape and type of metal, tend to warp or distort during the
cooling period depending on the cooling speed. This is due to the uneven shrinkage of different parts of the casting.
Expecting the amount of warpage, a pattern may be made with allowance of warpage. It is called camber. For
example, a U-shaped casting will be distorted during cooling with the legs diverging, instead of parallel (Fig. 1.4).
For compensating this warpage, the pattern is made with the legs converged but, as the casting cools, the legs
straighten and remain parallel.

Moulding material
In foundry, various types of materials are playing a vital role in the manufacturing of casting product.
These are grouped in to two categories: (1) Basic and (2) Auxiliary

Basic moulding materials includes silica sands, which forms the base and the various binders

Auxiliary groups include various additives which impart desired properties to the moulding and core sand.

The essential constitutions of a moulding sand are: Silica sand, Binder, Additives and water

Silica sand is widely used moulding material it has 80 to 90 % of silicon dioxide also gives refractoriness to
the sand. A typical mixture by volume could be 89% sand, 4% water, 7% clay. Control of all aspects of the
properties of sand is crucial.

It has the following advantage.

1. Cheap, plentiful and easily available

2. High softening temperature and thermal stability
3. Easily moulded, reusable and capable of giving good

Binder: In sand casting, the sand must contain some type of binder that acts to hold the sand particles
together. Clay serves an essential purpose in the sand casting manufacturing process, as a binding agent to adhere
 11

the molding sand together. In manufacturing industry other agents may be used to bond the molding sand together in
place of clay.

Additives: Additives impart to the moulding sand special properties (strength, thermal stability,
permeability, refractoriness, thermal expansion etc….)

Sand: based on the amount of clayey content, they contain. The moulding sands are classified as follows:

1 Silica sand Upto 2% clay

2 Lean or weak sand 2 to 10% clay
3 Moderately strong sand 10 to 20% clay
4 Strong sand Upto 30% clay
5 Extra strong sand (loam sand) Upto 50% clay

There are three types of sand

1. Natural sand
2. Synthetic sand
3. Chemically coated sand

Naturally Bonded- Naturally bonded sand is less expensive but it includes organic impurities that reduce
the fusion temperature of the sand mixture for the casting, lower the binding strength, and require higher moisture
content.

Synthetic Sand- Synthetic sand is mixed in a manufacturing lab starting with a pure (SiO2) sand base. In
this case, the composition can be controlled more accurately, which imparts the casting sand mixture with higher
green strength, more permeability, and greater refractory strength. For these reasons, synthetic sand is mostly
preferred in sand casting manufacture.

Chemically coated sand: clean silica grains are sometimes coated with a non-thermosetting hydrocarbon
resin, which act as a binder. An additional binder in the form of clay can also be used. The advantage of this sand is
that the carbon in the resin which is an excellent refractory surrounds the sand grains and does not allow the molten
metal to reach the sand grains. This produces casting with clean surface as the sand does not get fused in them. The
moisture content in this sand is kept to above 3%

1. Olivine Sand : This sand is complex mix of ortho-silicates of Iron and Magnesium
(Mg2SiO4: Fosterite, Fe2SiO4:Fayalite). This is prepared from the
mineral Dunite. Olivine sand does not contain free-silica. And hence
does not react with basic metals.

It has a melting point of 1800°C.

2. Chromite Sand : It is a solid solution of complex metallic oxides having spinel structure.
It has low silica content and exhibits very good thermal conductivity. In
India availability of this sand is limited. In Odisha however, Chromite
deposits are there. Chromite sand is produced by crushing Chromite ore.

Typical composition is: Cr2O3: 44%, Fe2O3: 28%, SiO2: 2.5%, CaO:
 12

0.5%, Al2O3+MgO: 25%

3. Zircon Sand: : It is a combination of Zirconia (ZrO ) 67% and Silica (SiO ) 33%. The
2 2

specific gravity is twice that of silica sand. It has a very high melting
point of 2600 °C and a low coefficient of thermal expansion: 0.25% at
900 °C. Due to excellent quality and limited availability, it costs six
times that of Silica sand. Supply is restricted by BARC due to the use of
zirconia in nuclear applications. In India it is available in the Quilon
beaches of Kerala and Gopalpur beaches of Odisha.

Typical composition of Quilon sand is: ZrO2: 66.25%, SiO2: 30.96%,

Al2O3: 1.92%, Fe2O3: 0.74%

Zircon sand is used as wash and facing sand in casting. It is also used in
precision castings.

4. Chamotte Sand: : These are obtained by calcining Al2O3-SiO2 above 1100 °C. Chamotte
sand has a melting point of 1750 °C and a coefficient of thermal
expansion 0.5% at 900 °C. It has a very coarse grain size. Hence it is
used in heavy castings (especially steel).

Moulding sand has maximum strength at maximum moisture content of 4% for lean sands and of 6 to 7 %
for loam sands.

A typical green sand moulding sand for gray iron moulding are given as below

Silica sand = 68 to 86%

Clay = 10 to 20%

Water = 3 to 6%

Additives = 1 to 6%

Binder:
In sand casting, binders are used to hold the sand particles together. There are two types‟ namely (1)
organic binder and (2) inorganic binder. Among these two organic binders are mainly used for core baking.

Clay binders are the most common inorganic binders. Clay are formed by the weathering and
decomposition of rocks. The common types of clay used in moulding sand are: Fireclay, Kaolinite, Illite and
Bentonite. Kaolinite and Bentonite clays are most popular, because they have high thermochemical stability.

Fire-clay : It is a refractory clay usually found in the coal measures

Kaolinite : It is one of the decomposition products of the slow weathering of the
granite and basalt (a kind of black rock). It is the main constituent of
china fire clay. Its melting point is 1750 to 1787°C
Its general composition is Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O
 13

Illite : It is formed from the weathering of mica rocks. Its particle size is
about the same as the kaolinite clay and has similar moulding
properties
Its general composition is K2O Al2O3 SiO2 H2O
Bentonite : It is formed from the weathering of volcanic or igneous rocks. It is
creamy white powder. Its melting point is 1250 to 1300°C
Its general composition is MgO Al2O3 SiO2 H2O

The basic constituent which gives refractoriness to a clay is alumina, Al 2O3 of all clays, bentonite is the
most commonly used clay. It needs smaller amount of water to obtain a given degree of plasticity.

Other binders can be: Portland cement and sodium silicate.

The percentage of binder in the moulding sand is of great importance. The bond must be strong enough to
with stand the pressure of and erosion by the melt; however the bond must not destroy the permeability of the sand
so that the gases present in the melt can be escape.

Organic binder: these binders are mostly used for making core. Cereals binders are obtained from wheat
corn or rye. Resin, drying oil for example linseed oil, fish oil, soyabean oil, and some mineral oils: pitch and
molasses

Additives:
Additives are added to the moulding sand to improve the properties like refractoriness, permeability and strength of
the moulding sand. These are helps to give good surface finish. Additives are not for binding purpose. There are
various additives to meet the good surface finish. They are:

Sea coal: It is also named as coal dust. It tends to obtained smoother and cleaner surfaces of casting and also
reduces the adherence of sand particles to the casting. It also increases the strength of the moulding sand. It is added
upto 8% and also improves the permeability of the moulding sand.

Saw dust: It improves the permeability and deformability of the mould and cores. It must be dry. Instead of saw
dust, Peat (fertilizer) having 70-73% of volatile (i.e. explosive) substances, not over 5 - 6% ash and 25 - 30%
moisture can also be used.

Cereals: It is finely ground corn flour or corn starch. It increases the strength of the moulding sand by 0.25 - 2%. It
is added about 1% with the moulding sand.

Wood flour: About 1% is added. It is ground wood particles or other cellulose materials such as grain hulls. They
serve the same purpose as cereals except that they do not increase strength as like cereals

Silica flour: It is very fine powder. It is generally mixed with about twice as much conventional moulding sand to
make facing sand. It is applied around the pattern. Because of its purity, it improves the strength and surface finish.
It also resists metal penetration and minimizes sand expansion defects.

Special additives:

Fuel oil : It improves the mouldability of the sand

Iron oxide : It develops hot strength.
 14

Dextrin : It increases the toughness and collapsibility and prevents sand from rapid
drying.
Molasses : It is the by - product of sugar industry. It imparts high dry strength and
collapsibility to mould and cores.

Moulding sand:
There are various types of moulding sand:

1. Green sand : It is composed of a mixture of silica sand (68 - 86%), clay (16 - 30%)
and water (5 - 8%). The word “green” is associated with the condition of
wetness or freshness. Hence in named as green sand
2. Dry sand : It is basically green sand. But mixed with 1 to 2% of cereals and 1 to 2 %
of peat are added additives with the green sand also dried at 110 to
260°C for several hours. It is used for making large casting. It has greater
strength and rigidity.
3. Facing sand : This sand is directly cover the surface of the pattern and provides a
smoother casting surface and should be of fine texture. It is made of
silica sand and clay. The layer of the facing sand in the mould usually
ranges from 25 to 50mm.
4. Backing sand : This is the sand which is used to back up the facing sand and to fill the
whole volume of the flask. The old sand may be repeatedly used for this
purpose.
5. System sand : In mechanized foundries, where machine moulding is employed a so
called system sand is used to fill the whole flask. Because of this, the
system sand must have the higher strength, permeability and refractoriness
than the backing sand.
6. Parting sand : Parting sand is usually applied on the pattern surface, to avoid its sticking
and permit its easy withdrawal from the mould, when the pattern is made
of two half with cope and drag.

Dry parting material : charcoal, limestone, groundnut shell, talc

and calcium sulphate
Wet parting material : wax based preparation, petroleum jelly
mixed with oil, paraffin and stearic acid

7. Loam sand It consists of fine sand plus finely ground refractories, clay, graphite and
fibrous reinforcements. In this sand percentage of clay is in the order of
50%. It is used in pit moulding process for making mould for very heavy
and large parts (engine body, machine tool bed and so on ….).

Moulding sand properties:

The quality of the casting product is mainly depends on the quality of the moulding sand.

Moulding sand is must have the following requirements:

1. It should be able to retain and reproduce the details as imparted by the pattern.
2. It should be able to retain the bulk structure.
3. It should not be too much sticky either to the pattern or to the casting.
 15

4. It should prevent reaction with the liquid metal.

5. It should let the casting cool at an optimum rate so as to develop desired microstructure.

To achieve the above requirement, the moulding sand must have the following properties

1. Permeability or porosity
2. Plasticity or flowability
3. Adhesiveness
4. Cohesiveness or strength
5. Refractoriness
6. Collapsibility

Permeability: During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is
generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the
atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the
mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this problem the molding
material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the
mold cavity.

Flowability: It is the measure of the moulding sand to flow around and over a pattern during ramming and to
uniform fill the flask. This property may be enhanced by adding clay and water to the silica sand.

Adhesiveness: This is the property of the sand mixture to adhere to another body. The moulding sand should cling
to the sides of the moulding boxes so that it does not fall out when the flasks are lifted and turned over. This
property depends on the type and amount of binder used in the sand mix.

Cohesiveness:
Green Strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must
have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.

Dry Strength: When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly converted
into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding
sand must possess the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be
able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.

Hot Strength: As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal in
the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot
strength.

Refractoriness: It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so
that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

Collapsibility: The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified
casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific
properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.

SAND TESTING
1. Molding sand and core sand depend upon shape, size composition and distribution of sand grains, amount
of clay, moisture and additives.
2. The increase in demand for good surface finish and higher accuracy in castings necessitates certainty in the
quality of mold and core sands.
3. Sand testing often allows the use of less expensive local sands. It also ensures reliable sand mixing and
enables a utilization of the inherent properties of molding sand.
 16

4. Sand testing on delivery will immediately detect any variation from the standard quality, and adjustment of
the sand mixture to specific requirements so that the casting defects can be minimized.

Generally the following tests are performed to judge the molding and casting characteristics of foundry sands:

1. Moisture content Test

2. Clay content Test
3. Fineness test
4. Refractoriness of sand
5. Strength Test
6. Permeability Test
7. Flowability Test
8. Mould hardness Test.

Moisture Content Test

The moisture content of the molding sand mixture
may determine by difference in weight of moist sand and
dry sand.
1. Measurement by evaporation method:
o Sample of moulding sand weighing
about 20 to 50 grams are allowed to
heat at a constant temperature up to
100°C in an oven for about one hour.
o It is then cooled to a room temperature
and then reweighing the molding sand.
o The moisture content in molding sand is thus evaporated.
o The loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives the amount of moisture which
can be expressed as a percentage of the original sand sample.

2. Measurement by moisture teller method:

o Sample of moulding sand placed in teller
pan having 600 mesh screens at bottom.
Hot air allows blowing over the
moulding sand about 3 – 6 minute, now
the moisture present in the moulding
sand is removed. Once the moisture is
removed, weighing the sample and find
the deviation in weight of sample before
and after placing in the teller pan. This
method was quite faster than the
evaporation method.

3. Measurement by moisture teller chemical reaction method:

o This based worked on the principle that when water and calcium carbide react, they form
acetylene gas which can be measured and this will be directly proportional to the moisture content.
o Sample of moulding sand is placed in teller pan along with calcium carbide (CaC2). This reaction
will produce C2H2
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca (OH)2
o The amount of C2H2 produced is directly proportional to the moisture content in the moulding
sand.
 17

o This instrument is provided with a pressure gauge calibrated to read directly the percentage of
moisture present in the molding sand.

Clay Content Test

o The sample of molding sand weighing about 50 grams is mixed with water and 1% NaOH and allows
stirring for 4-7 minute, and then waiting for 10-15 minute for sedimentation. Now the sand was settling
down. The dirty water is present at the top portion of the pan
o The above process is repeated until to achieve clean water at the top portion of the pan. The water is
drained off.
o The sand is dried and weighted. The loss of weight gives the clay content.

Refractoriness Test
 The refractoriness of the molding sand is judged by heating the A.F.S standard sand specimen to very high
temperatures ranges depending upon the
type of sand.
 The heated sand test pieces are cooled to
room temperature and examined under a
microscope for surface characteristics or by
scratching it with a steel needle.
 If the silica sand grains remain sharply
defined and easily give way to the needle.
Sintering has not yet set in.
 In the actual experiment the sand specimen
in a porcelain boat is placed into an electric
furnace. It is usual practice to start the test
from l000°C and raise the temperature in
steps of 100°C to 1300°C and in steps of 50°
above 1300°C till sintering of the silica sand
grains takes place.
 At each temperature level, it is kept for at
least three minutes and then taken out from the oven for examination under a microscope for evaluating
surface characteristics or by scratching it with a steel needle.

Grain Fineness Test

o GFN is a measure of the average size of the
particles (or grains) in a sand sample. The grain
fineness of molding sand is measured using a test
called sieve analysis.
o The test is carried out in power-driven shaker
consisting of number of sieves fitted one over the
other.
i. A representative sample of the sand is dried
and weighed, then passed through a series of
progressively finer sieves (screens) while
they are agitated and tapped for a 15-minute
test cycle. The series are placed in order of
fineness from top to bottom.
ii. The sand retained on each sieve (grains that
are too large to pass through) is then
weighed and recorded.
iii. The weight retained on each sieve is carried
out through calculations to get the AFS-
GFN. *AFS = American Foundrymens‘s Society
 18

Sieve
6 12 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200 270 Pan
Number
Weightage
3 5 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200 300
factor

Example: weight retained on each sieve is given as: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.5, 10, 15, 7.5, 3.5, 1.5, and 0.5

Sieve Retained sample Retained Weightage Wi𝐹i Wi𝑃i

Number (g) 𝐹i percentage (Pi) factor (Wi)
6 0.5 1 3 1.5 3
12 1.0 2 5 5.0 10
20 1.5 3 10 15.0 30
30 2.0 4 20 40 80
40 2.5 5 30 75 150
50 4.5 9 40 180 360
70 10 20 50 500 1000
100 15 30 70 1050 2100
140 7.5 15 100 750 1500
200 3.5 7 140 490 980
270 1.5 3 200 300 600
Pan 0.5 1 300 150 300
∑ = 50 ∑ = 100 ∑ = 3556.5 ∑ = 7113

3556. 5 7113
∴ 𝐺𝐹𝑁 = = 71. 13 (𝑜𝑟) = 71. 13
50 100

Strength Test
 This is the strength of tempered sand expressed by its ability to hold a mold in shape. Sand molds are
subjected to compressive, tensile, shearing, and bending stresses.
 The green compressive strength test and dry compressive strength is the most used test in the foundry.
Compression tests
a. A rammed specimen of tempered molding sand is produced that is 2 inches in diameter and 2
inches in height.
b. The rammed sample is then subjected to a
load which is gradually increased until the
sample breaks.
c. The point where the sample breaks is taken
as the compression strength.

Shear tests
a. The compressive loading system is modified
to provide offset loading of the specimen.
b. Under most conditions the results of shear
tests have been shown to be closely related to those of compression tests, although the latter
property increases proportionately more at high ramming densities.

Tensile test
a. A special waisted specimen is loaded in tension through a pair of grips.
 19

Bending test
1. A plain rectangular specimen is supported on knife edges at the ends and centrally loaded to
fracture.

Permeability Test
 Permeability of the moulding sand is determined by measuring the rate of flow of air through a
compacted specimen under standard
conditions. It is measured in terms of
permeability number.
 A sample of moulding sand is placed in a
tube. Time taken for 2000 CM3 of air at a
pressure of 10 g/cm2 to pass through the
specimen is noted
 Permeability meter consisting of the
balanced tank, water tank, nozzle,
adjusting lever, nose piece for fixing sand
specimen and a manometer. The
permeability is directly measured.
 Permeability number P is volume of air
(in cm3) passing through a sand specimen
of 1 cm2 cross-sectional area and 1 cm
height, at a pressure difference of 1 gm/cm2 in one minute.

𝑉𝑕
𝑃=
𝑎𝑡𝑝
Where,
P = permeability
v = volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.
h = height of specimen in cm
p = pressure of air in gm/cm2
a = cross-sectional area of the specimen in cm2
t = time in minutes.

Mold Hardness Test

 This test is performed by a mold hardness tester.
 The working of the tester is based on the principle
of Brinell hardness testing machine.
 In an A.F.S. standard hardness tester a half inch
diameter steel hemi-spherical ball is loaded with a
spring load of 980 gm.
 This ball is made to penetrate into the mold sand or
core sand surface.
 The penetration of the ball point into the mold
surface is indicated on a dial in thousands of an
inch.
 The dial is calibrated to read the hardness directly
i.e. a mold surface which offers no resistance to the
steel ball would have zero hardness value and a
mold which is more rigid and is capable of
completely preventing the steel ball from
penetrating would have a hardness value of 100.
 The dial gauge of the hardness tester may provide
direct readings
 20

Compatibility and flowability

 The compatibility test is widely accepted as both simple to perform and directly related to the behavior
of sand in molding, particularly when involving squeeze compaction.
 A fixed volume of loose sand is compacted under standard conditions and the percentage reduction in
volume represents the compatibility.

CORES
A core is a body made of refractory material, which is used for making cavity or a hole in casting. Its shape
is similar to the required cavity in the casting. It is also used for making recess, projections, undercuts and internal
cavities.
Core Print is a projection provided on the casting product. It forms a seat in the mould.

There are seven requirements for core:

1. Green Strength: In the green condition there must be adequate strength for handling.
2. In the hardened state it must be strong enough to handle the forces of casting; therefore the
compression strength should be 100 to 300 psi.
3. Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases.
4. Friability: As the casting or molding cools the core must be weak enough to break down as the
material shrinks. Moreover, they must be easy to remove during shakeout.
5. Good refractoriness is required as the core is usually surrounded by hot metal during casting or
molding.
6. A smooth surface finish.
7. Minimum generation of gases during metal pouring.

Purpose of cores:
1. It may form a part of green sand mould
2. Cores may be employed to improve the mould surface.
3. It helps to strengthen the mould.
4. Cores may be used to form the gating system of large size mould.
5. It acts as an internal cavity for hollow casting.

Core making material:

Core sand : It consists of refractory material such as silica sand,

zircon, olivine, carbon and chamotte sand
Binder : Vegetable oil or mineral oil, core flour, resin water, fire
clay bentonite, urea
Additives : Wood flour, coal powder, cow dung, straw and so on…

Core binder:
1. To bind the sand grains together
2. To give strength and hardness
3. To prevent breaking
4. To give collapsibility to core
5. To prevent moisture absorption.
 21

Other binders:
Oil binders : 1. It is commonly used binder.
2. Linseed is the example of this oil binder.
3. 0.5 to 3% is added depends on the hardness and other properties

Water soluble binder : 1. Dextrin starch are example of water soluble binder
2. It gets hardened at 180 . Its mixing ratio is 1:8.
3. It gives green strength and edge hardness to the core

Resin binder : 1. Phenol formaldehyde and urea are example for resin binder.
2. It gives hardness at 200 .
3. It gives good strength and short time to bake and less gas will be
formed.

Inorganic binder : 1. Fire clay, silica flour, kerosene etc…are the example;
2. They are used in the powder form.
3. It develops greater strength and gives smooth surface.

Types of core boxes

Half core box : It is used to form semicircular core (refer figure 1.18). After baking, if needed,
the two core pieces will pasted together to form the complete core

Dump core box : This type is helpful for making complete core in polygon size like square,
rectangle and so on.. (Refer figure 1.19)

Split core box : This is similar to half core box, but it has two half and it must connect by
dowel pin on either side of box. After preparation, box are separated (Refer
figure 1.20)
 22

Gang core box : During manufacturing, sometimes, we need an „n‟ number of cores. In that
occasion, we can go for gang core box instead of any other single core box (Refer
figure 1.21).

Left and right : For the preparation of curved core, the manufacturer can opt for left and right
core box hand core box is best option for easiest preparation of core (Refer figure 1.22)

Strickle core : To make an irregular shaped core, the strickle core box will fulfill the need of the
box manufacturer. Here, box will fill with required sand and rammed properly by
using strickle board (Refer figure 1.23).
 23

Core making process:

The core may be manufactured either by manual or machine based on needed. The chart shown here are the
important steps for making core.

Sand preparation

Making

Baking

Finishing

Sand preparation:

Sands are mixed properly to meet the requirement with the help of any one of the following mechanical
means.

1. Roller mills
2. Core sand mixer
a. Vertical revolving arm type.
b. Horizontal paddle type.

In the case of roller mills, the rolling action of the mullers along with the turning over action caused by the
ploughs gives a uniform and homogeneous mixture.

Core making machine: It is broadly classified as follows.

 Core blowing machine

 Core ramming machine
 Core drawing machine
 Core extrusion machine
 24

Core blowing machines:

The basic principle of core blowing consists of filling core sand into the core box by using the medium of
compressed air. The velocity of the compressed air is kept high to obtain a high velocity of sand particles, thus
ensuring their deposit in the remote comers of the core box. As the sand with high kinetic energy comes, the shaping
and ramming is done simultaneously in the core box.

The core blowing machines can be classified into two basic groups.
 Small bench blowers
 Large floor blowers

Core ramming machines:

Cores can also be prepared by ramming core
sands in the core boxes by machines based on the
following principles.
 Jolting
 Squeezing
 Slinging
Out of these three, machines based on jolting
and slinging are more commonly used for core making.

Core drawing machines:

The core drawing is preferred when the core
boxes have deep draws. After ramming sand in it, the
core box is placed on a core plate supported on the
machine bed. A rapping action on the core box is
produced by a vibrating vertical plate. This rapping
action helps in drawing off the core box from the core.
After rapping the box is raised leaving the core on the
core plate.

Core extrusion machine:

Simple cores of regular shape uniform cross-
section can be extruded easily on a core extrusion
machine. Cores of square, round, hexagonal and over sections are produced made rapidly on a core extrusion
machine. A core extrusion machine has a hopper through which the core sand is fed to a horizontal spiral conveyor
(situated below the hopper). As the spiral conveyor is rotated. It forces core and through a die of specified shape
(square, round, etc.). Long cores thus produced can be cut to the desired length.

Core baking
Cores are baked to remove the moisture
and to develop the strength the strength of the
binder in care ovens. The cores are dried in ovens
equipped with drawers, shelves or other holding
devices. They are dried in batches or continuously
over moving shelves. The heat in oven is produced
by burning oil or core or by electric resistance. The
core drying time depends upon the quantity of
moisture and binder used in the sand size of the
core and temperature of the oven. According to the
type of production, the core drying ovens or core
baking ovens are classified as
 Batch type
 Continuous type
 Dielectrically heated type
 25

Batch type ovens

These make use of portable racks. The racks loaded with cores are transported by lift trucks or mono-rail
conveyors to the oven. Large cores are moved directly into the oven by rail. The racks are admitted into the oven
either through two doors which swing open on hinges or through a single sliding door of counter balanced type.

Continuous type ovens

In this type oven the core racks move slowly through the oven on a continuous rail or chain. The loading
and unloading are continuous. The baking time is controlled by the rate of travel of the conveyor.
The temperatures of the various parts of the oven and the conveyor speed are coordinated in such a way
that the core comes out from the oven not only baked but also cooled. In some of the designs, for saving the floor
space, the cores move vertically upwards through the oven and get baked. They get cooled on their return trip
downwards.

Dielectrically heated type

These are modem core ovens employed for high quality cores using plastic binders. The cores to be heated
dielectrically are placed between the parallel plates or electrodes and a very high frequency current is passed. This
high frequency current tends to deform the sand molecules. The sand molecules resist the deformation and required
heating effect is produced. In core ovens proper temperature control is necessary for maintaining the most effective
temperature.

Core finishing
After baking, the cores are given certain finishing operations before they are finally set in the mould. The
fins, bumps or other sand projections are removed from the surface of the cores by rubbing or filing. The
dimensional inspection of the cores is very necessary. Cores are also coated with refractory or protective materials to
improve their refractoriness and surface finish.

Types of cores
There are many types of cores available. The selection of the correct type of core depends on production
quantity, production rate, required precision, required surface finish, and the type of metal being used.
For example, certain metals are sensitive to gases that are given off by certain types of core sands; other
metals have too low of a melting point to properly break down the binder for removal during the shakeout.
 26

The cores as classified as follows.

a. According to the shape and position of the core

• Horizontal core
• Vertical core
• Hanging or cover core
• Balanced core
• Drop core or Stop off core
• Ram up core
• Kiss core

b. According to the State or condition of Core

• Green sand core
• Dry sand core
• Sodium silicate cores

c. According to the type of core-hardening process employed

• C02-process
• The hot box process
• The cold set process
• Fluid (or) Castable sand process
• Nishiyama process.
• Furan No-Bake system
• Oil-No-Bake Process

The horizontal and vertical cores are used in foundry work frequently. A horizontal core is placed horizontally in
the mould. The ends of the core rest in the seats provided by core prints on the pattern.

A vertical core is placed vertically in the mould. The upper end of the core is forced in the cope and the lower end in
the drag.

A balanced core is used when the casting has opening only on one side and only one core print is available on the
pattern. It extends horizontally in the mould cavity.

A cover core extends vertically downwards. It is suspended from the top of the mould

A hanging core hangs from the top and does not have any support at the bottom in the drag.

A ram-up core is set in the mould with the pattern before ramming. It is used when the cored detail is located in an
inaccessible position.

When the pattern is not provided with core prints and no seat is available for the core to rest, the core is
held in position between the cope and drag simply due to the pressure of the cope. Such a core is known as 'Kiss
core '.

Green sand cores

Green sand cores are formed by' the pattern itself. A green sand core is a part of the mould. It'is made out of
the same sand from which the rest of mould has been made.

Dry sand cores

Dry sand cores, unlike green sand cores are not produced as a part of the moulding. Dry sand cores are
made separately and independent of the mould. A dry sand core is made up of core sand which differs very much
from the sand out of which differs very much from the sand out of which the mould is constructed.
27
 28

Oil bonded cores

Conventional sand cores produced by mixing silica sand with a small percentage of linseed oil. Oil bonded
cores base themselves on the principle of the oxidation and polymerization of a combination of oils containing
chemical additives which, when activated by an oxygen bearing material, set in a pre-determined time.

Resin-bonded cores
It is the type of cores phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box. The core is removed from the core
box-and baked in a core oven at 375 to 450°F to harden the core.
·
Sodium Silicate and CO2 cores
These cores use a core material consisting of clean, dry sand mixed with a solution of sodium silicate. The
sand mixture is rammed into the core box. The rammed core while it is in the core box is gassed for several seconds
with Carbon-di-Oxide gas. As a result a silica gel forms which binds sand grains into a strong, solid' form

Na2SiO3 + CO2 Na2 CO3 + SiO2 (Silica gel)

The Hot box process
It uses heated core boxes for the production of cores. The core box is made up of cast iron, steel or
aluminium and possesses vents and ejectors for removing core gases and stripping core form the core box
respectively, Core box is heated from 350 to 500°F. Heated core boxes are employed for making shell cores dry
resin bonded mixtures.

The cold set process

While mixing the core-sand, an accelerator is added to the binder. The sand mixture is very flowable and is
easily rammed. Curing begins immediately with the addition of accelerator and continues until the core is strong to
be removed from the core box. A little heating of the core hardens it completely. Cold set process is preferred for
jobbing production. Cold set process is employed for making large cores.

Castable sand process

A setting or hardening agent such as Dicalcium silicate is added to sodium silicate at the time of core sand
mixing. The sand mixture possesses high flowability and after being poured in the core box, it chemically hardens
after a short interval of time.

Nishiyama process
Nishiyama process uses sodium silicate bonded sand, which is mixed with 2% finely powdered
ferrosilicon, Hardening occurs because of exothermic reaction of silicon with NaOH produced bydrolysis in the
solution of sodium silicate. Cores thus made possess short bench life.

Furan-no-bake system
The core sand mixture contains washed and dried sand with clay content less than 0.5% furan no-bake resin
2% and activator (phosphoric acid) 40%. The basic reaction between the furan resin and phosphoric acid results in
an acid dehydration of the resin. The core sand mixture has high flowability and needs reduced rodding (to handle
the core). Uniform core hardness, exact core dimensions, better fitting cores, lower machining and layout costs, and
reduction of oven baking are some of the good characteristics of cores made by Furan-No-Bake system.

Oil-no-bake process
The process employs a synthetic oil-binder which when mixed with basic sands and activated chemically,
produces cores that can be cured at room temperature.

Moulding process

The process of forming moulds is called moulding. It is an important operation involved in the casting.
After preparing moulds at the moulding shop and making cores at the core room of the foundry, the next important
operation is the assembly of moulds for pouring.
 29

Moulding tools

Shovel
It is just like rectangular pan fitted with a handle. It is used for mixing the moulding sand and for moving it
from one place to the other.

Riddle
It is used for removing foreign materials like nails, shot metal splinters of wood, etc., from the moulding
sand.

Rammer
It is a wooden tool used for ramming or packing the sand in the mould. Rammers are made in different
shapes.

Strike-off bar
It is a cast iron or wrought iron bar with a true straight edge. It is used to remove the surplus sand from the
mould after the ramming has been completed.

Vent wire
It is a mild steel wire used for making vents or openings in the mould.

Lifter
It is a metal piece used for patching deep section of the mould and removing loose sand from pockets of the
mould.

Slick
Different types of slicks are used for repairing and finishing moulds.

Trowel
It contains of a flat and thick metal sheet with upwards projected handle at one end. It is used for making
joints and finishing flat surfaces of a mould.

Swab
It is made of flax or hemp. It is used for applying water to the mould around the edge of the pattern.

Draw spike
It is a metal rod with a pointed or screwed end. It is used for removing the pattern from the mould.

Rawhide mallet
It is a mallet to loosen the pattern in the mould by striking slightly, so that it can be withdrawn without
damaging the mould.

Gate cutter
It is a metal piece to the gate- the opening that connects tee sprue with the mould cavity.

Rapping plate (or) Lifting plate

It is used to facilitate shaking and lifting large pattern from the mould.

Spirit level
It is used to check that the sand bed, moulding box or table of moulding machine is horizontal.

Clamps
Clamps are used to hold the cope and drag of the complete mould together so that the cope may not float or
rise when the molten metal is poured into the mould.
 30

Gaggers (or) Lifters

These are iron rods bent at one or both ends. These are used to reinforce the moulding sand in the top
portion of the moulding box and for supporting hanging sand.

Sand moulding process:

Moulding Process

Hand Moulding According to the method used According to the moulding materials used

Machine Moulding

1. Bench moulding
2. Floor moulding 1. Green sand moulding
3. Pit moulding 2. Dry sand moulding
4. Sweep moulding 3. Loam moulding
5. Plate moulding
 31

Sand mould can be made either by manual or on moulding machine. Manual moulding is done for piece and for
small lot production, whereas machine moulding is employed in large lot and mass production.

Based on the nature of work place, the manual moulding can be classified as

Bench Moulding : This is done only for small work

Floor Moulding : This process is done on the foundry floor and is employed for
medium sized large casting

Pit Moulding : This method is used for very large casting and is done on the
foundry floor. However, a pit dug in the floor acts as the lower
flask(drag) and the upper flask (cope) is placed over the pit to
complete the assembly
Machine moulding: All the operations are done by machine, and then it is called as machine moulding. The
operations includes – compacting the sands, rolling the mould over and drawing the pattern from the mould and so
on…..

GREEN SAND MOULDING

A green sand mould is composed of a mixture of sand (silica sand SiO 2), clay (act as binder), and water.
The word green is associated with the condition of wetness or freshness and because the mould is left in the damp
condition, hence the name “green sand mould”. This type of mould is the cheapest and has the advantage that used
sand is readily reclaimed. But the mould being in the damp condition, is weak and cannot be stored for a longer
period. Hence such moulds are used for small and medium sized casting.

Principal Methods of Green-sand Moulding are:

o Open-sand method
o Bedded-in-method
o Turn-over method

Open-sand Method

It is simplest form of green sand moulding, particularly suitable for solid patterns. For convenience in
working and pouring, the entire mould is made in the foundry floor or in a bed of sand above floor level. Moulding
box is not necessary and the upper surface of the mould is open to air. After proper levelling the pattern is pressed in
the sand bed for making mould. Pouring basin is made at one end of the mould, and the overflow channel cut at the
exact height from the bottom face of the mould for giving necessary thickness.

Bedded-in method

In this method, the pattern is hammered down or pressed to bed it into the sand of the foundry floor or in a
drag filled partially with sand to form the mould cavity. The sand should be rammed close to the pattern sand; a
cope is placed over the pattern. The cope is rammed up, runners and risers are cut and the cope box is lifted. Now
the pattern is withdrawn, the surfaces of drag and cope replaced in its correct position for completing the mould.

iii) Turn-over method

One pattern-halfis placed with its flat side on a moulding board, a drag is rammed and rolled over. The
other pattern half and a cope box are placed in position. After ramming the cope is lifted off and the two pattern
halves shaken and withdrawn. Now the cope is replaced on the drag for assembling the mould.
 32

Steps involved in Green sand moulding

 First one half of the pattern is placed on the moulding board.

 The drag is placed with the dowel pins down.
 Moulding sand is filled in the moulding box to cover the pattern.
 The drag is completely filled with sand up to the top and rammed by the peen end of the hand rammer.
 Excess sand is levelled by a strike-off bar.
 The drag is tilled upside down.
 Parting sand is applied on the surface.
 The other half of the pattern is how placed correctly on the already placed half
 The cope is placed in position on the drag and aligned using dowel pins.
 The sprue pin is placed vertically for the purpose of pouring the molten metal.
 The risers are placed over the highest point of the pattern for the purpose of escaping the gases and identify
the level of molten metal.
 Again the moulding sand filled in the cope box, and rammed.
 The riser and the sprue pin are removed.
 The funnel shaped opening called a pouring basin is cut at the top of the sprue pinhole.
 The cope is lifted, turned over and placed on the floor.
 The pattern pieces are carefully removed.
 The gate is cut that is connecting the sprue basin and the mould cluity.
 The cope is placed carefully over the drag.
 Pouring the molten metal.
 33

Advantages

 Green sand moulds are softer than dry sand moulds. This allows greater freedom in construction when the
castings solidify and cool.
 Green sand mou1ds are quite strong for small depths, as the gases escape from them.
 Green sand moulds do not require any backing operations or equipment, but dry sand cores are to be used.

Disadvantages

 The green sand moulds cannot be stored for long time.

 The green sand moulds are not so strong as other moulds are liable to be damaged during handling or
pouring.
 The surface finish of the casting obtained from green sand mould is not very smooth.
 The green sand mould lacks permeability and strength, which causes certain defects like blow holes etc.

DRY SAND MOULD

Dry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with two essential differences: the sand used for dry sand
moulds contains 1 to 2% cereal flour and 1to 2% of pitch, whereas the sand mixture for green sand moulds may not
contain these additives. Also the prepared moulds are baked in an oven at 110° to 260°C for several hours. The
additives increase the hot strength due to evaporation of water as well as by the oxidation and polymerization of the
pitch. So, dry sand moulds can be used for large casting. This give better surface finish and also reduce the incidence
of the casting defects such as blow holes, porosity that may occur as a result of steam generation in the mould.
However, due to the greater strength of these moulds, tearing may occur in hot strength materials.

LOAM SAND MOULD

Loam sand consists of fine sand plus

finely grounded refractories, clay, graphite and
fibrous reinforcement. It differ from ordinary
moulding sand in that the percentage of clay in
it is very high (of the order of 50%)

Loam is sand and clay milled with

water to form a thin plastic mixture to the
consistency of mould. This loam mortar is
applied as plaster (6 to 12 mm layer) to the
rough structure of the mould. The loam sand
mould is constructed to porous brick cemented
together with loam mortar. Cast iron plates and
bars are used to reinforce the brickwork which
retains the moulding material. Loam moulds
require adequate ventilation so as to open out
pores in the otherwise compact, closely knit
mass by artificial means. For this, chopped
straw or horse manure is mixed up with the loam sand.
 34

Moulding machine.

Moulding processes may be classified as hand moulding or machine moulding according to whether the
mould is prepared by hand tools or with the aid of some moulding machine. Hand moulding is generally found to be
ecoomical when the castings are required in a small number.

The main advantages of machine moulding are as follows.

 When the number of castings is substantial, the additional cost of metallic patterns and other equipment is
compensated by the high rate of production, and the overall cost per piece works out lower than in the case
of hand moulding.
 It affords great saving in time, especially when a large number of similar castings in small sizes are
required.
 A semi-skilled worker can do the machine job whereas hand moulding requires skilled craftsmanship.
 The castings obtained are more uniform in size and shape and more accurate than those obtained by hand
moulding due to steadier lift of the pattern.

Squeezing machine

A squeeze machine is very useful for

shallow patterns. A squeezer (squeeze head), plate
or presser board slides inside the flask to compress
the sand above and around the pattern. For
squeezing action the squeeze piston may by forced
upward, pushing the flask up against the squeezer
or presser board the presser board being forced into
the flask

The sand is rammed harder at the back of the mould

and softer on the pattern face. In other words sand
has greatest density at the surface where pressure is applied to sand and sand density decreases progressively
towards the pattern.
𝜋
Moulding force (Mf) = 𝑃 ( 𝑑2 ) − W
4

where

P - Pressure in squeeze cylinder

d - Piston diameter

W - Weight of flask pattern and sand

 35

JOLT MACHINE
In jolt machine, the pattern and flask are
mounted in the mould plate and the flask is filled
with sand. The entire assembly is raised a small
amount by means of an air cylinder and is then
dropped against a fixed stop. The compacting of
sand is achieved by the decelerating forces acting
on it. The working of a jolt moulding machine is
shown in figure. The table with moulding sand is
lifted by plunger to a definite height, when
compressed air is admitted through pipe and
channel. Next the table drops since the air is
released through pipe. In falling, the table strikes
the stationary guiding cylinder and this impact
packs the moulding sand in the flask. Springs by
cushioning the table blows, reduced noise and
prevent destruction of the mechanism and the
foundation. About 20 to 50 drops are needed to
compact the sand and the average machine operates
at about 200 strokes per minute.

Drawback:

 Density of the sand is not uniform

 Noisy operation
 Impact load on foundation.

SAND SLINGER
The sand slinger consists of a base, a sand bin, a bucket elevator, a swinging or movable arm, a belt
conveyor and the sand impeller.
Prepared sand lying in the sand
bin is picked up by the elevator
buckets and is dropped on to the
belt conveyor which takes the
same to the impeller head. Inside
the impeller head, rapidly rotating
cup shaped blade picks up the
sand and throws it downward into
the moulding box as a continuous
stream of sand with machine gun
rapidity and great force. The sand
is discharged into the moulding
box at a rate of300 to
2000kg/minute.

This force is great enough

to ram the mould satisfactorily. In moulding boxes, sand is filled and rammed at the same time. The density of sand
which is the result of sand's inertia is uniform throughout the mould.
 36

MELTING FURNACE
Melting furnaces used in the foundry industry are of many diverse configurations. The selection of the
melting unit is one of the most important decisions foundries must make with due consideration to several important
factors including:

1. The temperature required to melt the alloy

2. The melting rate and quantity of molten metal required
3. The economy of installation and operation
4. Environmental and waste disposal requirements

Several types of furnaces are most commonly used in foundries:

For melting ferrous metal

 Cupola furnace
 Blast furnace

For melting ferrous metal

 Direct fuel-fired
furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces

Cupola Furnace
A cupola is a vertical cylindrical
furnace equipped with a tapping spout
neat its base. Cupolas are used only
for melting cast irons, and although
other furnaces are also used the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted
in cupolas.

General construction and operating

features of the cupola are shown in
figure 1.36.

It consists of a large shell of steel

plate lined with refractory. The
charge, consisting or iron, coke, flux
and possible alloying elements, is
loaded through a charging door
located less than halfway up the
height of the cupola. The iron is
usually a mixture of pig iron and
scrap (including risers, runners, and
sprues left over from previous
 37

castings). Coke is the fuel used to heat the furnace. Forced air is introduced through openings near the bottom of the
shell for combustion of the coke. The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that reacts with coke ash and other
impurities to form slag. The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it from reaction with the environment inside the
cupola and reducing heat loss. As the mixture is heated and melting of the iron occurs, the furnace is periodically
tapped to provide liquid metal for the pour.

Cupola zones
Various zones of the cupola are illustrated in figure 1.36.

Combustion or Oxidizing zone

It is the zone where combustion takes place. It extends from the top of the tuyers to a surface boundary
below which all the Oxygen of air is consumed by combustion.

Chemical reaction that takes place in the zone is

C(coke) + O2 (from air) ~ CO2 + Heat

The temperature in this zone is about 1800°C.

Reducing zone

It extends from the top of the combustion zone to the top of the initial coke bed. The CO2 produced in the
combustion zone moves up and is reduced to CO. The temperature also drops to 1650°C.

CO2 + C2 ~ CO - Heat

Melting zone

It includes the first layer of pig iron above the initial coke bed. In this zone, the pig iron is melted. The
following reaction takes place.

3 Fe + 2 CO ~ Fe3C + CO2

Pre heating zone

It includes all the layers of cupola charges placed above the melting zone to the top of the last charge. The
layers of charges are heated by the out-going gases. The temperature in the zone may be upto 1050°C.

Stack

It is the zone beyond the pre-heating zone, through which the hot gases go to the atmosphere.

Cupola construction:

 The cupola essentially consists of a cylindrical steel shell lined on the inside with refractory bricks.
 The entire structure is supported on legs and is open at top and bottom when not in use.
 At the bottom, doors are provided which can be closed and propped to prepare a hearth for burning
coke.
 About 100 mm above the bottom of the shell is an opening called the tap hole with a projecting spout
for taking out the molten metal.
 On the rear of the tap hole is a slag hole to drain out slag. It is about 50 to 150 mm above the level of
the tap hole.
 This height decides the amount of metal that can be stored in the cupola between taps.
 38

 This height may be less if the cupola is fitted with a receiver and the metal IS continuously drained
form the cupola.
 About 50 to 150 mm above the slag hole are openings through the shell into the cupola shaft called
tuyers.
 These openings permit a blast of air from a wind box surrounding the cupola shell around the tuyers.
 These tuyers are provided around the shell in one or more rows to provide a balanced supply of air.
 Air is supplied into the wind box from a blower through pipes.
 The cupola shaft extends further up from the wind box to a charging platform.
 The height of the cupola from the tap hole to the charging platform is called the effective height.
 It is about 4 to 6 times the internal diameter of the cupola for small and medium size cupolas and about
3 to 5 metre for larger ones.
 At the height of the charging platform is a charging opening through which the cupola can be charged
in operation.
 The cupola shaft extends further up by another 3 to 5 metre to give a chimney effect for natural draft.
 The other dimensions of the cupola are empirically fixed based on melting area.
 The total tuyers area is 15 to 25 percent of the cupola melting area. The wind belt section is about 30
percent of cupola melting area and so on.
 Commercial cupola sizes vary from 450m m to over 2000mrri in inside diameter with melting
capacities ranging from 1.5 to 35 tonnes per hour.

The cupola furnace has several unique characteristics which are responsible for its widespread use as a
melting unit for cast iron. The cupolas is one of the only methods of melting which is continuous in its operation

 High melt rates

 Relatively low operating costs
 Ease of operation

In more recent times, the use of the cupola has declined in favour of electric induction melting, which
offers more precise control of melt chemistry and temperature, and much lower levels of emissions.

The construction of a conventional cupola consists of a vertical steel shell which is lined with a refractory
brick. The charge is introduced into the furnace body by means of an opening approximately half way up the vertical
shaft. The charge consists of alternate layers of the metal to be melted, coke fuel and limestone flux. The fuel is
burnt in air which is introduced through tuyeres positioned above the hearth. The hot gases generated in the lower
part of the shaft ascend and preheat the descending charge.

Most cupolas are of the drop bottom type with hinged doors under the hearth, which allows the bottom to
drop away at the end of melting to aid cleaning and repaired. At the bottom front is a tap hole for the molten iron at
the rear, positioned above the tap hole is a slag hole. The top of the stack is capped with a spark/fume arrester hood.

A typical operation cycle for a cupola would consist of closing and propping the bottom hinged doors and
preparing a hearth bottom. The bottom is usually made from low strength moulding sand and slopes towards a
tapping hole. A fire is started in the hearth using light weight timber; coke is charged on top of the fire and is burnt
by increasing the air draught from the tuyers. Once the coke bed is ignited and of the required height, alternate
layers of metal, flux and coke are added until the level reaches the charged doors. The metal charge would typically
consist of pig iron, scrap steel and domestic returns.

An air blast is introduced through the wind box and tuyers located near the bottom of the cupola. The air
reacts chemically with the carbonaceous fuel thus producing heat of combustion. Soon after the blast is turned on,
molten metal collects on the hearth bottom where it is eventually tapped out into a waiting ladle or receiver. As the
metal is melted and fuel consumed, additional charges are added to maintain a level at the charging door and provide
 39

a continuous supply of molten iron. At the end of the melting campaign, charging is stopped but the air blast is
maintained until all of the metal is melted and tapped off. The air is then turned off and the bottom doors opened
allowing the residual charge material to be dumped.

The Blast Furnace Process

Working of Blast furnace

1. The Iron Ore, Coke and Limestone, (the Charge), is conveyed to the top of the Furnace.
2. The Charge is stored in Bells until the timing is right for the charge to be dropped into the Furnace.
3. Hot air is then blown through pipes called Tuyers, to fire the mixture.
4. The Coke burns to increase the temperature in the Furnace.
5. The Limestone attracts the impurities in the Iron Ore and forms Slag. This Slag is lighter than the
molten Iron and so floats on top of it.
6. As the Furnace fills, the molten Iron is tapped off. The Slag is also tapped off at regular intervals.
Most Iron is taken straight from the Blast Furnace to the Steel Mill, but some is poured into buckets
called Pigs. This Iron is called Pig Iron and is used to make Cast Iron.
 40

The Charge

The Charge consists of 3 parts:

 Iron Ore
 Coke
 Limestone

Iron Ore

The Iron Ore is first mined and then brought to the Blast Furnace. It contains impurities which have to be
removed. Hematite and Magnetite are the most common ores. It takes about two tons of Iron Ore to produce one ton
of iron, but this varies with different types of ores.

Coke

Coke is made by heating soft coal in the absence of air. As Coke is burned in the Blast Furnace it raises the
temperature to about 2000°C which is enough to melt the Iron Ore. The Carbon in the Coke chemically reacts with
the Oxygen in the Iron Ore to form Carbon di oxide (CO 2, and Carbon Monoxide (CO), which escapes through the
Gas Outlet.

Limestone

The Limestone is mined then crushed before being brought to the Blast Furnace. It combines with the
impurities in the Iron Ore to form Slag. A material which removes unwanted materials or cleans another material is
called a Flux.

The Exhaust Gas Outlet

The Exhaust Gas Outlet collects any gaseous emissions from the chemical reactions that are taking place in
the Furnace. As you know Carbon dioxide and Carbon monoxide are not exactly concussive towards healthy living
and so they cannot be let to escape into the atmosphere as they are. Firstly because these gases are hot they are
reused to save energy. They are piped to nearby Stoves in order to heat them. The gases are then 'cleaned' before
being let into the atmosphere.

Charging Bells

You may notice that the Charging Bell system in the above diagram looks more complicated than those you
see in books. The reason is that you are looking at a more accurate representation. You can understand that the
manufacturers of Iron want to conserve as much energy as possible, not to do so would cost money and be mad!
There are in fact two Bells in the system called, the Small Bell and the Large Bell. The Small Bell is filled directly
from the Conveyor System, and when it is close to being full it is opened to allow the Charge drop into the Large
Bell. The Large Bell is then opened when it is nearly full and the Charge can drop into the Furnace. Using this
system greatly reduces the amount of heat that is lost to the atmosphere.

Gas Outlet

The Gas Outlet is simply an array of holes in the Furnace that allows the escaping gases to get to the Exhaust Gas
Outlet.
 41

Melting Iron Ore, Coke and Limestone

At the top of the Furnace the Iron Ore, Coke and Limestone is at a temperature of about 200°C. At this
stage the materials are gone through the pre-heating stage. Close to the middle of the Furnace the temperature has
increased to approximately 480°C, where the raw materials have started to melt. The temperature increases rapidly
to about 2000°C at the bottom of the Furnace where the molten Iron is situated, waiting to be removed.

Tuyers

Strange word tuyers. (It's pronounced "2 ears"!). These are small pipes that permit hot air from the Bustle
Pipe to enter the furnace. The hot air is necessary to keep the temperature in the furnace high. The tuyers are located
all around the Furnace like spokes on the hub of a bicycle wheel. They also have valves so that nothing can escape
from the Furnace. The diagram below shows the relationship between the tuyers, the Bustle Pipe and the Furnace. It
is a view as if you were looking from the top of the Furnace.

Tap hole

The Tap hole is used to draw off the molten Iron at regular intervals of about 5 to 6 hours. You should
notice that the Tap hole is located below the Slag hole. This is because the Slag is lighter than the molten Iron and so
sits on top. The molten Iron leaves the Tap hole and is either poured into moulds called 'Pigs' or sent to other areas
for further refining.

Slag Hole

The Slag hole, which is situated above the Tap hole, because Slag is lighter than molten Iron, is used to
draw off the waste Slag. The Slag is scraped off every 3 or 4 hours and is then used for road beds, fertilizer or
cement.

Bustle Pipe

The Bustle Pipe is a large diameter pipe that circles the base of the Furnace. It carries the hot air from the
Stoves, where the air is heated, to the tuyers which allow the hot air to enter the Blast Furnace.

Refractory Lining

You might ask, that if the Blast Furnace is made from Steel and there is molten Iron inside the Furnace, how come
the Furnace does not melt? That would be a good question, and the answer is quite simple. Inside the Steel shell of
the Furnace there is a layer of Fire Brick called the Refractory Lining. This Refractory Lining reflects the heat back
into the Furnace. You have seen a Refractory Lining before. If you look at the back of a fireplace, (preferably one
that does not have a fire burning in it at the time), you will see a reddish cement. This is Fire Brick and causes the
heat generated by the fire to be reflected back into the room, rather than be absorbed by the wall at the back of the
fireplace.

Conveyor System

The Conveyor System takes the Charge from the area where it is maxed together to the top of the Blast Furnace. The
Charge is carried in Skip Cars which run on a rail track.
 42

Special Casting Processes:

 Casting in sand moulds is economical and gives good results for many applications where
dimensional accuracy and surface finish requirements are not too stringent and the casting wall
thicknesses are not too small.
 There are many applications in which it is desired to achieve better surface finish, finer details,
thinner walls, better strength, and faster production rates or to eliminate further machining.
 Special casting processes have been developed to meet these requirements.
 Some of these special castings are discussed below.
o Shell moulding
o Investment casting
o Centrifugal casting
o Pressure die casting
o Ceramic moulding
o CO2 process
o Stir casting

Shell moulding
Shell mould casting process also known as Croning or C-process makes use of moulds (and cores)
made of relatively thin shells about 6 mm thick for casting.
• The shells are made from clay free silica sand 60-140 AFS fineness mixed with 3 to 10 percent by
weight of phenolic thermosetting resins like phenol formaldehyde or urea formaldehyde.
• The resin may be used in the powder form in the mixture or may be mixed in liquid form and then
dried on the sand grains.
• The mixture should be dry and free flowing.
• Sometimes about 112percent kerosene is added in dry mixtures and mulled to avoid dusting and
loss of binder during operation.

The main steps in the process are the following: (Fig. 1.38)
 43

1. The sand resin mixture is invested on the pattern heated to a temperature of 200 to 400°C for
a period of 15 to 45 seconds. During this period the sand mix around the pattern partially sets
to a thickness of 6 to 15 mm depending on the dwell period and the type of mixture.
2. The unset sand is removed and the partially set shell sticking onto the pattern is cured at a
temperature of 250° to 350°C for a period of 1 to 3 minutes depending on the pattern
intricacy and shell thickness.
3. The cured shell is ejected from the pattern plate using ejector pins on the pattern. To aid in
shell stripping a suitable releasing agent like silicon solution is applied on the heated pattern
before investing the mould mixture.
4. The ejected mould parts are assembled with cores and clamped together for pouring. The
assembled mould may be backed up by sand or shots if required.
5. The investment of the mould mixture is done either by blowing onto the pattern or by
dumping the mixture on the pattern.
6. Blowing is more often used in the manufacture of shell cores and the dumping method in the
manufacture of shell moulds.
7. In the dumping method, the heated pattern plate is placed inverted on a box" filled partially
with the mould mixture.
8. The entire assembly of the pattern plate and the box is inverted to dump the mixture on the
pattern plate.
9. After the dwell period, the box is brought back to the upright position to dump the unset
mixture back into the box.
10. The pattern plate along with the sticking partially set shell is sent in for curing.
11. The steps in the dump method can be easily adapted to mechanization.
12. Modern shell moulding machines have been designed to complete a cycle of investment,
dumping back of unset excess sand, curing and ejection automatically.

Advantages of shell moulding:

• Good surface finish of the order of 3 microns RMS and close dimensional tolerances of the order of ±
0.03 mm per mm.
• Dimensions across parting surfaces can be held to within 0.1 mm per mm.
• The moulds are highly permeable completely eliminating gas problems.
• The resin binder in the mould and core completely burns due to the heat of the poured metal leaving only
loose sand with the casting which is easily cleaned. This simplifies shake out and cleaning operations.
• The process reduces the tendency for section variation in castings compared to green sand moulds.
• It also gives good surface finish and dimensional accuracy reducing machining allowance or eliminating
machining in some cases.
• It is adaptable to mechanization and mass production.

Disadvantages of shell moulding

• High initial cost of the metal pattern plates,
• High cost of the binder
• Limitation of the size of the castings.

The process is used for manufacture of cams, pistons, piston rings, small pulleys, motor housings, fan
blades etc.
 44

Precision Investment Casting Methods:

Lost wax process:
• An age old process for the manufacture of precision castings with smooth surfaces makes use of
disposable patterns of wax or polystyrene plastics.
• Patterns are made by injecting the pattern material in a die using a wax-injection machine.
• The injected patterns are joined together by wax welding or by suitable glue. Gates, runners and risers
are added the same way.
• Several smaller patterns-may be assembled to a common gatting system so that a number of pattern
can be placed in the same mould and poured simultaneously.
• The pattern assembly is sometimes given a primary investment coat of 300 mesh refractory grains
made into a slurry in a suitable binder. The fineness of the grains in this coating determines the
smoothness of the final casting.
• When the primary coat on the pattern is dried sufficiently the mould is invested around the pattern in a
flask. Investment means the layer of refractory materials with which the pattern is covered to make the
mould. Castings are produced by pouring the molten metal in these moulds.
• The injection pressure may vary from 4 to 35 bars depending upon the melting temperature of the
injected material.
• The mould material is slurry of refractory silica with a suitable binder.
• For pouring temperatures upto 1000°C plaster binders may be used but for temperatures beyond
1000°C it is necessary to use a high temperature binder such as ethyl silicate.

Another method of investment used is to

make a shell mould.
• In this method the pattern assembly
is dipped in a series of slurries to
build up a shell 3 to 6 mm thick of
successively coarser grains.
• The invested moulds are allowed to
set for a period of a few minutes to
several hours depending upon the
material.
• The flasks may also be vibrated to
settle the investment material and
drive out the air bubbles from the
pattern surface.
• The moulds are then inverted and
heat is applied to melt out the wax.
• Wax may also be removed by
placing the mould in a solvent
vapour bath such as a
trichloroethylene bath.
• The vapour bath method removes
wax more completely
• Vapour bath method is particularly
suitable for shell type moulds.
• The completed moulds are
preheated to temperatures ranging
from 500 to 1000°C depending
upon the metal to be cast.
• This helps in removing any remaining wax and assures easy flow of the metal poured so that all
cavities are filled properly. Moulds should be poured immediately after being preheated.
• Moulds with high permeability are poured under gravity but low permeability moulds may be poured
under pressure or vacuum.
 45

Mercast process:
In Mercast process or investment casting frozen mercury is used as a pattern material in place of wax.
• Mercury at room temperature is filled in the pattern dies which are then immersed in a bath maintained
at - 60 to - 80°C.
• After the pattern has solidified the parts are joined by contact in a cold air atmosphere at - 60 to 75°C.
• The mercury patterns are then dipped in a series of ceramic baths maintained well below the freezing
temperature of mercury.
• This produces a shell around the pattern.
• After the shell is built up and dried the mercury pattern is melted and flushed out at room temperature.
• The shell moulds are then fired at 1000°C for about 2 hours producing a porous mould resembling
unglazed porcelain with a smooth finish in the cavity.
• The moulds are backed up in a flask with sand or shots and poured under gravity or pressure.

Advantages of investment casting:

• Since in investment-casting process patterns are melted out and not removed in the usual way, there is
no parting line in the moulds and no draft is necessary on patterns. This results in better dimensional
accuracies in castings produced by this method.
• Tolerances of the order of ± 0.05 mm per mm are readily obtained. Closer tolerances of upto ± 0.025
mm / mm can be possible.
• Surface finishes obtained range from 1 to 5 microns RMS.
• No machining operations are necessary in many cases.
• Intricate shapes in practically any ferrous or non-ferrous metal can be cast.
• Small diameter holes can be cast in thin sections.
• The process can also be made automatic.
• However, because of the number of steps involved investment casting usually cannot compete in cost
with sand casting and other casting methods except where very small tolerances and fine finish are
required.
• This process also becomes economical for casting of very high temperature melting alloys and in the
production of complicated shapes that cannot be easily machined.
• The weight of castings made by investment process varies from a few gram to around 2.5 kg although
10 kg castings have been produced.

Disadvantages of investment casting:

• This process is expensive, is usually limited to small casting, and presents some difficulties where
cores are involved.
• Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6mm) and should be no deeper than about 1.5 times the
diameter.
• Investment castings require very long production-cycle times versus other casting processes.
• This process is practically infeasible for high-volume manufacturing, due to its high cost and long
cycle times.

Applications
Typical products include blades and, vanes, slides for cloth-cutting machines, camera and projector
components, fuel parts for aviation carburetors etc.

Centrifugal Casting:

In centrifugal casting process, the molten metal poured at the center of a rotating mold or die. Because of
the centrifugal force, the lighter impurities are crowded towards the center of the case. For producing a hollow part,
the axis of rotation is placed at the center of the desired casting. The speed of rotation is maintained high so as to
produce a centripetal acceleration of the order of 60g to 75g. The centrifuge action segregates the less dense
 46

nonmetallic inclusions near to the center of rotation that can be removed by machining a thin layer. No cores are
therefore required in casting of hollow parts although solid parts can also be cast by this process.
The centrifugal casting is very suitable for axisymmetric parts. Very high strength of the casting can be
obtained. Since the molten metal is fed by the centrifugal action, the need for complex metal feeding system is
eliminated. Both horizontal and vertical centrifugal castings are widely used in the industry. Figure 1.40
schematically shows a set-up for horizontal centrifugal casting process.

Types of centrifugal casting:

Centrifugal casting can be divided into three categories namely
1. True centrifugal casting,
2. Semi centrifugal casting
3. Centrifuging.

True centrifugal casting:

• The true centrifugal method of casting is used to produce hollow castings with a round hole.
• The characteristic feature of this process is that the hole is produced by the centrifugal force alone and
no cores are used.
• The mould is rotated about the axis of the hole with the axis held horizontal, inclined or vertical.
• The outside surface of the job may be round, square, hexagonal etc. and should be symmetrical with
the hole axis.
• The central hole should be round to be formed without cores.
• Long castings like cast iron soil pipes are cast with the moulds rotated about a horizontal axis.
• Castings with relatively short lengths are poured with moulds rotated about an inclined or vertical axis.
• Rotation about the vertical or inclined axis is convenient but the central hole produced will be slightly
paraboloid with smaller diameter at the bottom because the metal has a tendency to settle down due to
gravity.
• Fig. 1.40 gives a schematic diagram for a true centrifugal casting process.
• The speed of rotation for true centrifugal casting should be high enough to hold the metal on to the
mould wall till it solidifies.
• A low speed of rotation would result in raining or slipping of the metal inside the mould.
• Too large a speed of rotation on the other hand may result in internal stresses and possible hot tears.
• A speed which would provide a centrifugal force of 60 to 75 times the force of gravity on horizontal
moulds and 100 times force of gravity for vertical moulds is found to be suitable.
• The moulds used for the process may be metal moulds or refractory or sand lined moulds.
 47

Applications:
Common products produced by true centrifugal casting include pipes, oil engine cylinders, piston ring
stock, gear blank stock, bearing bushes and the like.

Semi centrifugal casting

• In semi-centrifugal casting process no
attempt is made to produce a hole
without a core.
• The centrifugal force resulting from
rotation of the mould is used to properly
feed the casting to produce a close
grained clean casting.
• The process is suitable for large axis-
symmetrical castings like gear blanks,
fly wheels and track wheels.
• Any hole round or otherwise is made
with the use of a core. The mould is
clamped to a turn table with casting axis
along the axis of rotation.
• The metal is poured along or near the
axis to feed the points farthest from the
axis of rotation under pressure.
• If made solid the central portion tends to
be porous and with inclusion which are
removed in subsequent machining.
• Fig. 1.42 shows a typical semi-centrifugal casting setup for the production of track wheels.

Centrifuging:
• Centrifuging or centrifuge casting is
employed to force metal under pressure
into moulds of small castings or
castings not symmetrical about any axis
of rotation.
• The moulds are made around a central
axis of rotation, to balance each other.
• The metal is poured along this axis of
rotation through a central sprue and
made to flow into mould cavities
through radial ingates cut on the mould
interface.
• Centrifuging helps in proper feeding of
castings resulting in clean, close
grained castings.
• Stack moulds can be used to advantage
in centrifuging of castings required in
very large numbers.
• A schematic diagram of a centrifuge
casting set-up with stack moulds is
given in Fig. 1.42.
 48

Ceramic Mould Casting:

• Ceramic mould casting method uses a ceramic slurry prepared by mixing fine grained refractory
powders of Zircon ( Zr SiO4 ), alumina ( Al2 O3 ), fused silica ( Si O2 ) and a patented liquid chemical
binder (alcohol based silicon ester) for making the mould.
• The patterns used are split gated metal patterns usually mounted on a match plate.
• Unlike the patterns in investment casting these patterns are reusable.
• The slurry is applied over the patterns surfaces to form a thin coating around it. The slurry fills up all
cavities and recesses by it and no ramming or vibration of the mould is required.
• The pattern is withdrawn after it sets in about 3 to 5 minutes.
• The mould is removed from the flasks, treated with a hardener to promote chemical stabilization and
transferred to an oven for heating to about 100°C.
• The mould is ready to take molten metal.

The advantages of the process include:

1. High precision and very good surface finish.
2. The process does not require any risering, venting or chilling because the rate of cooling is very
slow.
3. Any patterns made of wood, metal or plastic can be used.
4. The process can be used for all types of metals including highly reactive titanium or uranium.

The method can be used for producing precision parts like dies for drawing, extrusion, casting, forging etc.,
pump impellers, components of nuclear reactors and air craft.

The main short comings of the process are its high cost and the difficulty in controlling dimensional
tolerances across the parting line.

Pressure die casting

The pressure die casting process is the most common for Al, Zn and Mg castings (low melting point). The
liquid metal is injected into the mold under high pressure and allowed to solidify at the high pressure. The solidified
cast is then taken out of the mold or the die which is ready for the next cast. Pressure die casting is suitable for large
batch size production.
Two types of pressure die casting are generally common in the industry –
 High pressure die casting (Hot chamber die casting)
 49

 Low pressure die casting (Cold chamber die casting)

Very high production rates can be achieved in
pressure die casting process with close dimensional
control of the casting. However, the process is not
suitable for casting of high melting temperature materials
as the die material has to withstand the melting (or
superheated) temperature of the casting. Pressure die
castings also contain porosity due to the entrapped air.
Furthermore, the dies in the pressure die casting process
are usually very costly.

Figure 3.2.6 schematically presents the hot-

chamber and the cold-chamber die casting processes. In
the hot-chamber die casting process, the furnace to melt
material is part of the die itself and hence, this process is
suitable primarily for low-melting point temperature
materials such as aluminum, magnesium etc.

Hot-chamber die-casting
In hot chamber die-casting, the metal is
melted in a container attached to the machine, and a
piston is used to inject the liquid metal under high
pressure into the die.

Advantages:
1. High productivity (up to 500 parts per
hour)
2. Close tolerances
3. Good surface finish
Disadvantages:
1. The injection system is submerged in
the molten metal
2. Only simple shapes
Area of application:
Mass production of non-ferrous alloys with very low melting point (zinc, tin, lead)

Cold-chamber die-casting
In cold-chamber die-casting, molten metal is poured into the chamber from an external melting container,
and a piston is used to inject the metal under high pressure into the die cavity.

Advantages:
Same as in hot chamber die-casting, but less productivity.

Disadvantages:
Only simple shapes

Area of application:
Mass production of aluminium and magnesium alloys, and brass
 50

Stir Casting:
Stir casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication in which a dispersed phase (ceramic
particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring. Among the variety of
manufacturing processes available for discontinuous metal matrix composites, stir casting is generally accepted and
currently practiced commercially.

Process
In general, the metal matrix composites of stir casting involves production of molten metal of selected
matrix material followed by the introduction of a reinforcing material in to the molten metal, obtaining a suitable
dispersion through stirring.
Solidification containing suspended particles to obtain the desired distribution of the dispersed phase in the
cast matrix. The schematic diagram of this process is shown in figure 1.46
Particle distribution changes significantly depending on process parameters during the melting and
solidification stages of the process.
The addition of particles to the melt drastically changes the viscosity of the molten metal and this has
implications for casting processes. It is important that solidification occurs before appreciable settling is allowed to
take place.

Benefits:
Simplicity, flexibility and applicability to large scale production.
Able to sustain high productivity due to liquid metallurgy technique.
Cheaper 1/3 to ½ than the other method of special casting process.

Mr. Gnanakumar. G Asst. Professor / Mechanical Panimalar Institute of Technology

 51

CO2 Molding

Introduction: CO2 Casting is a kind of sand casting process. In this process the sand molding mixture is
hardened by blowing gas over the mold. This process is favoured by hobby metal casters because a lot of cost
cutting can be done. In addition, one can be sure of getting dimensionally accurate castings with fine surface finish.
But, this process is not economical than green sand casting process.

Process: The Mold for CO2 Casting is

made of a mixture of sand and liquid silicate
binder which is hardened by passing CO2 gas
over the mold. The equipment of the molding
process includes CO2 cylinder, regulator, hoses
and hand held applicator gun or nozzle. Carbon
di oxide molding delivers great accuracy in
production.
Any existing pattern can be used for the
molding purpose which can be placed in the
mold before the mold is hardened. This method
helps in producing strong mold and cores that
can be used for high end applications. If the
process is carefully executed then casting can be
as precise as produced by the shell casting
method.
Carbon di oxide casting is favored both by the commercial foundry men and hobbyist for a number of
reasons. In commercial operations, foundry men can assure customers of affordable castings which require less
machining. The molding process which can be fully automated is generally used for casting process that require
speed, high production runs and flexibility. In home foundries this is one of the simplest process that improves the
casting quality.

Applications:
CO2 casting process is ideal where speed and flexibility is the prime requirement. Molds and cores of a
varied sizes and shapes can be molded by this process.

Advantages:
This process has many advantages in comparison to other forms of castings some of them are as follows:
a. Compared to other casting methods cores and molds are strong
b. Reduces fuel cost since gas is used instead of to other costly heating generating elements
c. Reduces large requirement for number of mold boxes and core dryers
d. Provides great dimensional tolerance and accuracy in production
e. Moisture is completely eliminated from the molding sand
f. This process can be fully automated.

Mr. Gnanakumar. G Asst. Professor / Mechanical Panimalar Institute of Technology

 52

Casting Defects

Casting defects are classified as below:

Casting Defects

Surface defects Internal Defects Visible Defects

1. Blow 1. Blow holes 1. Wash

2. Scar 2. Porosity 2. Rat tail
3. Blister 3. Pin holes 3. Swell
4. Drop 4. Inclusions dross 4. Mis run
5. Scab 5. Cold shut
6. Penetration 6. Hot tear
7. Buckle 7. shrinkage

Scar
It is usually found on the flat casting surface. It is a shallow blow.
Blow
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal from convex surface.
Blister
This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.

Drop
Sometimes sand particles
dropping out of the cope get
embedded on the top surface of a
casting. When removed, these leave
small angular holes is known as dirts

Penetration
This defect appears as an
uneven and rough external surface of
the casting. It may be caused when the
sand has too high permeability, large
grain size, and low strength. Soft
ramming may also cause metal
penetration.

Buckle
It refers to a long fairly shallow broad depression at the surface of a casting of a high temperature metal.
Due to very high temperature of the molten metal, expansion of the thin layered of the sand at the mold face takes
place. As this expansion is obstructed by the flux, the mold tends to bulge out forming a V shape..

Mr. Gnanakumar. G Asst. Professor / Mechanical Panimalar Institute of Technology

 53

Porosity
Porosity occurs in materials, especially castings, as they change state from liquid to solid during the
manufacturing process. Casting porosity has the form of surface and core imperfections which either effects the
surface finish or as a leak path for gases and liquids.
The poring temperature should be maintained properly to reduce porosity.
Adequate fluxing of metal and controlling the amount of gas-producing materials in the molding and core
making sand mixes can help in minimizing this defect.

Blowhole
Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on the surface of the casting. To prevent
blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well adjusted, sand of proper grain size should be used, ramming
should not be too hard and venting should be adequate.

Dross
The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface is called the dross. It can be taken care of
at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and a skim bob.

Pin holes
Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface.
Inclusions
Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix,

Shrinkage
Shrinkage of molten
metal as it solidifies is an
important issue in casting. It
can reduce the 5-10% volume
of the cast. Need to design part
and mold to take this amount
into consideration. Shrinkage
defect can be reduced by
decreasing the number of walls
and increasing the draft angle.

Wash
It is a low projection
on the drag surface of a casting
commencing near the gate. It is
caused by the erosion of sand
due to high velocity liquid
metal.

Mr. Gnanakumar. G Asst. Professor / Mechanical Panimalar Institute of Technology

 54

Rat tail
It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting. The cause is similar to buckle.

Swell
Swell is the deformation of vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic pressure caused by moisture in the
sand.

Cold Shut and Mis-Run

A cold shut is a defect in which a discontinuity is formed due to the imperfect fusion of two streams of
metal in the mold cavity. The reasons for cold shut or mis-run may be too thin sections and wall thickness, improper
gating system, damaged patterns, slow and intermittent pouring , poor fluidity of metal caused by low pouring
temperature, improper alloy composition, etc.

Hot tear
Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the casting surface, caused by rapid
contraction occurring immediately after the metal solidified. Hot tear may be caused when the mold and core have
poor collapsibility or when the mold is too hard causing the casting to undergo severe strain during cooling.
Incorrect pouring temperature and improper placement of gates and risers can also create hot tears.

Shift
A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually as a parting line. Misalignment is common
cause of shift. This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern for die parts, molding boxes,
and checking of pattern flux locating pins before use.

Mr. Gnanakumar. G Asst. Professor / Mechanical Panimalar Institute of Technology

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UNIT – II
JOINING PROCESSES

SYLLABUS

Operating principle, basic equipment, merits and applications of : Fusion

welding processes : Gas welding - Types – Flame characteristics; Manual
metal arc welding – Gas Tungsten arc welding - Gas metal arc welding –
Submerged arc welding – Electro slag welding; Operating principle and
applications of : Resistance welding - Plasma arc welding – Thermit welding –
Electron beam welding – Friction welding and Friction Stir Welding; Brazing
and soldering; Weld defects: types, causes and cure

Introduction

The process of joining takes place by means of welding, riveting or by fastening nut
and bolts. If a joint can be disassembled then joining method is called temporary
joining method. If the same, cannot be disassembled without breaking it then the
joint is called permanent joint. Normally in welding operation joining of metal pieces
is done by raising their temperature to the fusion point so that they form a sort of
pool of molten metal at the ends to the joined, sometimes, the pool is supplemented
with a filler metal (wire or rod) which normally has almost same compositions as that
of the work pieces. This way the pool forms a homogeneous mixture. It is allowed to
get solidify to have a permanent joint. There is wide diversity in welding technology
so its conventional definition can be modified as ―welding is a technique of joining
similar and dissimilar metals and plastics by adopting ways which do not include
adhesives and fasteners.‖

Selection of type of joints:

a) Type of joint required for an application is temporary or permanent.

b) Whether similar or dissimilar materials are to be joined in order to take care of
the compatibility aspect as metallurgical incompatibility can be disastrous for
performance of the joints
c) Physical, chemical metallurgical properties of materials to be joined.
d) Requirements of the service from the joint under special conditions of
temperature, corrosion, environment, and reliability.
e) Type and nature of loading conditions (static and dynamic loading under
tension, shear, compression, bending etc.)

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f) Economy or cost effectiveness is one most important factors influencing the

selection of joint for manufacturing an engineering component

2.2 CLASSIFIATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

Welding process can be classified into different categories depending upon
the following criteria:
(a) Liquid state welding (Fusion welding)
(b) Solid state welding (Pressure welding)

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Welding process can be also classified as:

Autogeneous : During welding process, no filler metal is added to the joint

interface.
For example: solid welding process and electric resistance
welding
Homogeneous : During welding process, filler metal is added and is of the same
type as the parent metal.
For Example: Arc welding
Heterogeneous : During welding process, filler metal is added and is of a different
type from the parent metal.
Example: Brazing and soldering

Advantages and Limitation of Welding

Advantages of welding are enlisted below:

1. Permanent joint is produced, which becomes an integral part of work piece.
2. Joints can be stronger than the base metal if good quality filler metal is used.
3. Economical method of joining.
4. It is not restricted to the factory environment.

Disadvantages of welding are enlisted also below:

1. Labour cost is high as only skilled welder can produce sound and quality weld
joint.
2. It produces a permanent joint which in turn creates the problem in dissembling
if of sub-component required.
3. Hazardous fumes and vapours are generated during welding. This demands
proper ventilation of welding area.
4. Weld joint itself is considered as a discontinuity owing to variation in its
structure, composition and mechanical properties; therefore welding is not
commonly recommended for critical application where there is a danger of life.

Applications of welding
The welding is widely used for fabrication of pressure vessels, bridges,
building structures, aircraft and space crafts, railway coaches and general
applications besides shipbuilding, automobile, electrical, electronic and defense
industries, laying of pipe lines and railway tracks and nuclear installations.
Specific components need welding for fabrication includes
(a) Transport tankers for transporting oil, water, milk etc.
(b) Welding of tubes and pipes, chains, LPG cylinders and other items.
(c) Fabrication of Steel furniture, gates, doors and door frames, and body

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(d) Manufacturing white goods such as refrigerators, washing machines,

microwave ovens and many other items of general applications

Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc
welding is one of the
fusion welding
processes in which
coalescence of the
metal is achieved by
the heat from an
electric arc between
an electrode and work
piece. A line diagram
indicating the whole
process is shown in
Figure 2.1.
Electric arc is
generated when electrode is brought into contact with the work and is then quickly
separated by a short distance approximately 2 mm. The circuit operates at low
voltage and high current so arc is established in the gap due to thermo ionic
emission from electrode (Cathode) to work piece (Anode). The arc is sustained due
to continuous presence of a thermally ionized column of gas. This arc produces at
temperature of the order of 5500oC or higher. In this way a pool of molten metal
consisting of work piece metal and filler metal is formed in the welding zone. The
electrode is moved along the joint with perpendicular zig-zag motion. The solidified
molten weld pool makes the strong welded joint. Movement of the electrode relative
to work piece is accomplished by either manually or by mechanical means in case of
automatic welding machines. Better uniformity and good quality weldments are
possible in case of automatic welding process.
Arc welding equipments are listed below. The equipments are categorized as
facilitator, consumable and protecting equipments. Some of the equipment of arc
welding is same as that are used in gas welding like flux, protecting devices and
cleaning devices, etc.
Facilitator Equipment Welding
a) Power source (welding machine)
b) Electrode holder
c) Work table

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d) Cables (for connection)

e) Finishing devices like chipping, hammer, wire brush, etc.
Consumable Equipment
a) Electrode
b) Flux
c) Work piece
d) Filler metal
Protecting Equipment
a) Welding shields
b) Goggles
c) Screens
d) Gloves
e) Apron
Arc welding equipments are described below.
a) Power Source
Both AC (Alternative Current) and DC (Direct Current) can be used for
welding. AC machines are recommended for ferrous metal and DC machines are
recommended for other metals for better result. Main constituent of welding machine
is transformer which converts the supply to low voltage and high current. For AC
welding power is required at 80 to 110 volt and 50 to 80 ampere. For sustaining the
established are power factor is kept low. In case of DC welding power is required at
8 to 25 volts and 50 ampere. Polarity is also are significant factor. Two types of
polarities are possible in case of DC welding.
Straight Polarity
Electrode is made negative pole and work piece is made positive pole. It is
also called as electrode negative.
Reversed Polarity
Electrode is made positive pole and work piece is made negative pole. It is
called electrode positive too. As we know that two third of the total heat is generated
at positive pole and only one third at negative pole. Polarity is decided according to
the requirement of heat at either pole.
b) Welding Electrodes
These are also called welding rods. Two types of welding electrodes are
generally used.
1) Consumable electrodes

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2) Non-consumable electrodes.
Consumable electrodes
Consumable electrodes are the source of filler metal in case of arc welding.
Consumable electrodes can further be classified into two categories
a. Coated electrodes
 Light coated electrode
 Heavily coated electrode
b. Bare electrodes.
Light coated electrode
Light coated welding electrodes have a definite composition. A light coating
has been applied on the surface by washing, dipping, brushing, spraying, tumbling,
or wiping. The coatings improve the characteristics of the arc stream. They are listed
under the E45 series in the electrode identification system.
The coating generally serves the functions described below:

 It dissolves or reduces impurities such as oxides, sulfur, and

phosphorus.
 It changes the surface tension of the molten metal so that the globules
of metal leaving the end of the electrode are smaller and more
frequent. This helps make flow of molten metal more uniform.
 It increases the arc stability by introducing materials readily ionized
(i.e., changed into small particles with an electric charge) into the arc
stream.
 Some of the light coatings may produce a slag. The slag is quite thin
and does not act in the same manner as the shielded arc electrode
type slag.

Heavily coated electrode

Heavy coated welding electrodes have a definite composition on which a
coating has been applied by dipping or extrusion. The electrodes are manufactured
in three general types: those with cellulose coatings; those with mineral coatings;
and those whose coatings are combinations of mineral and cellulose. The cellulose
coatings are composed of soluble cotton or other forms of cellulose with small
amounts of potassium, sodium, or titanium, and in some cases added minerals. The
mineral coatings consist of sodium silicate, metallic oxides clay, and other inorganic
substances or combinations thereof. Cellulose coated electrodes protect the molten
metal with a gaseous zone around the arc as well as the weld zone. The mineral

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coated electrode forms a slag deposit. The shielded arc or heavy coated electrodes
are used for welding steels, cast iron, and hard surfacing.
Bare Electrodes
Bare welding electrodes are made of wire compositions required for specific
applications. These electrodes have no coatings other than those required in wire
drawing. These wire drawing coatings have some slight stabilizing effect on the arc
but are otherwise of no consequence. Bare electrodes are used for welding
manganese steel and other purposes where a coated electrode is not required or is
undesirable.
Non-consumable Electrodes
They are made of tungsten or carbon. These do not melt in the process of
welding and so called non-consumable electrodes. Their depletion rate is very low.
In case of non-consumable electrodes metal and flux is supplied additionally.
Generally non-consumable electrodes are used in MIG and TIG welding processes.

Electrode Coding
According to ISI coding system an electrode is specified six digits with a prefix
letter ‗M‗ which is indicative of its suitability for metal arc welding. Explanation of six
digits is given below.

E 70 1 8 -X

E : Indicates that this is an electrode

70 : Indicates how strong this electrode is when welded.

Measured in thousands of pounds per square inch.

1 : Indicates in what welding positions it can be used

8 : Indicates the coating, penetration, and current type used.

X Indicates that there are more requirements.

WELDING POSITIONS

1 : Flat, Horizontal, Vertical (up), Overhead

2 : Flat, Horizontal

4 : Flat, Horizontal, Overhead, Vertical (down)

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ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Suffix Additional Requirement

1 : Increased toughness (impact strength) for E7018 electrodes.

Also increased ductility in E7024 electrodes.

M : Meets most military requirements - greater toughness, lower

moisture content as received after exposure, diffusible
hydrogen limits for weld metal.

-H4 : Indicates the maximum diffusible hydrogen limit measured in

millimeters per 100 grams (mL/100g).

Example: H4 = 4mL per 100 grams

The important functions Electrode coating are as follows:

1. Improve the electric conductivity in the arc region to improve the arc
ignition and stabilization of the arc.
2. Formation of slag, which;
(a) Influences size of droplet.
(b) Protects the droplet during transfer and molten weld pool from
atmospheric gases.
(c) Protects solidified hot metal from atmospheric gases.
(d) Reduces the cooling rate of weld seam.
3. Formation of shielding gas to protect molten metal.
4. Provide deoxidizers like Si and Mn in form of FeSi and FeMn.
5. Alloying with certain elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo to improve weld metal
properties.
6. Improve deposition rate with addition of iron powder in coating.

Various constituents of electrode coating are cellulose, calcium fluoride,

calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, clay, talc, iron oxide, asbestos, potassium /
sodium silicate, iron powder, ferro-maganese, powdered alloys, silica etc. Each
constituent performs either one or more than one functions.

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Electrode metallic core wire is the same but the coating constituents give the
different characteristics to the welds. Based on the coating constituents, structural
steel electrodes can be classified in the following classes;
Cellulosic Electrodes
Coating consists of high cellulosic content more than 30% and TiO2 up to
20%. These are all position electrodes and produce deep penetration because of
extra heat generated during burning of cellulosic materials. However, high spatter
losses are associated with these electrodes.
Rutile Electrodes
Coating consists of TiO2 up to 45% and SiO2 around 20%. These electrodes
are widely used for general work and are called general purpose electrodes.
Acidic Electrodes
Coating consists of iron oxide more than 20%. Sometimes it may be up to
40%, other constituents may be TiO2 10% and CaCO3 10%. Such electrodes
produce self-detaching slag and smooth weld finish and are used normally in flat
position.
Basic Electrodes
Coating consist of CaCO3 around 40% and CaF2 15-20%. These electrodes
normally require baking at temperature of approximately 250°C for 1-2 hours or as
per manufacturer's instructions. Such electrodes produce high quality weld deposits
which has high resistance to cracking. This is because hydrogen is removed from
weld metal by the action of fluorine i.e. forming HF acid as CaF2 generates fluorine
on dissociation in the heat of arc.

Table 2.1: Coating Constituents and Their Functions

Functions
Coating Constituent
Main Functions Other Functions

Cellulose Gas former Coating Strength and

Reducing agent

Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Slag basicity and metal Slag former

fluidity, H2 removal

Clay (Aluminum Slag former Coating strength

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Silicate)

Talc (Magnesium Slag former Arc stabilizer

Silicate)

Rutile (TiO2 ) Arc stabilizer, Slag Slag removal and bead

former, Fluidity appearance

Iron Oxides Fluidity, Slag former Arc Stabilizer, improved

metal transfer,

Calcium Carbonate Gas former, Arc Slag basicity, Slag former

stabilizer

Asbestos Coating strength Slag former

Quartz (SiO2 ) Slag fluidity, Slag former Increase in current

carrying capacity.

Sodium Silicate / Binder, Arc stabilizer Slag former

Potassium Silicate

FeMn / FeSi Deoxidizer

Iron Powder Deposition Rate

Powdered Alloys Alloying

COMPARISON OF AC and DC WELDING MACHINES

Sl.No. Category A.C Transformer D.C.Transformer

1 Efficiency range 80-85% 30-60%

2 Power Less More

consumption

3 Cost Low High

4 Terminal Positive and Positive to work

connection Negative are piece and

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changed Negative to
electrode

5 Operation Noiseless Noisy

6 Safely operation No Yes

7 Work piece Only for ferrous Suitable for

material ferrous and non-
ferrous

8 Electrode Only coated coated and bare

electrode can be electrode can be
used used

9 Maintenance High Low

10 Power factor High Low

GAS WELDING
It is a fusion welding in which strong gas flame is used to generate heat and
raise temperature of metal pieces localized at the place where joint is to be made. In
this welding metal pieces to be joined are heated. The metal thus melted starts
flowing along the edges where joint is to be made. A filler metal may also be added
to the flowing molten metal to fill up the cavity at the edges. The cavity filed with
molten metal is allowed to solidify to get the strong joint. Different combinations of
gases can be used to obtain a heating flame. The popular gas combinations are oxy-
hydrogen mixture, oxygen-acetylene, etc. different mixing proportion of two gases in
a mixture can generate different types of flames with different characteristics.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-acetylene welding can use for welding of wide range of metals and
alloys. Acetylene mixed with oxygen when burnt under a controlled environment
produces large amount of heat giving higher temperature rise. This burning also
produces carbon dioxide which helps in preventing oxidation of metals being welded.
Highest temperature that can be produced by this welding is 3200oC. The chemical
reaction involved in burning of acetylene is

2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

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On the basis of supply pressure of gases oxy-acetylene welding is

categorized as high pressure welding in this system both gases oxygen and
acetylene supplied to welding zone are high pressure from their respective high
pressure cylinders. The other one is low pressure welding in which oxygen is
supplied from high pressure cylinder but acetylene is generated by the action of
water on calcium carbide and supplied at low pressure. In this case high pressure
supply of oxygen pulls acetylene at the welding zone.
A comparison can be drawn between low pressure and high pressure
welding. High pressure welding equipment is handy, supplies pure acetylene at
constant pressure, with better control and low expenses as compared to low
pressure welding.
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene welding process include:

 The use dual oxygen and acetylene gases stored under pressure in
steel cylinders,
 Its ability to switch quickly to a cutting process, by changing the
welding tip to a cutting tip,
 The high temperature the gas mixture attains,
 The use of regulators to control gas flow and reduce pressure on both
the oxygen and acetylene tanks,
 The use of double line rubber hoses to conduct the gas from the tanks
to the torch,
 Melting the materials to be welded together,
 The ability to regulate temperature by adjusting gas flow.

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Gas Welding Equipments

The following equipments are necessary for gas welding
1. Gas cylinders
2. Regulators
3. Pressure gauges
4. Rubber hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Safety goggles
7. Gloves
8. Spark lighter
9. Wire brush

1. Gas Cylinders

Oxygen and acetylene gases are stored in separate cylinders and used for
gas welding. The colour of oxygen cylinder is black and the acetylene gas is stored
in maroon cylinders. Oxygen is stored at a pressure of 125Kg/cm 2. Acetylene gas is
stored at a pressure of 16 Kg/cm2 in the cylinder.

2. Regulators

Separate regulators are fitted on both the cylinders. A regulator is used to

control the working pressure of the gases. The working pressure of oxygen is
1Kg/cm2 and acetylene is 0.15Kg/cm2. Working pressure of these gases is altered
according to the thickness of the metal parts of the joint.

3. Pressure Gauges

Two pressure gauges are fitted each on the oxygen cylinder and on the
acetylene cylinder. One of the pressure gauges indicates the pressure of the cylinder
and the other gauge indicates the working pressure of the specific gas.

4. Hoses

Separate hoses are used to connect the two cylinders with the welding torch
through regulators. The colour of the hose from the oxygen cylinder is black and the
one from the acetylene cylinder is red. These hoses carry the gases to the welding
torch.

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5. Welding Torch

Oxygen and acetylene reach the welding torch through the passages of hoses
from the respective cylinders. These gases are mixed in the mixing chamber of the
welding torch. Flame is produced at the tip of the torch when the gases are ignited.
There are two control valves present in the torch to control the quantity of oxygen
and acetylene. By this control, the grade of the flame can be altered. The size of the
flame is altered to suit the thickness of the metal parts.

6. Welding Gloves

Protective hand gloves are used by the operator to prevent possible damages
that may be caused by high temperatures and metal splashes during welding.

7. Spark Lighter

Spark lighter is used to ignite the oxy-acetylene gas at the tip of the welding
torch.

8. Wire Brush

Wire brushes are useful in cleaning the weld before and after the welding
process.

Filler Rods Used in Gas Welding

Filler rods used in gas welding supply the additional metal in making joints.
These rods are melted by the gas flame and deposited over the parts of the joint.
Generally the filler rods are made of the same metal as that of the parts of the joint.

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The diameter of the filler rod depends upon the thickness of the parts to be
welded. The strength of the welding joint is increased by adding Nickel or Chromium
in filler rods. A thin coat of copper is provided on the filler rods to prevent the molten
metal from reacting with atmospheric oxygen. Flux may be applied either in
powdered form or liquid form.

Advantages of Gas Welding

1. Applied for different classes of work
2. Welding temperature is controlled easily
3. The quantity of filler metal added in the joint can easily be controlled
4. The cost of the welding unit is less
5. The cost of maintenance is less
6. Both welding and cutting can be done

Limitations of Gas Welding

1. Intended for welding thin work pieces only
2. The process of welding is slow
3. The time taken by the gas flame to heat the metal is more when
compared with electric arc
4. The strength of the joint is less
5. Great care should be taken in handling and storing gas cylinders

FLAME FORMATION AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

Flame is established by burning (controlled) of the two gases mixture at the
outlet of blow pipe or torch. The proportion of gasses in the mixture is controlled by
controlling the flow rate of each of the two gasses. Here, it should be clear that
burning of acetylene generates heat and oxygen only supports acetylene in burning.
Insufficient supply of oxygen leaves acetylene un burnt in atmosphere creating
pollution and adding cost of waste acetylene. A general nomenclature of the flame
established in oxy-acetylene welding is given in Figure 2.5. The flame can be divided
in to three zones.

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Zone ‗1‗ is very near to the outlet of torch, where oxygen reacts with acetylene
and burning of two gases takes place.

Zone ‗2‗ produces carbon monoxide and hydrogen in ratio 2 : 1 by 45 volume.

This zone gives the highest temperature of the flame. This zone is supposed to
Welding consume the oxygen available here and contribute reducing properly to the
flame.

Zone ‗3‗ is the outermost zone of the flame. Temperature of this zone is
comparatively low. This zone converts CO to CO2 and H2O vapours. On the basis of
supply proportion of acetylene and oxygen, flames can be divided into three
categories, neutral flame, carburizing flame and oxidizing flame. These are
described here.

Neutral Flame

A neutral flame is obtained when amount of O2 equal and C2H2 are mixed and
burnt at the outlet of welding torch. The flame consists of two sharply defined zones
inner white flame cone outer envelope of blue colour as shown in Figure 2.5. In this
flame none of two gasses is supplied in excess. This flame is of white cone and has
the maximum use for successful welding of many metals.

Carburizing Flame

This flame is obtained when excess of acetylene is supplied than which is

theoretically required. This flame is identified by three zones the inner cone which is
not sharply defined, an outer envelope as same in case of neutral flamed and middle
zone surrounds inner one extended to outer envelope. It is white in colour due to
excess acetylene. Larger the excess of acetylene larger will be its length. To get a

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neutral flame a systematic procedure is to make carburizing flame first and then
increase oxygen supply gradually till the excess acetylene zone disappears. The
resulting flame wills a carburizing flame. Its temperature generation range is 3100oC
to 3300oC. It is used for the welding of metals where risk of oxidation at elevated
temperature is more like aluminium, its alloys and lead and its alloys. The metals
which have tendency to absorb carbon should not be welded by carburizing flame as
they become brittle localized.

Oxidizing Flame

This flame as an excess of oxygen over that required for a neutral flame. The
ratio O2 : C2H2 = 1.15 to 1.50. To have this flame set carburizing flame first convert it
to neutral flame and then reduce the supply of acetylene to get oxidizing flame. Its
inner cone is relatively shorter and excess oxygen turns the flame to light blue
colour. It burns with a harsh sound. It is used for metals which are not oxidized
readily like brasses and bronzes.

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COMPARISON OF ARC WELDING AND GAS WELDING

Sl.No. Arc welding Gas welding

1 Electric arc is the source of Gas is the source of heat.

heat.

2 The arc temperature is about The gas temperature is about

4000 . 3200 .

3 Filler rod functions as Filler rod is introduced

electrodes. separately.

4 Risk due to electric shock. Risk due to gas pressure.

5 Arc welded joints have very Gas welded joints have not
high strength. much strength.

6 Brazing and soldering cannot Brazing and soldering are

be done using electric arc. done using gas.

7 Filler metal should be same as Filler metal need not be same

or an alloy of parent metal. as the parent metal.

8 This is a non-pressure fusion This is also a non-pressure

welding method. fusion welding method.

9 The filler rod metal should be The filler rod metal can be
selected as the same metal as different from that of the parts
that of the parts of the joint. of the joint.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc
welding process in which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten
electrode and work piece. The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by

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an inert gas normally argon and helium. Figures 2.6 show the principle of tungsten
inert gas welding process.

The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of
critical components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat
source provided by the tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the
material. Since the electrode is not consumed during the process, welding without
filler material can be done without the need for continual compromise between the
heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler metal. As the filler metal, when
required, can be added directly to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or
manually, all aspects of the process can be precisely and independently controlled
i.e. the degree of melting of the parent metal is determined by the welding current
with respect to the welding speed, whilst the degree of weld bead reinforcement is
determined by the rate at which the filler wire is added to the weld pool.

In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the shielding gas nozzle. The
arc is ignited by high voltage, high frequency (HF) pulses, or by touching the
electrode to the work piece and withdrawing to initiate the arc at a preset level of
current.

Selection of Electrode

D.C.Welding : 1 or 2 % of thoria
Thoria helps to improve electron emission which facilitates easy
arc ignition

A.C.Welding : Pure tungsten or tungsten-zirconia

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Tungsten electrodes are commonly available from 0.5 mm to 6.4 mm

diameter and 150 - 200 mm length. The current carrying capacity of each size of
electrode depends on whether it is connected to negative or positive terminal of DC
power source. AC is used only in case of welding of aluminum and magnesium and
their alloys.

The capacity to limit the current to the set value is equally crucial when the
electrode is short circuited to the work piece, otherwise excessively high current shall
flow, damaging the electrode. Open circuit voltage of power source ranges from 60
to 80 V.

Shielding Gases

 Argon
 Argon + Hydrogen
 Argon/Helium

Helium is generally added to increase heat input (increase welding speed or

weld penetration). Hydrogen will result in cleaner looking welds and also increase
heat input, however, Hydrogen may promote porosity or hydrogen cracking.

Argon or helium may be used successfully for most applications, with the
possible exception of the welding of extremely thin material for which argon is
essential. Argon generally provides an arc which operates more smoothly and
quietly, is handled more easily and is less penetrating than the arc obtained by the
use of helium. For these reasons argon is usually preferred for most applications,
except where the higher heat and penetration characteristic of helium is required for
welding metals of high heat conductivity in larger thicknesses. Aluminum and copper
are metals of high heat conductivity and are examples of the type of material for
which helium is advantageous in welding relatively thick sections.

Pure argon can be used for welding of structural steels, low alloyed steels,
stainless steels, aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium. Argon hydrogen
mixture is used for welding of some grades of stainless steels and nickel alloys. Pure
helium may be used for aluminum and copper. Helium argon mixtures may be used
for low alloy steels, aluminum and copper.

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Application

TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root pass(es)
during welding of thick pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes
and tubes. This process can be easily mechanised i.e. movement of torch and
feeding of filler wire, so it can be used for precision welding in nuclear, aircraft,
chemical, petroleum, automobile and space craft industries. Aircraft frames and its
skin, rocket body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding is very
popular.

Benefits

 Superior quality welds

 Welds can be made with or without filler metal
 Precise control of welding variables (heat)
 Free of spatter
 Low distortion

Limitations

 Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick welding

 Lower deposition rates
 More costly for welding thick sections

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (MIG WELDING)

This process also known as Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc (SIGMA) welding,
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding or Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) uses a shielded
arc struck between a bare metal electrode and the work piece. The metal electrode
is provided in the form of a wire reel.

This process is based on the principle of developing weld by melting faying

surfaces of the base metal using heat produced by a welding arc established
between base metal and a consumable electrode. Welding arc and weld pool are
well protected by a jet of shielding inactive gas coming out of the nozzle and forming
a shroud around the arc and weld. MIG and TIG welding is primarily attributed to the
variation in effectiveness of shielding gas to protect the weld pool in case of above
two processes. Effectiveness of shielding in two processes is mainly determined by

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two characteristics of the welding arc namely stability of the welding arc and length
of arc besides other welding related parameters such as type of shielding gas, flow
rate of shielding gas, distance between nozzle and work-price. Consumption of the
electrode during welding slightly decreases the stability of the arc.

Metal inert gas process is similar to TIG welding except that it uses the
automatically fed consumable electrode therefore it offers high deposition rate and
so it suits for good quality weld joints required for industrial fabrication (Fig. 17.1).
Consumable electrode is fed automatically while torch is controlled either manual or
automatically. Therefore, this process is found more suitable for welding of
comparatively thicker plates of reactive metals (Al, Mg, Stainless steel). The quality
of weld joints of these metals otherwise is adversely affected by atmospheric gases
at high temperature.

Characteristics of the MIG welding process

 Uses a consumable wire electrode during the welding process that is

fed from a spool,
 Provides a uniform weld bead,
 Produces a slag-free weld bead,

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 Uses a shielding gas, usually – argon, argon - 1 to 5% oxygen, argon -

3 to 25% CO2 and a combination argon/helium gas,
 Is considered a semi-automatic welding process,
 Allows welding in all positions,
 Requires less operator skill than TIG welding,
 Allows long welds to be made without starts or stops,
 Needs little cleanup.

Shielding Gas

The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc on the metal being
welded, shields the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer of metal
from the weld wire to the molten weld pool.

The primary shielding gasses used are:

 Argon
 Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen
 Argon - 3 to 25% CO2
 Argon/Helium

CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG welding processes. However,
in some applications the presence of CO2 in the shielding gas may adversely affect
the mechanical properties of the weld.

Benefits

 All position capability

 Higher deposition rates than SMAW
 Less operator skill required
 Long welds can be made without starts and stops
 Minimal post weld cleaning is required
 MIG weld is not considered as clean as TIG weld
 The MIG arc is relatively longer and less stable than TIG arc

MIG Welding Problems

 Heavily oxidized weld deposit

 Irregular wire feed

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 Burn back
 Porosity
 Unstable arc
 Difficult arc starting

Comparison on TIG welding and MIG welding

Sl.No. TIG Welding MIG Welding

1 Suitable to weld any metal. Suitable to weld on Non-ferrous
metal
2 Argon gas is used as primary Argon gas is used as primary
shielding gas, Helium is shielding gas, Argon mixture with
Occasionally use. CO2 is frequently used for
dissimilar metal
3 Due to usage of non-consumable Filler metal is act as electrode
electrode, filler material is
separately added
4 Difficult in operation Simple and easy of operation
5 Suitable to operate on A.C. and It is operate on D.C. supply only
D.C. supply

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that uses a

continuous, consumable bare wire electrode. The arc shielding is provided by a
cover of granular flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride
and other compounds. The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity

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flow through a nozzle. The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal.
The electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc. The flux is introduced
into the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity from a hopper, as shown in the
figure.

The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the arc welding operation,
preventing sparks, spatter and radiation that are so hazardous in other arc welding
processes. The portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted, mixing with the molten
weld metal to remove impurities and then solidifying on top of the weld joint to form a
glasslike slag. The slag and infused flux granules on top provide good protection
from the atmosphere and good thermal insulation for the weld area. This result in
relatively slow cooling and a high-quality weld joint. The infused flux remaining after
welding can be recovered and reused. The solid slag covering the weld must be
chipped away usually by manual means. This process is widely used for automated
welding of structural shapes, longitudinal and circumferential seams for large-
diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels. Because of the gravity feed of the
granular flux, the parts must always be in a horizontal orientation.

The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm in

diameter, consumable electrode is fed automatically through a tube. Electric currents
typically range from 300 to 2000A. The power supplies usually are connected to
standard single-phase or three-phase power lines with a primary rating up to 440V.

Characteristics of submerged-arc welding

 The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity through a
nozzle
 Prevents spatter and sparks;
 Suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes characteristics
of the SMAW.
 It acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat into
the work piece.
 The unused flux can be recovered, treated and reused.

Applications:

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The weld made by Submerged-arc welding have high strength and ductility
with low Hydrogen and Nitrogen content. It is suitable for welding low alloy steel,
high tensile steel, LC and MC steels, high resisting steel, corrosion resistant steel,
high strength steel and many of non-ferrous alloys.

Advantages:

 Smooth welds of high strength and ductility with low H2 and N2

content.
 Because of high current, high metal deposition, high welding speeds
and good penetration are achieved.
 Due to high speeds less distortion will occur.
 Elimination of fumes and spatter.
 Absence of visible arc and ease of penetration.

Limitations:

 During welding process arc is not visible, judging the welding progress
is difficult and so tools like jigs, fixtures and guides are required.
 Pre-placing of flux may not always possible.
 This welding process is limited to flat position.
 Flux is subjected to contamination that may cause weld porosity.
 Chlorine, Aluminium, Magnesium, Lead, Zinc cannot be welded.

ELECTROSLAG WELDING
Electro slag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by
an electric current passing between the consumable electrode (filler metal) and the
work piece through a molten slag covering the weld surface.

Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a welding
flux. Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the work
piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and
forms molten slag. The slag, having low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid
state due to heat produced by the electric current.

The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This temperature

is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges. Metal

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droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces. The weld pool is contained
within this space and—due to contact with the copper blocks—it cools, solidifies, and
is shaped. Electro-Slag welds are started and finished on run-off plates. This is
known as starting or finishing tabs—they improve the quality of the weld metal.

Circumferential seams can be welded by the electro-slag process, using

special devices to overcome the difficulty of joining the start and finish of a weld. The
bead on the reverse side can be moulded by a water-cooled copper chill-ring, a
permanent steel-ring, or a travelling shoe. Pieces of variable cross-sections can be
electro-slag welded using consumable electrode guides.

An A.C. or D.C.
power source in the
range 300-800 amps is
suitable, as used for
automatic and MMA
processes.

Electroslag
welding is capable of
welding plates with
thicknesses ranging
from 50 mm to more
than 900 mm and
welding is done in one
pass. The current
required is about 600 A
at 40 to 50 Volts
although higher
currents are used for
thick plates. The travel
speed of the weld is in
the range from 12 to 36 mm/min. Weld quality is high. This process is used for large
structural-steel sections, such as heavy machinery, bridges, ships and nuclear-
reactor vessels.

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Advantages:

 High deposition rate - up to 20 kg/h

 Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
 Low distortion;
 Unlimited thickness of work piece.

Disadvantages

 Coarse grain structure of the weld;

 Low toughness of the weld;
 Only vertical position is possible.

RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance Welding is a welding process in which work pieces are welded

due to a combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated
by a high electric current flowing through the contact area of the weld.

Different metals and alloys such as low carbon steels, aluminium alloys, alloy
steels, medium carbon and high carbon steels can be welded by resistance welding.
However, for high carbon contained steels, the weld bed can be harder (less brittle).

Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks,
and domestic radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine
blades, railway tracks.

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Required heat is generated at the junction due to flowing current through it

and resistance offered. The amount of heat generated is

𝐻 = i2𝑅𝑡

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝐻 = 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐i

= 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 f𝑙𝑜𝑤i𝑛𝑔

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠i𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜f j𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡i𝑜𝑛

𝑡 = 𝑡i𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 f𝑜𝑟 f𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜f 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

Principle of resistance welding can be explained with the help of diagram

shown in Figure. It consists of work piece to be welded, two opposing electrodes a
mechanism to apply pressure to squeeze the work pieces, AC power supply to
maintain the current, and a circuit breaker with times to stop the flowing current after
a preset time.

Heat produced by the current is sufficient for local melting of the work piece at
the contact point and formation of small weld pool (‖nugget‖). The molten metal is
then solidifies under a pressure and joins the pieces.

Advantages:

 High welding rates;

 Low fumes;
 Cost effectiveness;
 Easy automation;
 No filler materials are required;
 Low distortions.

Disadvantages:

 High equipment cost;

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 Low strength of discontinuous welds;

 Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 6 mm

TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

 Butt welding
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Projection welding
 Percussion
 Stud welding

BUTT WELDING

Resistance butt welding is the simplest form of a group of resistance welding

processes that involve the joining of two or more metal parts together in a localised
area by the application of heat and pressure. The heat is generated within the
material being joined by resistance to the passage of a high current through the
metal parts, which are held under a pre-set pressure.

The process is used predominantly to make butt joints in wires and rods up to
about 16mm diameter, including small diameter chain. The faces of the pieces to be
joined may be flat and parallel or profiled in the case of larger sections. This reduces
the initial contact area and further concentrates the heating at the interface. The
components are clamped in opposing copper dies, with a small amount of stick-out,
and abutted under pressure. Current is passed between the dies causing resistance
heating of the weld area. The heat generated during welding depends on the current,
the duration of the current, and the resistance. As the resistance is highest at the
joint interface, heating is most intense in this area. When the material softens, it
deforms under the applied load, giving a solid phase forge weld. No melting occurs.
The current is terminated once a pre-set upset length has occurred, or the duration
of the current is pre-set.

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The joint is then allowed to cool slightly under pressure, before the clamps are
opened to release the welded component. The weld upset may be left in place or
removed, by shearing while still hot or by grinding, depending on the requirements.

Benefits

 Resistance butt welding is a high speed,

 It is clean process
 It is preferred to flash welding for many small components.

Drawbacks

There are some limitations on component size and geometry:

 Very thin or large sections are unsuitable.

 The risk of crushing fingers or hands
 Burns or eye damage from splash metal.

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SPOT WELDING

Spot welding is one of the oldest welding processes. It can be used on very
thin foils or thick sections but is rarely used above about 6mm thickness. It is used in
a wide range of industries but notably for the assembly of sheet steel vehicle bodies.
High quality welds can also be made in stainless steels, nickel alloys, aluminium
alloys and titanium for aerospace application.

Spot welding is one of a group of resistance welding processes that involve

the joining of two or more metal parts together in a localised area by the application
of heat and pressure. The heat is generated within the material being joined by the
resistance to the passage of a high current through the metal parts, which are held
under a pre-set pressure.

The process is used for joining sheet materials and uses shaped copper alloy
electrodes to apply pressure and convey the electrical current through the work
pieces. Heat is developed mainly at the interface between two sheets, eventually
causing the material being welded to melt, forming a molten pool, the weld nugget.
The molten pool is contained by the pressure applied by the electrode tip and the
surrounding solid metal.

Benefits

Spot welding offers a number of advantages over other techniques, including

high speed, ease of automation and energy efficiency.

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Drawbacks:

There are some limitations on material weldability but attention to correct

setting up and good process control can solve most production problems. The main
hazards are (i) the risk of crushing fingers or hands and (ii) burns or eye damage
from splash metal. Little fume is produced but may need attention when welding
coated steels or when oils or organic materials are present.

SEAM WELDING

In Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW), the electrodes are two rotating wheels
as shown in the figure:

In the process of welding, a series of overlapping spot welds is made along

the lap joint. The process is capable of producing airtight joints, and its industrial
applications include the production of gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers, and
various others fabricated sheet-metal containers.

The spacing between the weld nuggets in resistance seam welding depends
on the motion of the electrode wheels relative to the application of the weld current.
In the usual method of operation, called continuous motion welding, the wheel is
rotated continuously at a constant velocity, and current is turned on at timing
intervals consistent with the desired spacing between spot welds along the seam so
that overlapping weld spots are produced. But if the frequency of current switching is
reduced sufficiently, there will be spacing between the weld spots, and this method is

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termed roll spot welding. In another variation, the welding current remains on at a
constant level so that a truly continuous welding seam is produced. These variations
are depicted in the figure: Since the operation is usually carried out continuously,
rather than discretely, the seams should be along a straight or uniformly curved line.
Sharp comers and similar discontinuities should be avoided.

Advantages

 Gas tight as well as liquid tight joints can be made.

 The Overlap is less than spot or projection welding.
 The production of single seam weld and parallel seams can be got
simultaneously.

Disadvantages

 The welding process is restricted to a straight line or uniformly curved

line.
 The metals sheets having thickness more than 3mm can cause
problems while welding.
 The design of the electrodes may be needed to change to weld metal
sheets having obstructions.

Applications of RSEW

 Girth weld is possible in rectangular or square or even in circular

shapes.
 Most of the metals can be welded (Except copper and some high
percentage copper alloys)
 Butt welding can be done.

PROJECTION WELDING

In resistance projection welding (RPW), small projections are formed on one

or both pieces of the base metal to obtain contact at a point which localize
the current flow and concentrate the heat. Under pressure, the heated and softened
projections collapse and a weld is formed. Projection on the upper component is

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pressed against the lower component by electrode force. The projection collapses
and a fused weld nugget are formed with the application of current. This technique is
of special value in mounting attachments to surfaces of which the back side is
inaccessible to a welding operator.

Types of Projection Designs

There are typically three types of projection designs which are used for
projection welding:

1) Embossed Projections
2) Stud-to-Plate Projections
3) Annular Projections

Advantages

 Simultaneous operation can be done i.e. more than one welds can be
made.
 Projection welding has this advantage that it can weld metals of
thickness which is not suitable for spot welding.

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 Projection welding electrodes have a longer life when compared to spot

welding electrodes.
 Resistance projection welding is not limited to sheet to sheet joints.
 Projection welding can be done in specific points which are desired to
be welded.
 In difficult welding work projection welding gives a better heat balance.
 Projection welding saves electricity because it needs less current to
produce heat. So it reduces the shrinkage and distortion defects.

Disadvantages

 All types of metals cannot be welded using projection method. Metal

thickness and composition is a big question.
 All the metals are not strong enough to support the projections. Some
brasses and coppers cannot be welded satisfactorily using projection
welding.
 There is an extra operation which is called forming of projection.
 Projections need to have same heights for a appropriate welding.

Applications

 Resistance Projection welding is used in Automobile sector.

 Projection welding is used in refrigeration works ( mass production
of condensers, gratings, racks etc.)

PERCUSSION WELDING

Percussion welding is a variation or version of resistance welding, which is

characterized by extremely short welding times and high welding currents. During
this procedure, a joint is produced by a rapidly ignited arc and by the force which is
generated by an electromagnet. Since only one 50 Hz half wave is used for the
actual welding process, the welding time is always in the range of about 10
milliseconds. The weld current can reach values of about 100 kA.

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The short welding time and the high welding current allow the combination of
materials with high electrical and thermal conductivity. Also, large cross-section and
thickness differences in the work pieces to be welded are no problem.

Process steps in Percussion Welding

1) The two materials to be welded are positioned with a preset air gap
between them
2) A burst of RF energy ionizes the air gap.
3) Capacitor banks discharge, creating an arc that heats the two materials
to a weldable temperature.
4) When the materials reach the proper welding state, electromagnetic
actuators accelerate them together. The molten masses combine,
metal to metal, and are forged together. As the weld cools, a complete
alloy bond is formed.

In addition to the materials that can be processed on conventional resistance

welding machines, the method is particularly suitable for the following combinations
of materials and applications:

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 Copper, tungsten, silver, molybdenum, nickel and their alloys

 Work pieces produced by powder metallurgy
 High-melting materials for high-voltage switchgear and control gear as
well as power and heavy-duty switching devices

The components frequently used in power and high power switching devices
in the field of electrical engineering can be made without the use of solder, flux or
other welding and soldering consumables.

The main features of the method are

 The short welding time results in a very narrow heat affected zone
 A joint is created which is free from weld upset and nearly free from
spatter
 Since the parts do not distort during the welding process and since
there is nearly no material loss, minimum post weld machining or
dressing is required, only.

STUD WELDING

Stud welding is an economical, rapid fixing method of metals used both in

engineering and construction work in heavy sections. Stud means a protecting know-
pin or a large-headed nails which can apply the fixing or fastening method of a
variety of shapes and diameters to the parent plate.

The studs may be of circular or rectangular cross-section, plain or threaded

(internally or externally) and vary from heavy support pins to clips or attachments
used in component assembly.

Types of Stud welding:

(1) Drawn arc; and

(2) Capacitor discharge.

The Drawn arc method is generally used for heavier studs and plates. The
Capacitor discharge method is for light gauge sheets. The operation depends upon
the size, shape, and material of the stud and the composition and thickness of the
metal parts.

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Drawn arc process is used in both engineering and heavy construction work.
The equipment consists of a D.C. power source controller and a hand-operated gun
or holder. The hand-operated gun has an operating solenoid and return-spring within
the gun-body which carries the operating adjustment switch. Studs are fluxed on the
contact end, which is slightly pointed, and are supplied with ferrules. To operate the
equipment, the welding current and time for the diameter of the stud are selected,

the stud is loaded into the proper chuck, the legs adjusted for length and the stud
positioned on the plate. When the gun switch is pressed a low current flows between
the pointed stud end and the work-piece and immediately the stud is raised, drawing
an arc and ionizing the gap.

Studs from 3.3-20 mm and above in diameter can be used on the plate thicker
than 1.6 mm and above. The rate of welding varies with the type of work, jigging,
location, etc. In circular and rectangular cross-section for engineering and
construction industries the weld can be made in mild steel, austenitic stainless steel,
aluminium, and its alloys, etc.

In the capacitor process, a small projection on the end of the stud makes
contact with the work-piece and the energy from a bank of charged capacitors is
discharged across the contact. This melts the stud projection and produces a molten

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end of the stud and a shallow molten pool in the base metal. This completes the
work-piece under controlled spring pressure.

Advantages:

 Fast attachment.
 No reverse marking.
 The welded joint is stronger than the parent material or the stud.
 Access is only required from one side.
 No holes hence no leaking or weakening of the sheet.
 Tamper proof.
 Pre-coated or painted material can be welded

Disadvantages

 It lacks the near-instant speed that the CD stud welding process offers.
This factor could serve as a drawback for arc stud welding, resulting in
a slight effect on productivity in certain fast-paced projects.
 Arc stud welds aren‗t ideal for use on thin metals,
 The amount of heat and current could leave behind discoloration on
thinner work pieces.
 It is not suitable for smaller length of fasteners

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

It is a fusion welding process wherein the coalescence is produced by heating

the work with a constricted arc established between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and work piece or between a non-consumable electrode and constricted
nozzle. The shielding of the weld pool is obtained by the hot ionized gas produced by
passing inert gas through the arc and constricted nozzle. Filler material may or may
not be applied.

Principles of Operation:

In the PAW process, the work piece is cleaned and edges are prepared. An
arc is established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and work piece or
between a non-consumable electrode and constricted nozzle. An inert gas is passed
through the inner orifice surrounding the tungsten electrode and subsequently the

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gas is ionized and conducts electricity. This state of ionized gas is known as plasma.
The plasma arc is allowed to pass through the constricted nozzle causing high
energy and current density. Subsequently high concentrate heat and very high
temperatures are reached. The low flow rate (0.25 to 5 l/min) of the orifice gas is
maintained as excessive flow rate may cause turbulence in the weld pool. However
the orifice gas at this flow rate is insufficient to shield the weld pool effectively.
Therefore inert gas at higher flow rate (10- 30 l/min) is required to pass through outer
gas nozzle surrounding the inner gas nozzle to protect the weld pool. A typical
manual torch used in PAW is as shown in Fig. 4.5.2.

Plasma arc welding is of two types:

1) Non-transferred plasma arc welding process and

2) Transferred arc welding process.

In the former, the arc is established between the electrode and the nozzle and
in the latter process the arc is established between the electrode and the work piece.
The differences between these two processes are presented in the Table 2.1.

Operation:

In this process, arc cannot be initiated by touching the work piece as

electrode is recessed in the inner constricted nozzle. Therefore, a low current pilot
arc established in the constricted inner nozzle ad electrode. The pilot arc is generally
initiated by the use of high frequency. AC or high voltage DC pulse superimposed on
the main welding current. It cause the ionization of the orifice gas and high
temperature which contributes to easy initiation of the main arc between the
electrode and the work piece. After the initiation of the main arc, the pilot arc may be
extinguished. This is followed by adding the filler material as in TIC welding process.
Next, the welding torch is moved manually or automatically in the direction of
welding. There are two techniques

1) Key hole technique

2) Non key hole techniques

In the key hole technique, due to constricted arc, high temperature and high
gas flow, small weld pool with high penetration (up to 100%) width is obtained,
resulting in complete melting of the base material beneath the arc. As the arc move
forward, the material is melted and fills the hole produced due to arc force. The

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power supply and gas flow rate are turned off once the key hole is filled appropriately
in the end of welding. The work piece is suitably cleaned after cooling

Table 2.1: Difference between the transferred and non-transferred arc welding
processes

Sl.No. Transferred plasma arc welding Non-transferred plasma arc

welding

1 Arc is established between Arc is established between

electrode and Work piece electrode and nozzle.

2 The work piece is part of the The work piece is not part of the
electrical circuit and heat is electrical circuit and heat is
obtained from the anode spot and obtained from the plasma jet.
the plasma jet. Therefore, higher Therefore, less energy is
amount of energy is transferred to transferred to work. This is useful
work. This is useful for welding. in cutting.

3 Higher penetration is obtained, so Less penetration is obtained, so

thicker sheets can be welded. thin sheets can be welded.

4 Higher process efficiency Less process efficiency.

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Equipment and Consumables:

Power source: A conventional DC current power supply with drooping V-I

characteristics is required. Both rectifier or generator type power source may be
used; however, rectifier type power source is preferred. The general range of the
open-circuit voltage and current is 60-80V and 50-300A respectively.

Plasma torch: It consists of non consumable tungsten electrode, inner nozzle

(constricting nozzle) and outer gas nozzle. The torch is water cooled to avoid heating
of the nozzle. It is of two types: transferred arc and non transferred arc welding torch.

Filler material and shielding gases: Filler material used in this process is
the same as those used in the TIG and MIG welding processes. The selection of the
gases depends upon the martial to be welded. The orifice gas must be an inert gas
to avoid contamination of the electrode material. Active gas can be used for shielding
provided it does not affect the weld quality. In general, the orifice gas is the same as
the shielding gas.

Applications of PAW:

This process is comparatively new and hence the potential of the process is
yet to be understood/ accepted. This process can be used to join all the materials
those can be welded by welding TIG process. Present applications of the process
include:

 Piping and tubing of stainless and titanium,

 Submarine, aeronautical industry and jet engine manufacturing,
 Electronic components.

Advantages of PAW:

 Welding speed is higher.

 Penetration is more.
 Higher arc stability.
 The distance between torch and work piece does not affect heat
concentration on the work up to some extent.

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 Addition of filler material is easier than that of TIG welding process.

 Thicker job can be welded.
 Higher depth to width ratio is obtained resulting in less distortion.

Disadvantages of PAW:

 Higher radiations.
 Noise during welding.
 Process is complicated and requires skilled manpower.
 Gas consumption is high.
 Higher equipment and running cost.
 Higher open circuit voltage requiring higher safety measures to
take.

ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion welding in which coalescence is

produced by heating the work piece due to impingement of the concentrated electron
beam of high kinetic energy on the work piece. As the electron beam impinges the
work piece, kinetic energy of the electron beams converts into thermal energy
resulting in melting and even evaporation of the work material.

Principles:

In general, electron beam welding process is carried out in vacuum. In this

process, electrons are emitted from the heated filament called electrode. These
electrons are accelerated by applying high potential difference (30 kV to 175 kV)
between cathode and anode. The higher the potential difference, the higher would
be the acceleration of the electrons. The electrons get the speed in the range of
50,000 to 200,000 km/s. The electron beam is focused by means of electromagnetic
lenses. When this high kinetic energy electron beam strikes on the work piece, high
heat is generated on the work piece resulting in melting of the work material. Molten
metal fills into the gap between parts to be joined and subsequently it gets solidified
and forms the weld joint.

Equipment:

An Electron Beam Welding set up consists of the following major equipment:

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1) Electron gun,
2) Power supply,
3) Vacuum Chamber, and
4) Work piece handling device

Electron Gun: An electron gun generates, accelerates and aligns the electron beam
in required direction and spots on the work piece. The gun is of two types:

(1) Self-accelerated
(2) Work accelerated.

The work accelerated gun accelerates the electron by providing potential

difference between the work piece and cathode. In the self-accelerate gun, electrons
are accelerated by applying potential difference between the cathode and the anode.
The anode and cathode are enclosed within the gun itself. The control of electron
density is better in this type of electron gun. A schematic diagram of an Electron
Beam Welding is shown in figure. The major parts of a gun are briefly introduced in
the following section.

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Emitter / Filament:

It generates the electron on direct or indirect heating.

Anode:

It is a positively charged element near cathode, across which the high voltage
is applied to accelerate the electrons. The potential difference for high voltage
equipment ranges from 70-150 kV and for low voltage equipment from 15-30kV.

Grid cup:

Grid cup is a part of triode type electron gun. A negative voltage with respect
to cathode is applied to the grid. The grid controls the beam.

Focusing unit:

It has two parts: Electron focusing lens and deflection coil. Electron focusing
lens focuses the beam into work area. The focusing of the electrons can be carried
out by deflection of beams. The electromagnetic lens contains a coil encased in iron.
As the electrons enter into the magnetic field, the electron beam path is rotated and
refracted into a convergent beam. The extent of spread of the beam can be
controlled by controlling the amount of DC voltage applied across the deflection
plates.

Electron gun power supply:

It consists of mainly the high voltage DC power supply source, emitter power
supply source, electromagnetic lens and deflection coil source. In the high voltage
DC power supply source the required load varies within 3-100 kW. It provides power
supply for acceleration of the electrons. The current level ranges from 50-1000 mA.

In emitter power supply, AC or DC current is required to heat the filament for

emission of electrons. However DC current is preferred as it affects the direction of
the beam. The amount of current depends upon the diameter and type of the
filament. The current and voltage varies from 25-70 A and 5-30 V respectively. The

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power to the electromagnetic lens and deflection coil is supplied through a solid state
device.

Vacuum Chamber:

In the vacuum chamber pressure is reduced by the vacuum pump. It consists

of a roughing mechanical pump and a diffusion pump. The pressure ranges from 100
kPa for open atmosphere to 0.13-13 Pa for partial vacuum and 0.13-133 mPa for
hard vacuum. As the extent of vacuum increases, the scattering of the electrons in
the beam increases. It causes the increase in penetration.

Work Piece Handling Device:

Quality and precision of the weld profile depends upon the accuracy of the
movement of work piece. There is also provision for the movement of the work piece
to control the welding speed. The movements of the work piece are easily adaptable
to computer numerical control.

Advantages of EBW:

 High penetration to width can be obtained, which is difficult with other

welding processes.
 High welding speed is obtained.
 Material of high melting temperature can be welded.
 Superior weld quality due to welding in vacuum.
 High precision of the welding is obtained.
 Distortion is less due to less heat affected zone.
 Dissimilar materials can be welded.
 Low operating cost.
 Cleaning cost is negligible.
 Reactive materials like beryllium, titanium etc. can be welded.
 Materials of high melting point like columbium, tungsten etc. can be
welded.

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 Inaccessible joints can be made.

 Very wide range of sheet thickness can be joined (0.025 mm to 100
mm)

Disadvantages of EBW:

 Very high equipment cost.

 High vacuum is required.
 High safety measures are required.
 Large jobs are difficult to weld.
 Skilled man power is required

Applications of EBW:

a. Electron beam welding process is mostly used in joining of refractive

materials like columbium, tungsten, ceramic etc. which are used in
missiles.
b. In space shuttle applications wherein reactive materials like beryllium,
zirconium, titanium etc. are used.
c. In high precession welding for electronic components, nuclear fuel
elements, special alloy jet engine components and pressure vessels for
rocket plants.
d. Dissimilar material can be welded like invar with stainless steel.

THERMIT WELDING

The energy in the form of heat is liberated by a chemical reaction the reaction
is called ―Exothermic‖ — which is the chemical reaction of Thermit welding.

Thermit is a chemical process welding which was previously termed ―Alumino

-Thermit‖ because the chemical mixture was of iron oxide and powdered aluminium.
Aluminium is a strong reducing agent—it combines with the oxygen from the iron
oxide, reducing it to iron.

The Thermit consists of about five parts of aluminium to eight parts of iron
oxide. If this mixture is placed in a fireclay crucible and ignited by means of a special

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powder, the action starts and continues throughout the mass of the mixture, giving
out great heat.

The intense heat that results due to the chemical action not only melts the iron
but raises the temperature to about 3,000°C. The high temperature of the iron results
in excellent fusion of the parts to be welded. Good steel scrap, or a small percentage
of manganese or other alloying elements may be added, thereby producing a good
quality Thermit steel.

Fe2O3 + 2 Al 2 Fe + Al2O3

3Cu2O + 2 Al 6 Cu + Al2O3

Preparation of the Weld:

1. The edges of the work piece are cut flat and cleaned to remove dirt, grease
and other impurities to obtain a sound weld. A gap of about 1.5-6mm is left
between the edges of the two work pieces.

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2. A wax heated to its plastic state is poured in the gap between the work pieces
to be joined and allowed to solidify. Excess wax solidified around the joint is
removed.
3. A mould box is placed around the joint and packed with sand providing
necessary gates and risers. A hole or heating gate is made in the mould
connecting to the joint.
4. The wax material is melted out by means of flame directed into the heating
gate, so that it leaves a cavity at the joint which will later be occupied by the
molten metal. The heating gate is then closed with a sand core or iron plug.
5. Exothermic reaction occurs to form molten iron and slag which floats at the
top. The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 3000°C.
The plug at the bottom of the crucible is opened and the molten metal is
poured into the cavity. The molten metal acts as a filler metal, melts the edges
of the joint and fuses to form a weld.
6. After the weld joint cools and solidifies, the mould is broken, risers are cut and
the joint is finished by machining and grinding.

Fig. 2.11 illustrates the weld process.

Types of Thermit welding

1. Wabbler Thermit
2. Plain Thermit
3. Cast iron Thermit
4. Forging Thermit

Wabbler Thermit

Wabbler thermit which is particularly alloyed to make a solid, wear resistant,

Machinable Steel use for produce rolls and pinions within rolling mills.

Plain Thermit

Plain Thermit is a combination of Aluminium with Iron Oxide and is the base
for every other Thermits

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Cast Iron Thermit:

Beside by Ferro-Silicon, Plain Thermit with Mild Steel are add as a

combination and is use for welding iron works

Forging Thermit

Beside by Nickel, Manganese, Plain Thermit with mild steel are other as a
mixture and is use for welding iron works.

Advantages:

 Intended for finish welding of strengthens bars to be use in concrete

construction.
 For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls with pinions.
 Used for welding large broken crankshafts
 Used for building up damaged wobblers
 For welding busted frames of machines
 For restore broken teeth on big gears

Disadvantages:

 Low deposition rate with operating factor

 Its cannot weld low melting point
 It has slag inclusion
 It is high skill factor
 Extremely high level of fumes

Application:

The process is especially useful in welding together large-sections such as

locomotive frames, stem posts of ship and rudders, railway lines, and tramlines.

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FRICTION WELDING

Friction Welding (FRW) is a solid state welding process which produces welds
due to the compressive force contact of work pieces which are either rotating or
moving relative to one another. Heat is produced due to the friction which displaces
material plastically from the faying surfaces. The basic steps explaining the friction
welding process are shown in Fig.4.4.1. In friction welding the heat required to
produce the joint is generated by friction heating at the interface. The components to
be joined are first prepared to have smooth, square cut surfaces. One piece is held
stationary while the other is mounted in a motor driven chuck or collet and rotated
against it at high speed. A low contact pressure may be applied initially to permit
cleaning of the surfaces by a burnishing action. This pressure is then increased and
contacting friction quickly generates enough heat to raise the abutting surfaces to the
welding temperature.

As soon as this temperature is reached, rotation is stopped and the pressure

is maintained or increased to complete the weld. The softened material is squeezed
out to form a flash. A forged structure is formed in the joint. If desired, the flash can
be removed by subsequent machining action. Friction welding has been used to join
steel bars upto 100 mms in diameter and tubes with outer diameter up to 100 mm.
Inertia welding is a modified form of friction welding, where the moving piece is
attached to a rotating flywheel. The flywheel is brought to a specified rotational
speed and is then separated from the driving motor. The rotating assembly is then
pressed against the stationary member and the kinetic energy of the flywheel is

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converted in to frictional heat. The weld is formed, when the flywheel stop its motion
and the pieces remain pressed together. Since the conditions of the inertia welding
are easily duplicated, welds of consistent quality can be produce and the process
can be easily automated. The heat affected zones are usually narrow, since the time
period is very short for heating and cooling. The radial and orbital FRW are shown in
figure.

Advantages

1. No filler metal, flux or shielded gases are needed

2. It is an environment-friendly process with generation of smoke, fumes or
gases.
3. No material is melted so the process is in solid state with narrow HAZ
4. Oxides can be removed after the welding process.
5. The process is very efficient and comparatively very rapid welds are made.
6. The weld is strength is stronger than the weaker of the two materials being
joined

Disadvantages

1. The process is restricted to joining round bars or tubes of same diameter

2. Dry bearing and non-forgeable materials cannot be welded. (i.e. one of the
material must be ductile)
3. Preparation and alignment of the work piece may be critical for developing
uniform rubbing and heating
4. Equipment and tooling cost are high
5. Free machining alloys are difficult to weld.

Application

 Tongs hold to critical aircraft engine components

 Automotive parts like engine valve and shock absorber
 Hydraulic piston rod and track roller in agricultural equipment.
 Friction welded assemblies are often used to replace expensive casting and
forgings

FRICTION STIR WELDING

Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process (the metal is not

melted) that uses a third body tool to join two facing surfaces. Heat is generated
between the tool and material which leads to a very soft region near the FSW tool. It

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then mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal at the place of the joint, then
the softened metal (due to the elevated temperature) can be joined using mechanical
pressure (which is applied by the tool), much like joining clay, or dough. It is primarily
used on aluminium, and most often on extruded aluminium (non-heat treatable
alloys), and on structures which need superior weld strength without a post weld
heat treatment.

A constantly rotated non-consumable cylindrical-shouldered tool with a

profiled probe is transversely fed at a constant rate into a butt joint between two
clamped pieces of butted material. The probe is slightly shorter than the weld depth
required, with the tool shoulder riding atop the work surface.

Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding components

and the work pieces. This heat, along with that generated by the mechanical mixing
process and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to
soften without melting. As the pin is moved forward, a special profile on its leading
face forces plasticized material to the rear where clamping force assists in a forged
consolidation of the weld.

This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticized tubular
shaft of metal results in severe solid state deformation involving dynamic
recrystallization of the base material.

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Advantages:

 Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition

 Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten
material.
 No consumables — no filler or gas shield is required for aluminium.
 Easily automated on simple milling machines — lower setup costs and less
training.
 Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.
 Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching,
thus reducing the need for expensive machining after welding.
 Can use thinner materials with same joint strength.
 Low environmental impact.
 General performance and cost benefits from switching from fusion to friction.

Disadvantage

 Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.

 Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the
plates together.
 Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness
variations and non-linear welds).
 Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques, although this
may be offset if fewer welding passes are required.

BRAZING

The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong metallurgical
joint, which is usually stronger than the parent (work piece) materials. The parent
materials are not fused in the process.

Brazing is similar to Soldering. The difference is in the melting point of the

filler alloy: brazing filler materials melt at temperatures above 840°F (450°C);
soldering filler materials (solders) melt at temperatures below this point.

The difference between brazing and welding processes is more sufficient: in

the welding processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a
filler metal) or pressed to each other without any filler material; brazing joins two
parts without melting them but through a fused filler metal.

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Surface Cleaning and Brazing Fluxes

 Capillary effect is achieved by both: a proper Surface preparation and

use of a flux for wetting and cleaning the surfaces to be bonded.
 Contaminants to be removed from the part surface are: mineral oils,
miscellaneous organic soils, polishing and buffing compounds,
miscellaneous solid particles, oxides, scale, smut, rust.
 The work pieces are cleaned by means of mechanical methods,
soaking cleaning and chemical cleaning (acid etching).
 A brazing flux has a melting point below the melting point of the filler
metal, it melts during the heating stage and spreads over the joint area,
wetting it and protecting the surface from oxidation.
 It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
 It is important that the surface tension of the flux is: 1. Low enough for
wetting the work piece surface; 2. Higher than the surface tension of
the molten filler metal in order to provide displacement of the flux by
the fused brazing filler. The latter eliminates the flux entrapment in the
joint.
 The flux is applied onto the metal surface by brushing, dipping or
spraying.

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The more common types of filler metals used are

 Aluminum-silicon
 Copper
 Copper-silver
 Copper-zinc (brass)
 Copper-tin (bronze)
 Gold-silver
 Nickel alloy
 Silver
 Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon, boron,
phosphorus, etc.

Brazing methods

Torch brazing utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a fuel
gas with Oxygen or air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion
process at a required temperature.

The torch flame is directed to the work pieces with a flux applied on their
surfaces. When the work pieces are heated to a required temperature, filler alloy is
fed into the flame. The filler material melts and flows to the gap between the joined
parts.
Torch brazing is the most popular brazing method.

Torch brazing equipment:

 Fuel gas cylinder with pressure regulator;

 Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator;
 Welding torch;
 Blue oxygen hose;
 Red fuel gas hose;
 Trolley for transportation of the gas cylinders.

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Furnace brazing : It uses a furnace for heating the work pieces.

Vacuum brazing : It is a type of furnace brazing, in which heating

is performed in vacuum.

Induction brazing : Induction brazing utilizes alternating electro-

magnetic field of high frequency for heating the
work pieces together with the flux and the filler
metal placed in the joint region.

Resistance brazing : Resistance brazing uses a heat generated by

an electric current flowing through the work
pieces.

Dip brazing : Dip brazing is a brazing method, in which the

work pieces together with the filler metal are
immersed into a bath with a molten salt. The
filler material melts and flows into the joint.

Infrared brazing : Infrared brazing utilizes a heat of a high power

infrared lamp.

Advantages of brazing

1. Low thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;

2. Microstructure is not affected by heat;
3. Easily automated process;

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4. Dissimilar materials and thin wall parts may be joined;

5. High variety of materials may be joined;
6. Moderate skill of the operator is required.

Disadvantages of brazing

1. Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent

corrosion;
2. No gas shielding may cause porosity of the joint;
3. Large sections cannot be joined;
4. Fluxes and filler materials may contain toxic components;
5. Relatively expensive filler materials.

SOLDERING

Soldering is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a third

metal (solder) at a relatively low temperature, which is above the melting point of the
solder but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined.
Flow of the molten solder into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the
capillary force. The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint. The parent
materials are not fused in the process.

Soldering is similar to Brazing. The difference is in the melting point of the

filler alloy: solders melt at temperatures below 840°F (450°C); brazing filler materials
melt at temperatures above this point.

The difference between soldering and welding processes is more sufficient: in

the welding processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a
filler metal) or pressed to each other without any filler material; soldering joins two
parts without melting them but through a soft low melting point solder.

Fluxes:

The function of fluxes is to remove the non-metallic oxide film from the metal
surface during the heating and soldering operations, so that clean metals may make
mutual metallic contact.

The flux does not constitute a part of the soldered joint. Commonly used
fluxes in soldering joining process are Zinc chloride (Zncl2), ammonium chloride
(NH4cl and hydrochloric acid (Hcl).

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Soldering Methods

Hand soldering

Iron soldering utilizes a heat generated by a soldering iron.

Torch soldering utilizes a heat of the flame from a torch. The torch mixes a
fuel gas with oxygen or air in the proper ratio and flow rate, providing combustion
process at a required temperature.

The torch flame is directed to the work pieces with a flux applied on their
surfaces. When the work pieces are heated to a required temperature, solder is fed
into the joint region. The solder melts and flows to the gap between the joined parts.
Hand soldering is used in repair works and for low volume production.

Wave soldering

The method uses a tank full with a molten solder. The solder is pumped, and
its flow forms a wave of a predetermined height. The printed circuit boards pass over
the wave touching it with their lower sides. The method is used for soldering through-
hole components on printed circuit boards.

Reflow soldering

In this method a solder paste (a mix of solder and flux particles) is applied
onto the surface of the parts to be joined and then are heated to a temperature
above the melting point of the solder. The process is conducted in a continuous
furnace, having different zones: preheating, soaking, reflow and cooling. The joint
forms when the solder cools down and solidifies in the cooling zone of the furnace.

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Advantages of soldering

1. Low power is required;

2. Low process temperature;
3. No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
4. Microstructure is not affected by heat;
5. Easily automated process;
6. Dissimilar materials may be joined;
7. High variety of materials may be joined;
8. Thin wall parts may be joined;
9. Moderate skill of the operator is required.

Disadvantages of soldering

1. Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent

corrosion;
2. Large sections cannot be joined;
3. Fluxes may contain toxic components;
4. Soldering joints cannot be used in high temperature applications;
5. Low strength of joints.

Comparison of welding soldering and brazing

Sl.No. Welding Soldering Brazing

1 Welding joints are Soldering joints are
Brazing joints are
strongest joints used weakest joints out of
weaker than welding
to bear the load. three. Not meant to
joints but stronger
Strength of the welded bear the load. Use
than soldering joints.
portion of joint is to make electrical
This can be used to
usually more than the contacts generally.
bear the load up to
strength of base
metal. some extent.
2 Temperature
Temperature required Temperature may go
requirement is up to
is 3800°C in welding to 600°C in brazing
450°C in soldering
joints. joints.
joints.
3 To join work pieces Heating of the work Work pieces are
need to be heated till pieces is not heated but below
their melting point. required. their melting point.

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4 Mechanical properties May change in

No change in
of base metal may mechanical
mechanical
change at the joint properties of joint but
properties after
due to heating and it is almost
joining.
cooling. negligible.
5 Heat cost is involved Cost involved and Cost involved and sill
and high skill level is skill requirements required are in
required. are very low. between other two.
6 Heat treatment is
No heat treatment is
generally required to No heat treatment is
required after
eliminate undesirable required.
brazing.
effects of welding.
7 Preheating is
No preheating of Preheating of
desirable to make
workpiece is required workpieces before
strong joint as
before welding as it is soldering is good for
brazing is carried out
carried out at high making good quality
at relatively low
temperature. joint. temperature.

Sl.No Defects Causes Remedies

 Drying consumables
1 Porosity  Porosity is the
entrapment of small  Cleaning,
volumes of gas in degreasing material
solidifying weld being welded
metal  Electrode or filler
 It may arise from metals with higher
damp consumables level of deoxidants
or metal or, from  Sealing air leaks,
dirt, particularly oil reducing excess
or grease, on the shielding gas flow
metal

2 Slag inclusions  These are  Position work and/or

irregularly shaped, change
not spherical like electrode/flux to
porosity increase slag
control
 Better slag removal
between passes
 Dress weld surface
smooth if it is likely
to cause slag traps
 Remove heavy mill
scale on plate

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Lack of fusion is  Procedure for

3 Lack of Fusion 
complete fusion
caused by incorrect
welding conditions should be verified
by testing
 Increased energy
input
 Correct electrode
angle and work
position

4 Overlap  Overlap is an  Adjust electrode

imperfection at the manipulation to
ensure fusion of
weld toe or root
base metal
caused by metal
flowing onto the  Limit size of fillet to
surface of the base 9-mm leg length
metal without fusing
to it

5 Undercut Undercut is an irregular  Weld in flat position

groove at the weld toe  Change shielding
in the parent metal or gas to one which
previous pass caused produces better
by wetting
 excessive weaving  Terminate welds so
 melting of top edge they don‗t finish at a
of fillet weld with free edge
high current

6 Excessive penetration Excessive penetration  Control of

is caused by preparation
 backing bars
 Incorrect assembly
or preparation Edge
preparation too thin
to support weld
under bead
Excessive root gap
 Energy input too
high
 Lack of operator
skill

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7 Crack These are developed Avoid producing too

due to shrinkage large a depth to width
during solidification of ratio
weld metal Avoid high welding
, high arc travel speeds speeds
fast cooling rates, too Provide sufficient time
concave or convex for cooling
weld bead

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Hot working and cold working of metals – Forging processes – Open, impression
and closed die forging – forging operations. Rolling of metals– Types of Rolling –
Flat strip rolling – shape rolling operations – Defects in rolled parts. Principle of rod
and wire drawing – Tube drawing – Principles of Extrusion – Types – Hot and Cold
extrusion.

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

There are four basic production processes for producing desired shape of a
product. These are casting, machining, joining (welding, mechanical fasteners, epoxy,
etc.), and deformation processes.
 Casting process
 Machining processes
 Joining processes
 Deformation processes
To understand the forming (by deformation process) of metal, it is important to
know the structure of metals. Metals are crystalline in nature and consist of irregularly
shaped grains of various sizes. Each grain is made up of atoms in an orderly
arrangement, known as a lattice. When a force is applied to deform it or change its
shape, a lot of changes occur in the grain structure. These include grain fragmentation,
movement of atoms, and lattice distortion.
To deform the metal permanently, the stress must exceed the elastic limit. At
room temperature, the metal is in a more rigid state than when at higher temperature.
Thus, to deform the metal greater pressures are needed when it is in cold state than
when in hot state.
The amount of deformation that a metal can undergo at room temperature
depends on its ductility. The higher the ductility of a metal, the more the deformation it
can undergo. Metals having large grains are more ductile than those having smaller
grains.
The deformation of metal can be achieved by following methods, namely
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working

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Cold Working:

Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as

cold working. It is generally performed at room temperature. In some cases, slightly
elevated temperatures may be used to provide increased ductility and reduced strength.
Benefits of cold working are
1. No heating is required
2. Better surface finish is obtained
3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore no secondary machining is
generally needed.
4. Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability.
5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear
properties of material.
6. Directional properties can be
imparted.
7. Contamination problems are almost
negligible
Drawbacks of cold-working processes
are:

1. Higher forces are required for

deformation.
2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
3. Less ductility is available.
4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
5. Strain hardening occurs (may require intermediate annealing).
6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced

Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to large-scale production of

parts because of the cost of the required equipment and tooling.

Warm Working:

Metal deformation carried out at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold

forming is called Warm Forming. Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers
several advantages. These include:

 Lesser loads on tooling and equipment

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 Greater metal ductility

 Fewer number of annealing operation ( because of less strain hardening )

Advantages.

1. Lesser amount of heat energy requirement

2. Better precision of components
3. Lesser scaling on parts
4. Lesser decarburization of parts
5. Better dimensional control
6. Better surface finish
7. Lesser thermal shock on tooling
8. Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and so greater life of tooling.

Hot Working:

Plastic deformation of
metal carried out at temperature
above the recrystallization
temperature, is called hot working.
Under the action of heat and force,
when the atoms of metal reach a
certain higher energy level, the new
crystals start forming. This is called
recrystallization. When this
happens, the old grain structure
deformed by previously carried out
mechanical working no longer exist,
instead new crystals which are strain-free are formed.
In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical
since any extra heat left in the material after working will promote grain growth, leading
to poor mechanical properties of material.

The advantages of hot working are

1. No strain hardening
2. Lesser forces are required for deformation
3. Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more deformation is
possible.

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4. Favorable grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical properties of

material
5. Equipment of lesser power is needed
6. No residual stresses in the material.

Disadvantages of hot-working of metals are:

1. Heat energy is needed

2. Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface
3. Poor accuracy and dimensional control of parts
4. Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts
5. Handling and maintaining of hot metal is di
6. fficult and troublesome
7. Lower life of tooling and equipment.

Recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature can be defined as the process, the temperature in
which grains of a crystal structure are come in new structure or new crystal shape.
Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a reduction in the strength and hardness of
a material and a simultaneously increase in the ductility.

Comparison of hot working and cold working

Sl.No. Hot working Cold working

1 Working temperature is above the Cold working temperature is

re crystallization temperature. below the crystallization
Therefore, it can be regarded as a temperature. So no appreciable
simultaneous process of recovery can take place during
deformation and recovery. deformation.

2 Coefficient of friction in hot The coefficient of friction in cold

forming is as high as 0.6. forming i generally of the order
of 0.1.

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3 Hardening due to plastic Harding is not eliminated in this case.

deformation is completely This is always accompanied by work
eliminated by recovery and re hardening.
crystallization, only if the rate of
recrystallization is higher than
deformation.

4 Refinement of crystal occurs. Grains are only elongated and

distorted.

5 Internal and residual stresses are Internal and residual stresses are
not developing in the metal. developed.

6 Surface finishing is not good. Better surface finishing is obtained.

7 It promotes uniformity of Uniformity of material is lost.

materials.

8 Cracks and blow holes are Possibility of crack formation and its
welded up. propagation is great.

9 Mechanical properties such as Cold working decreases elongation,

elongation, reduction of area, and reduction of area, and impact value.
impact value are improved

Classification of hot working and cold working processes

Hot working processes Cold working processes

 Rolling  Drawing
 Forging  Squeezing
 Drawing  Bending
 Spinning  Shearing
 Piercing  Hobbing
 Extruding  Shot peening
 Extruding

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Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized
compressive force. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or
a die. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed:
 Cold forging (performed at room temperature)
 Warm forging (performed at elevated room temperature)
 Hot forging (a type of hot working)

Application:

 Crankshaft and Connecting rod for I.C. Engines

 Turbine disc, gear wheel, bold head, hand tools
 Many types of structural components

Benefits of forging:

1. It improves the structure as well as mechanical properties of the metallic parts.

2. Forged components can withstand unpredictable load.
3. Forged parts are consistent in shape with the minimum presence of voids and
porosities.
4. Forging can produce parts with high strength to weight ratio.
5. Forging processes are very economical for moderate to high volume productions.

Drawbacks of forging:

1. Initial cost of dies and the maintenance cost are high

2. In hot forging, due to high temperature, there is rapid oxidation on the surface
resulting poor finish
3. Forging are usually costlier than casting
4. Forging operations are limited to simple shape

Hand Forging
Classification of forging

Forging

Machine Forging (Power forging)

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 Drop forging
 Press forging
 Open – die forging
 Closed – die forging
 Impression die forging
 Flashless forging
 Upset forging
 Roll forging

Hand forging

The hand forging process is an

ancient one that has been utilized for
many centuries by professionals who
are generally referred to as
blacksmiths. Basically, they shape the metal by heating and hammering with varying
pressure to the metal in order to manipulate it into a desired to achieve. This method of
forging metal requires a lot of labour and strength.
Benefits of hand forging are the fact the metal produced through this method is usually
stronger than metal produced by other techniques, such as casting or welding. The
main reason is that the repeated blows from the blacksmith and the careful monitoring
of the process results in a less porous material that is better refined than most tactics.
Hand forging can be done by two methods: open die forging and closed die forging
Open Die Forging

Hand Forging

Closed Die Forging

Drop forging

Hammer forging (drop

forging) is forming a preheated
work piece by using impact
energy of the falling hammer by
a mechanical force, forcing the
metal to fill the space between
the punch (a part attached to
the hammer) and
the forging die (a part attached
to the anvil).
Press Forging (closed die

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forging)
Press forging, which is
mostly used for forging of large
sections of metal, uses hydraulic
press to obtain slow and
squeezing action instead of a
series of blows as in drop forging.
The continuous action of the
hydraulic press helps to obtain
uniform deformation throughout
the entire depth of the work
piece. Therefore, the impressions
obtained in press forging are cleaner.
Press forgings generally need smaller draft than drop
forgings and have greater dimensional accuracy. Dies are
generally heated during press forging to reduce heat loss,
promote more uniform metal flow and production of finer
details.
Hydraulic presses are available in the capacity range
of 5 MN to 500 MN but 10 MN to 100MN capacity presses
are more common.

Upset Forging
Upset forging involves increasing the cross – section of a material at the expense
of its corresponding length. Upset – forging was initially
developed for making bolt heads in a continuous manner, but
presently it is the most widely used of all forging processes.
Parts can be upset – forged from bars or rods upto 200 mm
in diameter in both hot and cold condition. Examples of upset
forged parts are fasteners, valves, nails, and couplings.
The process uses split dies with one or several cavities
in the die. Upon separation of split die, the heated bar is
moved from one cavity to the next. The split dies are then
forced together to grip the and a heading tool (or ram)
advances axially against the bar, upsetting it to completely fill the die cavity. Upon
completion of upsetting process the heading tool comes back and the movable split die
releases the stock.
Upsetting machines, called up setters, are generally horizontal acting.
When designing parts for upset – forging, the following three rules must be
followed.

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 The length of unsupported bar that can be upset in one blow of heading tool
should not exceed 3 times the diameter of bar. Otherwise bucking will occur.
 For upsetting length of stock greater than 3 times the diameter the cavity
diameter must not exceed 1.5 times the diameter of bar.
 For upsetting length of stock greater than 3 times the diameter and when the
diameter of the upset is less than 1.5 times the diameter of the bar, the length of
un – supported stock beyond the face of die must not exceed diameter of the
stock.

Roll Forging
This process is used to reduce the
thickness of round or flat bar with the
corresponding increase in length. Examples of
products produced by this process include leaf
springs, axles, and levers.
The process is carried out on a rolling
mill that has two semi cylindrical rolls that are
slightly eccentric to the axis of rotation. Each
roll has a series of shaped grooves on it.
When the rolls are in open position, the
heated bar stock is placed between the rolls.
With the rotation of rolls through half a
revolution, the bar is progressively squeezed
and shaped. The bar is then inserted between the next set of smaller grooves and the
process is repeated till the desired shape and size are achieved.

Forging operation
 Upsetting
 Drawing down
 Heading
 Fullering
 Edging

Upsetting
The process of shortening the length of the work piece or increasing the
thickness and width (if the work piece is circular, then its diameter) on either side is
named as upsetting
Heading
Heading operation is similar to upsetting operation, but the stock dimension is
increased only on one end of the stock.

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Fullering
It is the operation of reducing the stock between the two ends of the stock at a
central place, so as to increase its length. The inclined surface of the die prevents
material movement in the width direction, because there is a pressure component acting
in the direction of material flow. Repeated strokes with the stock rotated around its axis
between strokes, allow substantial material redistribution.
Edging
The process (edging or rolling operation) of distribute the metal longitudinally by
moving the metal from the portion of the stock where it is in excess to the portion which
is deficient in metal.
Drawing down or cogging
It is an operation similar to fullering with the difference that the stock is reduced
at only one end (and its length increased) instead of at a central place as in fullering.
Bending
Bending
operation makes the
longitudinal axis of the
stock in two or more
places. This operation
is done after the stock
has been edged or
fullered, so that the
stock is brought into a
proper relation with the
shape of the finishing
impression.
Flattening
This operation is
used to flatten the
stock so that it fits
properly into the
finishing impression of
a closed die.
Blocking
This operation
which imparts to the
forging its general but not exact or final shape. This is done just prior to finishing
operation.
Cut-off
A pair of blade, either milled in the corner of a pair of forging dies, or inserted in
the dies, used to cut away a forging from the bar after the finishing blow.

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Piercing
It is the operation done with the help of a punch to obtain blind or through holes
in the metal. The pierced billet is further processed.
Punching
This is the operation of shearing out a slug in a forging to produce a hole.
Swaging
It is the operation of reducing or changing the cross-section area of diameter by
revolving the stock under fast impact blows.
Coining
It is a cold closed die forging operation (no flash) to obtain closer tolerances and
smoother surfaces.

Hot Forging Vs. Cold Forging

Hot forging and cold forging are two different metal forming processes that
deliver similar results. Forging is the process of deforming metal into a predetermined
shape using certain tools and equipment—deformation is accomplished using hot, cold,
or even warm forging processes. Ultimately, the manufacturer will look at a number of
criteria before choosing which type of forging is best for a particular application.

Hot Forging Process

When a piece of metal is hot forged it must be heated significantly. The average
temperatures necessary for hot forging are:
 Up to 1150 degrees Celsius for Steel
 360 to 520 degrees Celsius for Al-Alloys
 700 to 800 degrees Celsius for Cu-Alloys
During hot forging, the temperature reaches above the recrystallization point of
the metal. This kind of extreme heat is necessary in avoiding strain hardening of the
metal during deformation. In order to prevent the oxidation of certain metals, like super
alloys, a type of hot forging called isothermal forging is a good choice. In isothermal
forging, the metal deformation occurs within a highly controlled atmosphere, similar to
that of a vacuum.

Factor to be consider for hot Forging

 Production of discrete parts

 Low to medium accuracy
 Scale Formation

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 Low stresses or low work hardening

 Homogenized grain structure
 Increased ductility
 Elimination of chemical incongruities

Possible disadvantages of hot forging include:

 Less precise tolerances

 Possible warping of the material during the cooling process
 Varying metal grain structure
 Possible reactions between the surrounding atmosphere and the metal

Cold Forging

Cold forging deforms metal while it is below its recrystallization point. Cold
forging is generally preferred when the metal is already a soft metal, like aluminum. This
process is usually less expensive than hot forging and the end product requires little, if
any, finishing work. Sometimes, when aluminum is cold forged into a desired shape, it is
heat treated to strengthen the piece. This is called "tempering."
Cold Forging Process

Despite the word "cold," cold forging actually occurs at or near room
temperature. The most common metals in cold forging applications are usually standard
or carbon alloy steels. One of the most common types of cold forging is a process called
impression-die forging, where the metal is placed into a die that is attached to an anvil.
The metal is then hit by a descending hammer and forced into the die. Depending on
the product, the hammer may actually be dropped on the metal numerous times in a
very rapid sequence.
Advantages:

 Easier to impart directional properties

 Improved interchangeability
 Improved reproducibility
 Increased dimensional control
 Handles high stress and high die loads
 Produces net shape or near-net shape parts

Disadvantages:

 Easier to impart directional properties

 Improved interchangeability
 Improved reproducibility
 Increased dimensional control

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 Handles high stress and high die loads

 Produces net shape or near-net shape parts
 The metal surfaces must be clean and free of scale before forging occurs
 The metal is less ductile
 Residual stress may occur
 Heavier and more powerful equipment is needed
 Stronger tooling is required

Comparison of press forging and drop forging

Sl. No. Press forging Drop forging

1 Faster process Slow process

2 Alignment of dies is easier Alignment of dies is difficult

3 Quite operation Noisy operation

4 Structural quality of the Structural quality is fair

product is superior

5 Easy to maintenance Difficult to maintenance

6 High productivity Moderate productivity

7 No need for skilled operator Required skilled operator

8 One stroke is enough to More than one stroke is

complete an operation needed to complete an
operation

9 Stroke and ram speed is Slow speed is

high recommended

Comparison of open die forging and closed die forging

Sl. No. Open forging Closed forging

1 The process is completed The upper die fitted with

in between the flat surface ram and the lower die is
of the two die. fitted with anvil and the
process is completed.

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2 The process is finished by The process is finished by

repeated blowing single blowing

3 It is simple and flexible This is complex and rigid

4 Pressure is limited Pressure can be varies

depends on the material

5 ‗U‘ Bolt, chisels, polygonal Spanner, automobile parts

shaped components are and machine parts are
example of the product. made by closed die forging
process.

Types of forging (hammer) machines or press

Forging press

Mechanical press Power press

1. Pneumatic (50 to 1000 Kg)

2. Hydraulic (100 tonne)
3. Steam (400 to 8000 Kg)

Board Drop Hammer

This type is commonly used type. The ram

carrying the upper die is fastened to the hardwood
board which passes between a pair of steel roll which
rotate continuously. These rolls are moving together,
pressure of the rolls against the board raise the ram.
The ram is continuously lifted until the release lever
is actuated by a pin on the ram. This cause the roll to
move outward, releasing the board and allowing the
ram to fall freely by gravity. The blowing force is
depends on the weight of falling ram and the height
to which it is lifted. The size of drop hammer is varies
from 900Kn to 45000KN. The height range is 0.75m
to 1.5m.

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Mechanical Press

Mechanical presses belong to a class of

machine tools that encompass a wide range of
different machine types. Primarily, the mechanical
press transforms the rotational force of a motor into a
translational force vector that performs the pressing
action. Therefore, the energy in a mechanical press
comes from the motor. These types of presses are
generally faster than hydraulic or screw presses,
(actually the screw press may also be classified as a
mechanical press). Unlike some presses, in a
mechanical press, the application of force varies in
both speed and magnitude throughout the distance of
the stroke. When performing a manufacturing
operation using a mechanical press, the correct range
of the stroke is essential.

These presses are basically of either crank,

knuckle, screw or the eccentric type. The energy in a
mechanical press is generated by a large flywheel powered by an electric motor. The
clutch engaged the flywheel to an eccentric shaft. A connecting rod translates the rotary
motion to reciprocating motion. The capacity range
of the mechanical press varies from 900KN to
110MN.

Presses are chosen based on the

characteristics of the manufacturing process.
Mechanical press machine tools are commonly
used in metal forging manufacture, and sheet metal
working. The desired application of force will dictate
the type of machine required.

Crank press:

The crank press uses a crank link attached

to a drive shaft. The crank link rotates with the drive
shaft and is attached to a connecting rod by a
rotational joint. The connecting rod rocks back and
forth during the motion of the crank. The connecting rod is, in turn, attached to a ram by
a rotational joint. The ram operates in a slider joint and travels a one dimensional path

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in both directions. It is through this path that the

crank press delivers its force. The crank press does
allow for a stoke of a relatively long distance.

Knuckle press:

The knuckle joint press translates the energy

of a motor through a powerful linkage design, and
is capable of delivering a tremendous amount of
force. The drive shaft crank rotates completely. The
links are well grounded to support such pressure.

Eccentric press

The eccentric press uses a motor to

drive an eccentric shaft, rotating in a connecting
rod. The connecting rod moves a ram in a slider
joint one dimensionally. The eccentric shaft itself is
round; therefore it may completely rotate within the
connecting rod. The center of the drive is not the center
of the overall shaft. As the motor rotates, the center of
the drive remains stable but the overall center of the
shaft changes. This causes the shaft to change position,
providing motion. The actual principle of an eccentric
press is very similar to a crank press.

Screw Press

Screw presses use the rotational energy of a

motor to turn a large screw. Typically, a friction disk is
used to translate the force from the drive shaft to the
screw's head. The screw pushes a ram with great
mechanical advantage. Screw presses are similar to
hydraulic presses in that they are relatively slow and
require a longer contact with the work. Screw presses
are also similar to hydraulic presses in that they can
produce a constant amount of force over a long stroke.
Some screw press machine tools in modern industry can produce 31,000 tons of force.

Rack and Pinion Press

The rack and pinion press delivers the motors energy from a gear directly
connected to the drive shaft. The rack is actually a round gear of infinite radius. A

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rotating gear (pinion) provides force

through the rack. This gives the one
dimensional, translational motion
desired of press machines.

Hydraulic presses

Hydraulic presses are a

powerful class of machine tools,
they derive the energy they deliver
through hydraulic pressure. Fluid
pressure, in a particular chamber,
can be increased or decreased by
the use of pumps, and valves.
Sometimes devices and systems
may be used to increase the
capacity of the pumps in more powerful presses.
These presses can operate over a long distance
and at a constant speed. Hydraulic presses are
generally slower relative to other press machine
types. This involves longer contact with the work,
therefore the cooling of the work can be an issue
when hot forming a part with hydraulic force.
Hydraulic presses are capable of being the most
powerful class of presses. Some may be as large
as buildings, and can deliver awesome pressure.
The largest hydraulic presses are capable of
applying 75,000 tons of force. The hydraulic press
shown is being used to manufacture a metal
forging.

The basic working principles of the

hydraulic press are simple, and trust on
differences in fluid pressure. Fluid is pumped into
the cylinder below the piston; this causes the fluid
pressure under the piston to increase. Simultaneously, fluid is pumped out of the top
channel, causing the fluid pressure above the piston to decrease. A higher pressure of
the fluid below the piston than the fluid above it causes the piston to rise. In the next
step, fluid is pumped out from below the piston, causing the pressure under the piston
to decrease. Simultaneously, fluid is pumped into the cylinder from the top; this
increases the fluid pressure above the piston. A higher pressure of the fluid above the
piston, than the fluid below it, moves the piston downward.

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Pneumatic press

Pneumatic presses are used to forge small parts. In this press, the weight of anvil
is equal to 15 to 20 times of falling
weight. The operating principle is
similar to hydraulic press. There are
two cylinder namely; compressor
cylinder and ram cylinder. The air is
compressed in a compressor cylinder
for the upward stroke and downward
stroke and is delivering to the ram
cylinder, where it actuates the ram,
delivering the forging blow to the work.
The reciprocation of the compressor
piston is obtained from a crank drive
which is powered from an electric
motor through reducing gear. The
distribution of air between compressor
cylinder and ram cylinder is controlled
by means of two valves with port through which air passes in to the ram cylinder, up and
down the ram alternately. The valves are actuated by depressing foot treadle or
operating by a hand lever.
By controlling the air
distribution, the required
ram movement can be
attained: either continuous
blow or to hold the ram in
upper or lower position.

The size of
pneumatic press varies
from 0.5 to 10KN. The
operating speed is 80 to
200 blows per minute.

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Steam hammer

In this type of hammer, there is no in-built air compressor. Separate high pressure
steam is required. There are two types of steam hammer are employed namely (1)
single acting (2) double acting.

In single acting steam hammer, the high pressure steam enters in to the cylinder port
employed at lower portion of the cylinder. Due to this, the ram fitted with upper die allow
to move up, meanwhile the steam or air present in the upper portion of the cylinder is
exhaust through port provided at top most portion of the cylinder. The ram will move
downward by self-weight of ram and also due to gravitational force. Now the
compressive action is happen and the forging process is completed.

Similarly, the double acting steam hammer also have same working principle, but the
lowering movement of ram is occurred due to steam inlet through the port provided in
the upper portion of the cylinder. The capacity of this type of hammer is in the range of
400Kg to 8000Kg.

Forging defects

Sl.No. Types of crack Causes

1 Cold shuts or laps : Short crack occur at corner

2 Pitting : Due to scale formation

3 Die shift : Misalignment of die

4 Dents : Result of careless work

5 Burnt and overheated metal : Improper heating condition

6 Cracks : Improper heating

7 Hair crack : Too rapid cooling

8 Internal crack : Drastic changes in material

properties

9 Fins and rags : Loose metal is driven in to the

surface.

10 Ruptured fiber structure : Due to inadequate stock size

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Rolling

Rolling is a forming operation where cylindrical rolls are used to reduce the cross
sectional area of a bar or plate with a corresponding increase in the length. Rolling
process is widely used because of high productivity. Figure 3.3.2 depicts schematic
set-up of rolling process. Rolling processes are broadly classified by the geometry of
the final rolled shape of the work piece material such as flat rolling that is used to
reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross-section,
and shape rolling that is
used to produce shaped
sections such as I-Beam
from a square or
rectangular cross-section

Rolling processes
are performed both at high
temperature (above the
recrystallization
temperature), which is referred to as Hot Rolling, as well as at room temperature that is
referred to as Cold Rolling. Hot Rolling is usually performed when large amount of
deformation is required while Cold Rolling is performed for finished sheet and plate
stock. Various structural members, plates and sheets as well as pipes are produced by
rolling at very high productivity although due to high tooling cost, it is economical for
large batch size only

Comparison of hot rolling and cold rolling

Sl.No. Hot Rolling Cold Rolling

Metal is fed to the rolls after
Metal is fed to the rolls when it is below
1 being heated above the
the recrystallization temperature.
recrystallization temperature.

In general rolled metal does not The metal shows the working
2
show work hardening effect. hardening effect after being cold rolled.

Co-efficient of friction between two

Co-efficient of friction between
3 rolls and the stock is comparatively
two rolls and the stock is higher
lower.

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Experiment measurements are Experiment measurement can be

difficult to make. carried out easily in cold rolling.

Heavy reduction in area of the

4 Heavy reduction is not possible.
work piece can be obtained.

Mechanical properties are

improved by breaking cast Cold rolling increased the tensile
5
structure are refining grain sizes strength and yield strength of the steel.
below holes and others,

Rolls radius is generally larger in

6 Rolls radius is smaller.
size

Very thin sections are not

7 Thin sections are obtained.
obtained.

Hot roll surface has (metal

The cold rolled surface is smooth and
8 oxide) on it, this surface finish is
oxide free.
not good.

Hot rolling is used for ferrous as

well as non-ferrous metals such
Cold rolling is equally applicable to
as industries for steel,
9 both plain and alloys steels and non-
aluminum, copper, brass,
ferrous metals and their alloys.
bronze, alloy to change ingot
into slabs.

Hot rolling is the father of the

10 Cold rolling follows the hot rolling.
cold rolling.

Classification of rolling mill

 Classification based on the mill product

This classification is usually done in three ways.

1. By the type of the product. These are:

Flat mills – These mills rolls plates, sheets and strips.

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Long product mills – These mills rolls rounds, rods and shapes.

2. Based on the nature of the product. These are

Finishing mills – These mills produced saleable products.

Semi finishing mills – These mills produce semi-finished products which

need further rolling in the finishing mills.

3. based on products

Blooming, cogging and slabbing mills – These are the preparatory mills to
roll blooms and slabs from ingots. With the wide spread acceptance of
slab and bloom continuous castings these mills are no more required.

Billet mills – These mills produce billets from the blooms.

Beam mills – These mills are used for the production of heavy beams and
large channels.

Rail mills – As the name suggest rails mills are used for rolling of rails from
the blooms.

Shape or structure mills – In these mills medium and smaller sizes of

beams and channels and other structural shapes are rolled usually from
billets.

Merchant bar mills – These mills rolls merchant grades of rounds and
reinforcement bars.

SBQ mills – These mills are used for rolling special bar quality rounds.

Wire rod mills – These mills produces wire rods from billets. Usually these
mills are provided with no twist rolling in the blocks and controlled cooling
of the rods after rolling.

Plate mills – These are flat mills to produce heavy plates.

Hot strip mill – These are also flat mills and rolls hot strips from slabs.

Cold strip mills – These mills rolls cold strips from hot strips by cold rolling.

Universal mills – These mills are for the production of various wide flanged
shapes by a system of vertical and horizontal rolls.

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Classification based on rolling process

Under this classification, the rolling mills can be classified as follows:

Reversing mills – In this type of mills the rolling direction changes after each
pass. In these mills the rolls are stopped, reversed, and then brought back up to rolling
speed after each pass. In these materials the material being rolled moves in to and fro
directions.

Continuous mills – In this type of mills the material to be rolled moves only in one
direction and all the mill rolls rotates only in single direction. There are number of stands
provided in the mill for giving total reduction to the material being rolled and for giving
final shape to the rolled product.

Semi continuous mills – In this type of mills some roll stands (usually roughing
stands) are reversing type while other rolling stands (usually finishing stands)
constitutes continuous rolling.

Tandem mills – A tandem mill is a type of rolling mill where rolling is done in one
pass. In a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill
there are several stands (>/=2 stands) and reductions take place successively. The
number of stands ranges from 2 to 18. Tandem mills can be either of hot or cold rolling
mill types.

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Classification based on stand arrangements

Under this classification there are two

types of rolling mills as given below.

Cross country mills – In these types of the

mills the centre lines of initial rolling stands are
parallel to each other and the material being
rolled is shifted perpendicular to the rolling
directions. Most of the cross country mills are
reversing mills.

Straight line mills – In these mills all the roll stands have a common centre line
and material being rolled moves only in forward or forward/backward direction.

Classification based on roll configuration

Rolling mills are also classified based on the roll configurations. The types of
mills based on roll configurations are given below.

Two high rolling mills may further classified as

 Reversing mill
 Non reversing mill

A two high rolling mill has two rolls only.

Two high reversing mill:

In two high reversing rolling mills the rolls rotate ist

in one direction and then in the other, so that rolled metal
may pass back and forth through the rolls several times.
This type is used in pluming and slabing mills and for
roughing work in plate , rail , structural and other mills.

Three high rolling mill:

It consists of a roll stand with three parallel rolls one above the other. Adjacent
rolls rotates in opposite direction. So that the material may be passed between the top
and the middle roll in one direction and the bottom and middle rolls in opposite one.In
three high rolling mills the work piece is rolled on both the forward and return passes.
First of all the work piece passes through the bottom and middle rolls and the returning
between the middle and the top rolls.

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So that thickness is reduced at each pass.

Mechanically operated lifted tables are used which move
vertically or either side of the stand. So that the work
piece fed automatically into the roll gap.

Since the rolls run in one direction only a much

less powerful motor and transmission system is required.
The rolls of a three high rolling mills may be either plain or
grooved to produce plate or sections respectively.

Four-High Rolling Mill

It is essentially a two-high rolling mill, but with

small sized rolls. Practically, it consists of four horizontal
rolls, the two middle rolls are smaller in size than the top and bottom rolls as shown in
Figure 2(d). The smaller size rolls are known as working rolls which concentrate the
total rolling pressure over the workpiece. The larger
diameter rolls are called back-up rolls and their main
function is to prevent the deflection of the smaller rolls,
which otherwise would result in thickening of rolled
plates or sheets at the centre. The common products
of these mills are hot or cold rolled plates and sheets.

Cluster Mill

It is a special type of four-high rolling mill in

which each of the two smaller working rolls are backed
up by two or more of the larger back-up rolls as shown in Figure 2(e). For rolling hard
thin materials, it may be necessary to employ work rolls of very small diameter but of
considerable length. In such cases adequate support of the
working rolls can be obtained by using a cluster-mill. This
type of mill is generally used for cold rolling work.

Planetary mill

This mill consists of a pair of heavy back up rolls

surrounded by a large number of planetary rolls. Each
planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction to the feed
material as it sweeps out of a circular path between the
backup roll and the feed material. As each pair of planetary
rolls ceases to have contact with the work piece, another pair of rolls makes contact and
repeat the reduction.

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Flat strip rolling

Flat strip rolling utilizes a series of rolls to

gradually change the shape of the metal. As
the fast moving continuous strip passes
between the rolls, the cross sectional shape is
changed to the desired form.

The work is squeezed between two rolls so that

it thickness is reduced by an amount called the
draft. If the draft is expressed as a fraction of
the starting block thickness, it is called
reduction. Rolling increases the work width and
this is called spreading.

The inlet and outlet volume rates of material flow must be the same

The entering and exiting velocities of the work. The point where roll velocity equals work
velocity is known as the no-slip point or the neutral point.

The true strain and the mean flow stress are

defined by true strain, and mean flow stress

Friction occurs with a certain coefficient of friction

μ on either sides of no-slip point. Both friction
forces act in opposite directions and are not equal.
The entrance force is bigger so that the resulting

force pulls the work through the rolls. The

maximum possible draft depends on μ and roll
radius R.

The rolling force F is estimated as

𝐹 = 𝐿 𝑤 𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕

𝑤 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝

𝑌𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

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2𝜋𝐹𝐿𝑁
The power P required to drive each roll is 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑊
60 ×1000

Where N = speed of roll in rpm and F = Force in N.

Shape rolling is a broad term for a range of metal rolling operations that involve
forming the work with rolls of certain geometry. The rolls form the part to a specific
shape. Most shape rolling involves passing the material through several steps. Two very
common examples of continuous shape rolled product are the I beam for structural
purposes and the rail for railroad track.

Designing a proper series of shape changes in a work will involve more

deformation in some areas than others. As mentioned earlier, excessive shape change
in some parts of the cross section is a serious cause of defects in shape rolling
production. The rolling engineer must design a system of passes in such a way as to
achieve the shape change through several steps, mitigating any excessive deformations
at any particular area of the work's cross section.

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Many different shapes can be shape rolled in metal rolling industry today. Here is
an example of a possible roll pass design for the production of a H- section roll shape
rolling.

Ring rolling

Ring rolling is a particular category of metal rolling, in which a ring of smaller

diameter is rolled into a precise ring of larger diameter and a reduced cross section.
This is accomplished by the use of two rollers; one driven and one idle, acting on either
side of the ring's cross section. Edging rollers are typically used during industrial metal
rolling manufacture, to ensure that the part will maintain a constant width throughout the
forming operation. The work will essentially retain the same volume; therefore the
geometric reduction in thickness will be compensated for entirely by an increase in the
ring's diameter. Rings manufactured by ring rolling are seamless. This forming process
can be used to manufacture not only flat rings, but rings of differently shaped cross
sections as well, producing very precise parts with little waste of material.

A significant advantage of parts produced by this metal rolling process is that the
forming of the material will impart the ring with a grain orientation that gives it enhanced
strength relative to most applications. Common items produced by this process in
manufacturing industry today include rings for machinery, aerospace applications,
turbines, pipes, pressure vessels, roller and ball bearing races. The following shows the
sequence of events of the ring rolling process, the part is commonly started as a metal
bar cut to a certain length.

Thread rolling

Thread rolling is a metal rolling process used extensively in manufacturing

industry to produce screws, bolts and other fasteners. A common thread rolling process,
used in industry to manufacture threaded parts, involves forming the threads into the
metal of a blank by a pressing and rolling action between two die. The die surfaces hold

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the shape and the force of the action forms the threads into the material. A similar metal
forming process has been developed for the production of gears.

Thread rolling, in modern manufacturing, has an extremely high productivity rate,

significantly higher than producing threaded parts by machining. Machining is the
alternative method to industrial manufacturing of threaded parts. Producing threads by
this method has several other benefits over machining. Forming will harden the metal
through cold working, does not waste material by cutting, and produces a favorable
grain structure to strengthen the part with respect to its function.

Rolling defects

There are two types of defects which can be observed in rolled products.

1) Surface defects
2) Internal surface defects.
a) Wavy edges
b) Zipper cracks
c) Edge cracks
d) Alligatoring
e) Folds
f) Laminations.

Defects due to bending on rolls:

Types of defects occur due to this reason

a) Wavy edges
b) Zipper cracks

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Zipper crack also occur due to poor material ductility at the rolling temperature. The
remedy is to provide a camber to the rolls, (i.e.) their diameter is made slightly larger at
the centre than at the edges.

Inhomogeneous deformation of elements across the width.

During rolling process, the thickness of metal is reduced and the length is increase, due
to this the elements near the edges will be under tension and the element near the
centre will be under compression. Such a situation can lead to edge cracks (fig. (c)).

Another interesting defect that can occur in flat rolling is alligatoring, where the work
being rolled actually splits in two during the process. The two parts of the work material
travel in opposite directions relative to their respective rolls.

Folds: these defects are encountered during plate rolling if the reduction per pass is
very small.

Laminations: during rolling process, due to incomplete welding, defects like longitudinal
strings of non-metallic inclusions are introduced at the time of ingot productions. Under
severe reduction, these defects can results in to small crack called laminations along
the thickness direction. Due to this the strength along the thickness direction can get
drastically reduced.

Process variable in rolling process are:

 Roll diameter
 Angel of bite
 Temperature
 Strength of work material
 Speed of rolling roll gap
 Coefficient of friction
 Dimensions of sheet

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Metal Drawing

Metal drawing is a manufacturing process that forms metal work stock by

reducing its cross section. This is accomplished by forcing the work through a mold,
(die), of smaller cross sectional area than the work. This process is very similar to metal
extrusion, the difference being in the application of force. In extrusion the work is
pushed through the die opening, where in drawing it is pulled through.

 Rod (bar) drawing

 Wire drawing
 Tube drawing

Rod (bar) drawing

Rod or bar
drawing is a term used to
denote one of two categories of
metal drawing. Rod or bar
drawing refers to the drawing
of work of larger cross
sections, while wire drawing
refers to the forming of work of
a relatively smaller profile. Due
to the size of the work, rod and
bar drawing involves much
more finite lengths of material than wire drawing. This type of process is carried out as a
discrete manufacturing operation.

It is usually performed on a draw bench. A draw bench consists of a long

table, a die stand containing the mold and a carriage used to grip and draw the work.
The die stand may contain two or more molds; multiple dies allow more than one part to
be drawn with each operation. Draw benches vary in size and can be up to 100 feet in
length. Force used to draw the metal is exerted through hydraulic or mechanical means.
Pulling force as high as 150 tons has been used during industrial production.

Wire drawing

Wire drawing is the second major category of metal drawing operations. While rod and
bar drawing refer to the drawing of larger cross sections, wire drawing refers to the
drawing of relatively smaller cross sections. The enormous amount of electrical wire and
cable produced by this manufacturing method makes wire drawing a major modern

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industrial process. Some wire must be manufactured to tremendously small cross

sectional areas, such as those used in electromagnets. Wire may be drawn to
diameters as low as .0001 inch. Diamond die inserts are often used in the production of
extremely fine wire.

Metal work stock in wire

drawing will usually undergo
several reductions in diameter,
since the mechanics of the
process limit the amount of
reduction in a single draw. This
is accomplished by drawing the
work through several die in
series, each producing an
incremental reduction in the
work's diameter. Between dies
the wire stock is wrapped
several times around a motor driven rotating drum called a capstan, before proceeding
to the next die in series. Annealing of the metal may be performed between groups of
operations. The capstans provide the force for the manufacturing process. As the
diameter is reduced, the speed of the wire is increased. Velocity of wire leaving the last
mold in a series can be significantly higher than the velocity of the work entering the first
mold. Typically drawing speeds may be 20-100 feet per minute, but in some cases wire
may be drawn at 10,000 feet per minute. Pieces of stock can be end welded together as
they are fed into the system of capstans and die so that the process will be completely
continuous. Industrial wire drawing operations can manufacture miles of wire at a time.

TUBE DRAWING

Tubes and pipes are required in large quantities by industries all over the world.
Tubes are basically of two types. They are either seamless (i.e., without any joint) or
with joint all along the length of the tube. Seamless tubes are made by processes such
as casting, extrusion or rolling. Tubes with joint are made by welding. Usually, the weld
joint is made by electric resistance welding process; such tubes are referred to as ERW
tubes. The size of a tube or pipe is indicated by the size of its bore in mm.
Since the requirement of tubes is so large, a special rolling process called Mannesmann
rotary piercing process has been developed. In this process, a heated round billet with
its leading end, in the centre of which a short guide hole has been punched or drilled, is
pushed longitudinally between two large tapered rolls as shown in Fig. 3.33.

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The rolls revolve in the same direction and their axes are inclined at opposite
angles of approx 6°from the axis of the billet. As the billet is caught by the rolls and is
rotated, their inclination causes the material to be drawn forward. The small clearance
between the rolls forces the material to deform into an elliptical shape. Due to
compressive forces, secondary tensile stresses start acting in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of the compressive stresses. The guide hole drilled/punched at centre of
billet tears open. This action is assisted by a suitably placed mandrel.
As the billet mores forward and keeps rotating the tearing action is propagated
throughout the length
of the billet. End result
is a roughly formed
seamless tube of
elliptical cross-
section. This roughly
formed seamless tube
is further rolled in a
―plug rolling mill‖. The
final operations of
―reeling‖ and ―sizing‖
are further conducted
on cooled tube to
improves size and
finish of tube.

TUBE DRAWING METHOD

 Tube drawing with fixed plug

 Tube drawing with floated plug
 Tube drawing with moving mandrel
 Tube sinking

The ‗drawing‘ process can also be used for tube drawing. Tube drawing does not
mean manufacturing a tube from solid raw material. It means lengthening a tube
reducing its diameter. Various arrangements used for tube drawing are shown in Fig.
3.33

The method shown in Fig. 3.33 (a) is the most common method used for tube
drawing. A conventional tube drawing bench is used. Method shown in Fig. 3.33 (b)
employs a floating mandrel. Method shown in Fig. 3.33 (c) uses a long circular rod to
control the size of tube-bore. Method shown inFig.3.33 (d) uses neither a mandrel nor a
bar and controlling size of bore is difficult.

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EXTRUSION

“Extrusion is a process in which the metal is subjected to plastic flow by

enclosing the metal in a closed chamber in which the only opening provided is
through a die”. The material is usually treated so that it can undergo plastic
deformation at a sufficiently rapid rate and may be squeezed out of the hole in the die.
In the process the metal assumes the opening provided in the die and comes out as a
long strip with the same cross-section as the die-opening. Incidentally, the metal strip
produced will have a longitudinal grain flow.

The process of extrusion is most commonly used for the manufacture of solid
and hollow sections of nonferrous metals and alloys. Aluminum is an extremely good
material for metal extrusion. Copper, magnesium, zinc, tin and some softer low carbon
steels, can also be extruded with little complication due to the material. High carbon
steels, titanium and various refractory alloys, can be difficult to extrude.

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Advantages of extrusion processes.

 Extrusion can produce variety of shapes with uniform cross-section.

 The grain structure and mechanical strength of work piece material are
improved in cold and warm extrusion processes.
 Cold extrusion can provide close tolerances.
 Wastage of material is the minimum in extrusion processes.
 Extrusion can be performed even for relatively brittle materials.

Type of extrusion
 Hot extrusion
 Cold extrusion
 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion
 Hydrostatic extrusion
 Impact extrusion

Hot Extrusion

Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures, approximately 50 to 75 % of the

melting point of the metal. The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa. Due to the high
temperatures and pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well as other
components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and graphite work at lower
temperatures, whereas at higher temperatures glass powder is used.

Typical parts produced by extrusions are trim parts used in automotive and
construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft structural parts.

Advantages of hot extrusion

 Improvement of the mechanical properties

 This ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts.
 Improved physical characteristics of the metal
 Easy to extrude for larger parts,
 It has more extreme changes in shape
 Possible for extruding more complex geometry.

Disadvantages

 Results in a layer of oxide scale build up on the external surfaces of the work
piece.
 Scale can affect surface finish
 Affect the accuracy of the part

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 wear at die metal interfaces.

 High maintenance cost
 decreased tolerances, and
 increased die wear

Cold Extrusion

Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or slightly elevated

temperatures. This process can be used for most materials-subject to designing robust
enough tooling that can withstand the stresses created by extrusion. Examples of the
metals that can be extruded are lead, tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium,
molybdenum, vanadium, steel. Examples of parts that are cold extruded are collapsible
tubes, aluminum cans, cylinders, gear blanks.

Advantages of cold extrusion over hot extrusion include,

 Process not having to heat the work,

 Higher production rate,
 No oxidation and scale form on surfaces,
 Greater geometric accuracy,
 Better surface finish
 Ability to strengthen the part by way of strain hardening.

DIRECT or FORWARD EXTRUSION

In manufacturing industry, extrusion processes can be classified into two main

categories, direct and indirect. Hollow extrusions, as well as cross sections, can be
manufactured by both methods. Each method, however, differs in its application of force
and is subject to different operational factors.

In Direct or forward extrusion, the

work billet is contained in a chamber. The
ram exerts force on one side of the work
piece, while the forming die, through which
the material is extruded, is located on the
opposite side of the chamber. The length of
extruded metal product flows in the same
direction that the force is applied.

During direct extrusion, metal flow and forces required are affected by the friction
between the work piece and the chamber walls. Particularly in hot working, oxide scale
build up on the outer surfaces of the work piece can negatively influence the operation.

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For these reasons, it is common manufacturing practice to place a dummy block

(follower pad) ahead of the ram. The dummy block is of slightly smaller diameter than
the chamber and work piece. As the metal extrusion proceeds, the outermost surface of
the work is not extruded and remains in the chamber. This material will form a thin shell,
(called skull), that will later be removed. Much of the skull will be comprised on the
surface layer of oxidized scale from the work metal.

BACKWARD or INDIRECT EXTRUSION

Indirect extrusion is a particular type of metal extrusion process in which the work
piece is located in a chamber that is completely closed off at one side. The metal
extrusion die are located on the ram, which exerts force from the open end of the
chamber. As the manufacturing process
proceeds, the extruded product flows in
the opposite direction that the ram is
moving. For this purpose the ram is made
hollow, so that the extruded section
travels through the ram itself. This
manufacturing process is advantageous
in that there are no frictional forces
between the work piece and the chamber
walls. Indirect extrusion does present
limitations. Tooling and machine set up
are more complicated, hollow rams are
not as strong and less ridged and support
of the length of the metal extrusion's profile, as it travels out of the mold, is more
difficult.

Indirect extrusion can also be used to produce hollow parts. In this process, a
ram is forced into the work material. The ram gives the internal geometry to the tubular
part, while the material is formed around it. Difficulties in supporting the ram limit this
process and the length of tubular metal extrusions that may be manufactured.

IMPACT EXTRUSION

Impact extrusion is a discrete manufacturing process, in which a metal part is

extruded through the impact of a die with the work stock. The part is formed at a high
speed and over a relatively short stroke. In impact extrusions, mechanical presses are
most often employed. The force used to form in standard extrusions is usually delivered
over a horizontal vector, producing a long continuous product. But in this method, Force
used to form is usually delivered over a vertical vector, producing a single part with each
impact of the punch. Impact extrusion is most often performed cold. Occasionally with
some metals and thicker walled structures, the work is heated before impact forming it.

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This process is best suited for softer metals, aluminum is a great material for forming by
impacting.

In manufacturing operation of impact extrusion, a work piece is placed in a mold

and struck with great force, causing the metal to flow into position in an instant. The
forces acting on the machinery are extreme, particularly on the punch and die. Tooling
must have sufficient impact resistance, fatigue resistance and strength, for extruding
metal by impact. There are three basic types of impact extrusion processes, forward,
reverse and combination. The different categories are based on the kind of metal flow
that occurs during the process. In forward impact extrusion, metal flows in the same
direction that the force is delivered. In backward impact extrusion, the metal flows in the
opposite direction that the force is delivered. In combination, the metal flows in both
directions.

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Benefits of impact extrusion compared to conventional extrusion

 Raw material savings of up to 90%

 Reduced machining times up to 75%
 Elimination of secondary machining operations
 Reduction in multi-part assemblies
 Improved mechanical properties for material strength and machining due to
cold working of the material
 Significantly reduced total part costs up to 50%

HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION

In hydrostatic extrusion the work piece is held in a sealed chamber surrounded

by pressurized liquid. Hydrostatic extrusion is actually a form of direct extrusion. The
force delivered through the ram is what pressurizes the liquid. The liquid applies
pressure to all surfaces of the work billet. When the ram moves forward, it is the force
from the incompressible fluid that pushes the work through the die, extruding the metal
part.

A critical aspect of manufacturing by this process is setup. The metal work billet
must first be tapered to fit through the die opening, thus creating a seal. This is done
before adding the liquid, in order to prevent leaking. Since the liquid is under great
pressure, this taper must be precise to create a robust bond. Many different shapes
may be manufactured by this process, using a variety of materials.

Liquid pressure from all directions also greatly decreases the chances of buckling
of the work.

Hydrostatic extrusion
may be performed at room or
elevated temperatures,
depending upon the
manufacturing process. When
performed hot, the liquid will
insulate the work from thermal
gradients between the
container and work material.
An advanced variation of this
process is called fluid to fluid
extrusion. This process is
basically the same, except
that the part is extruded into a
second chamber also
containing pressurized liquid. The liquid in the second chamber is of a lower pressure
than the first. Several different kinds of liquids are used when manufacturing by

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hydrostatic extrusion, including oils, waxes, melted polymers and molten glass.
Hydrostatic extrusion has not had much use in manufacturing industry, due to the
complicated equipment and procedures, work preparation, long cycle times and
dangers of working with hot, high pressure liquid.

Advantages of Hydrostatic Extrusion

 No friction amidst the container and billet. This minimizes the force
requirements, allowing higher reduction ratios, faster speeds, & lower billet
temperatures.
 Friction of the die can be largely reduced by a film of pressurized lubricant
amidst the die surface and deforming metal.
 On applying high pressures, the ductility of material increases.
 Even flow of material.
 Large billets & large cross-sections are extruded.
 Uniform hydrostatic pressure inside the container eliminates the requirement
of billets being straightened and extrusion of coiled wire.
 No billet residue is left on the walls of container.

Limitations of Hydrostatic Extrusion

There are a number of limitations in the hydrostatic extrusion, especially when a

large volume of fluid is used in comparison with the billet volume, which is to be
extruded. These limitations are as follows:

 Increased handling for the injection and removal of the fluid for every
extrusion cycle
 Decreased control of speed of the billet & stopping because of potential stick-
slip and enormous stored energy in the compressed fluid
 Decreased process efficiency in terms of billet-to-container volume ratio
 Enhanced complications, when extrusion is done at elevated temperatures

Defects in Extrusion

Surface cracking

Surface cracking occurs when the surface of an extrusion splits, which is often
caused by the extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also
happen at lower temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.

Internal cracking

Internal cracking occurs when the centre of the extrusion develops cracks or
voids. These cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the center
line in the deformation zone in the die.

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Pipe

It is the flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the centre of
the product. Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer
regions of the billet.

Surface lines

These are the lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This depends
heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained, as some
residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the
embossed lines.

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UNIT – IV
SHEET METAL PROCESSES

SYLLABUS

Sheet metal characteristics – shearing, bending and drawing operations – Stretch

forming operations – Formability of sheet metal – Test methods –special forming
processes-Working principle and applications – Hydro forming – Rubber pad forming –
Metal spinning– Introduction of Explosive forming, magnetic pulse forming, peen
forming, Super plastic forming – Micro forming

INTRODUCTION

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the
fundamental forms used in metalworking and it can be cut and bent into a variety of
shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed with sheet metal. Thicknesses can
vary significantly; extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces
thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a
continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.

The thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure

known as its gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly
used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauges to about 7 gauges. Gauge differs
between ferrous (iron based) metals and a nonferrous metal such as aluminum or
copper; copper thickness, for example is measured in ounces (and represents the
thickness of 1 ounce of copper rolled out to an area of 1 square foot).

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such
as aluminum, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses,
important sheet metals include silver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also
utilized as a catalyst.)

Sheet metal is used for car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings
(architecture) and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with
high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications
in transformersand electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was
in plate armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative

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uses, including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or
"tin knockers")

Sheet Metal Characteristics

TABLE 4.1

Characteristic Description
Elongation : The capability of the sheet metal to stretch without
necking and failure are determined; high strain-
hardening exponent (n) and strain-rate sensitivity
exponent (m) desirable.

Yield-point elongation : Observed with mild-steel sheets; also called Lueder‘s

bands and stretcher strains; causes flame like
depressions on the sheet surfaces; can be eliminated
by temper rolling, but sheet must be formed within a
certain time after rolling.

Anisotropy (planar) : Exhibits different behavior in different planar

directions; present in cold-rolled sheets because of
preferred orientation or mechanical fibering; causes
earing in drawing; can be reduced or eliminated by
annealing but at lowered strength.

Anisotropy (normal) : Determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during

stretching; important in deep drawing operations.

Grain size : Determines surface roughness on stretched sheet

metal; the coarser the grain, the rougher the
appearance (orange peel); also affects material
strength.

Residual stresses : Caused by non-uniform deformation during forming;

causes part distortion when sectioned and can lead to
stress-corrosion cracking; reduced or eliminated by
stress relieving.

Spring back : Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically deformed

sheet after unloading; causes distortion of part and
loss of dimensional accuracy; can be controlled by
techniques such as over bending and bottoming of the
punch.

Wrinkling : Caused by compressive stresses in the plane of the

sheet; can be objectionable or can be useful in

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imparting stiffness to parts; can be controlled by

proper tool and die design.

Quality of sheared edges : Depends on process used; edges can be rough, not
square, and contain cracks, residual stresses, and a
work-hardened layer, which are all detrimental to the
formability of the sheet; quality can be improved by
control of clearance, tool and die design, fine blanking,
shaving, and lubrication.

Surface condition of sheet : Depends on rolling practice; important in sheet

forming as it can cause tearing and poor surface
quality

Classification of sheet metal working processes

Sheet metal

Shearing Bending Drawing

The term "shearing or cutting process" is refers to a specific cutting process that
produces straight line cuts to separate a piece of sheet metal. Most commonly, shearing
is used to cut a sheet parallel to an existing edge which is held square, but angled cuts
can be made as well. For this reason, shearing is primarily used to cut sheet stock into
smaller sizes in preparation for other processes. Shearing has the following capabilities:

 Sheet thickness: 0.005-0.25 inches

 Tolerance: ±0.1 inches (±0.005 inches feasible)
 Surface finish: 250-1000 μin (125-2000 μin feasible)

The shearing process is performed on a shear machine, often called a squaring

shear or power shear, that can be operated manually (by hand or foot) or by hydraulic,
pneumatic, or electric power.

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A variety of cutting processes that utilize shearing forces exist to separate or remove
material from a piece of sheet stock in different ways. Each process is capable of
forming a specific type of cut, some with an open path to separate a portion of material
and some with a closed path to cutout and remove that material. By using many of
these processes together, sheet metal parts can be fabricated with cutouts and profiles
of any 2D geometry. Such cutting processes include the following:

 Shearing - Separating material into two parts

 Blanking - Removing material to use for parts
 Conventional blanking
 Fine blanking
 Punching - Removing material as scrap
 Piercing
 Slotting
 Perforating
 Notching
 Nibbling
 Lancing
 Slitting
 Parting
 Cutoff
 Trimming
 Shaving
 Dinking

Blanking

Blanking is a cutting process in which a piece of sheet

metal is removed from a larger piece of stock by applying
a great enough shearing force. In this process, the piece
removed, called theblank, is not scrap but rather the
desired part. Blanking can be used to cutout parts in
almost any 2D shape, but is most commonly used to
cut workpieces with simple geometries that will be further
shaped in subsequent processes.

Final parts that are produced using blanking include

gears, jewelry, and watch or clock components. Blanked
parts typically require secondary finishing smoothing out

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burrs along the bottom edge.

The hydraulic press drives the punch downward at high speed into the sheet. A
small clearance, typically 10-20% of the material thickness, exists between the punch
and die. When the punch impacts the sheet, the metal in this clearance quickly bends
and then fractures. The blank which has been sheared from the stock now falls freely
into the gap in the die. This process is extremely fast, with some blanking presses
capable of performing over 1000 strokes per minute.

Fine blanking
Fine blanking is a specialized type of blanking in which the blank is sheared from the
sheet stock by applying 3 separate forces. This technique produces a part with better
flatness, a smoother edge with minimal burrs, and tolerances as tight as ±0.0003. As a
result, high quality parts can be blanked that do not require any secondary operations.
However, the additional equipment and tooling does add to the initial cost and makes
fine blanking better suited to high volume production. Parts made with fine blanking
include automotive parts, electronic components, cutlery, and power tools.

In fine blanking, the clearance between the punch and the die is smaller, around
0.01 inches, and the blanking is performed at slower speeds. As a result, instead of
the material fracturing to free the blank, the blank flows and is extruded from the sheet,
providing a smoother edge.

Punching

Punching is a cutting process in which material is removed from a piece of sheet

metal by applying a great enough shearing force. Punching is very similar to blanking
except that the removed material, called the slug, is scrap and leaves behind the
desired internal feature in the sheet, such as a hole or
slot. Punching can be used to produce holes and
cutouts of various shapes and sizes. The most
common punched holes are simple geometric shapes
(circle, square, rectangle, etc.) or combinations
thereof. The edges of these punched features will
have some burrs from being sheared but are of fairly
good quality. Secondary finishing operations are
typically performed to attain smoother edges.

The punching process requires a punch press,

sheet metal stock, punch, and die. The punch press

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drives the punch downward at high speed through the sheet and into the die below.
There is a small clearance between the edge of the punch and the die, causing the
material to quickly bend and fracture. The slug that is punched out of the sheet falls
freely through the tapered opening in the die. This process can be performed on a
manual punch press, the punch press can be hydraulically, pneumatically, or electrically
powered and deliver around 600 punches per minute.

Typical punching operation is one in which a cylindrical punch tool pierces the sheet
metal, forming a single hole. However, a variety of operations are possible to form
different features. These operations include the following:

Piercing

The typical punching operation, in which a cylindrical

punch pierces a hole into the sheet. The size of hole is very

small (i.e. less than 1mm)

Slotting

A punching operation that forms rectangular holes

or any polygonal shape in the sheet. Sometimes
described as piercing despite the different shape

Perforating

Punching a close arrangement of a large number of holes in a

single operation

Notching

Punching the edge of a sheet, forming a notch in

the shape of a portion of the punch

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Nibbling

Punching a series of small overlapping slits or holes

along a path to cutout a larger contoured shape. This
eliminates the need for a custom punch and die but will
require secondary operations to improve the accuracy and
finish of the feature.

Lancing

Creating a partial cut in the sheet, so that no material

is removed. The material is left attached to be bent and
form a shape, such as a tab, vent, or louver.

Slitting

Cutting straight lines in the sheet. No scrap material is

produced.

Parting

Separating a part from the remaining sheet, by

punching away the material between parts.

Cutoff

Separating a part from the remaining sheet, without

producing any scrap. The punch will produce a cut line that
may be straight, angled, or curved.

Trimming

Punching away excess material from the perimeter of a

part, such as trimming the flange from a drawn cup.

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Shaving

Shearing away minimal material from the edges of a

feature or part, using a small die clearance.Used to
improve accuracy or finish. Tolerances of ±0.001 inches
are possible.

Types of dies used for shearing operation

A typical die and punch set used for blanking operation is shown in Figure. The
sheet metal used is called strip or stock. The punch which is held in the punch holder is
bolted to the press ram while die is bolted on the press table. During the working stroke,
the punch penetrates the strip, and on the return stroke of the press ram the strip is
lifted with the punch, but it is removed from the punch by the stripper plate. The stop pin
is a gage and it sets the advance of the strip stock within the punch and die. The strip
stock is butted against the back stop acting as a datum location for the centre of the
blank.

The die opening is given angular clearance to permit escape of good part (blank).
The waste skeleton of stock strip, from which blanks have been cut, is recovered as
salvaged material.

The clearance angle provided on the diedepends on the material of stock, as

well as its thickness. For thicker and softer materials generally higher angular clearance
is given. In most cases, 2 degree of angular clearance is sufficient. The height of cutting
land of about 3 mm is generally sufficient.

Clearance

In blanking operation, the die size is taken as the blank size and the punch is
made smaller giving the necessary clearance between the die and the punch.

Die size = blank size

Punch size = blank size – 2 x clearance

Clearance = k .t . 𝑟

where t = shear strength of material, t = thickness of sheet metal stock, and k is a

constant whose value may be taken as 0.003.

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In a piercing operation , the following equations hold.

Punch size = blank size

Die size = blank size + 2 x clearance

Clearance = k .t . 𝑟

Types of dies

Simple die

A simple cutting die is shown in Figure

Description

Bed : The bed is lower part of press frame that serves as a table on
which a bolster plate is mounted.

Bolster Plate : Bolster plate is a thick plate secured to the press bed, which is
used for locating and supporting the die assembly. Its thickness is
usually 5 to 12.5 cm.

Die set : Die set is unit assembly which incorporates a lower and upper
shoe, two or more guide posts and guide post bushings.

Die : Die is the female part of a complete tool for producing work in a
press. It is also referred to a complete tool consisting of pair of
mating members for producing work in press.

Die Block : It is the block or a plate which contains the die cavity.

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Lower Shoe : The lower shoe of a die set is generally mounted on the upper
plate of a press. The die block is mounted on the lower shoe. The
guide posts are also mounted in it.

Punch : Punch is the male component of the die assembly which is directly
or indirectly moved by or fastened to the press ram or slide.

Upper Shoe : It is the upper part of the die set which contain die post bushings

Punch Plate : The punch plate or punch retainer fits closely over the body of the
punch and holds it in proper relative position.

Back Up Plate : It is also called pressure plate. It is placed so that the intensity of
pressure does not become excessive on punch holder. The plate
distributes the pressure over a wide area and intensity of pressure
on the punch holder is reduced to avoid crushing.

Stripper : Stripper is a plate which is used to strip the metal strip from a
cutting or non-cutting punch or die. It may also guide the strip.

Knock Out : Knock out mechanism is used to remove the workpiece from a die.
It is connected to and operated by the press ram.

Pitman : Pitman is a connecting rod which is used to transmit the motion

from the main drive shaft to the press slide.

Compound die

Compound die combines

the principles of the
conventional and inverted dies
in one station. This type of die
may produce a workpiece
which is pierced and blanked in
one operation at one station.
The piercing punch is fastened
in the conventional position to
the punch holder. Its matching
die opening for piercing is
machined into the blanking
punch. The blanking punch and
blanking die opening are
mounted in an inverted
position. The blanking punch is
fastened to the die shoe and
the blanking die opening is

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fastened to the punch holder.

It is used for producing washer which is piercing and blanked at one station in
one operation.
Advantages
 Accuracy is more
 Large parts can be blanked in a smaller press
 Shorter length of strip material can be used.
 The cost of production is very less.

Disadvantages
 More expensive to construct and repair
 Slower in operation as compared with progressive die
 Heaviest construction.
 Complicated design.

Progressive die

It is also called a follow on die. The progressive die is shown in Figure. It

performs two or more operations in one stroke of a ram at different stages. First
operation is punching, which is followed by blanking. The metal strip is transferred to the
next station in between the stroke to produce a complete workpiece.
When the piercing
punch cuts a hole in the
strip, the blanking punch
draws out a portion of
the metal strip in which a
hole had been pierced at
a previous station. The
metal strip is fed into the
die mechanically or
manually. The primary
stop is pushed in by
hand and lead end is
then made to contact
with it. The press is now
made to operate to
pierce a hole at station 1.
As the primary stop is released, the strip is transferred to the station 2. The strip
contacts with automatic button die stop at station 2.

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During the next stroke, the pilot on blanking punch enters the previously pierced
hole which ensures the exact alignment of the strip to be blanked next. The die stop
activation pin pushes the die stop pin below the edge of the blank. Hence the strip is
transferred to next station on return stroke of the ram. The button die stop pin returns to
its normal position and holds the strip on the inside wall of the blanked hole. During the
third stroke, another complete part is produced and thereafter parts are produced at
each stroke of the ram. In a progressive die, force required is reduced to a large extent
due to the staggering of punches. The disadvantage of progressive die is that it makes
balancing of the punches difficult.

Transfer die
Transfers dies are same as progressive dies, the only difference being that the
already cut blanks are fed manually or automatically from station to station. First
operation is blanking, which is followed by piercing.

Combination Dies
In a combination die, cutting action is combined with non-cutting actions, i.e.
forming. Non-cutting actions may be bending, drawing, extrusion or embossing. More
than one operation is possible in one stroke at a single stage, but the die is more useful
for two operations only.
The principle of working of
a combination dies is
shown in Figure

The die ring is mounted on

the die shoe. The die ring
is counter bored at the
bottom to allow the flange
of a pad to travel up and
down. This pad is held
flush with the face of die
by a spring. The drawing
punch of required shape is
attached to the die shoe.
The blanking punch is
placed in the punch
holder. The stripper (spring operated) strips the skeleton from the blanking punch. As
the workpiece comes in contact with the knock out bar during the return stroke, knock
out removes the part attached to the punch. As the part is blanked, the blank holding

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comes down. Then the drawing punch contacts and forces the blank into the drawing
die which is made into the blanking punch.

Bending

Bending is a manufacturing process; it is defined as the straining of the sheet metal

around a straight edge. It produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a
straight axis in ductilematerials called sheet metal.

Bending induces plastic deformation in the material, so the part retains its shape after
the bending force is released.

Figure (a) shows a simple bend on a rectangular blank. The top profile of the blank
undergoes extension – a thin element along the top surface will be longer after the
bending than the initial length; likewise, the bottom portion experiences compression.
Thus, as we travel from the bottom to the top, there is some layer in the middle which
retains its original length – this forms the neutral axis. The location of the neutral axis,
and therefore its length, determines the length of the blank we must begin with, in order
to get the final part with the correct geometry.

Types of bending

 V – Bending

One of the most common types of sheet metal manufacturing processes is V

bending. The V shaped punch forces the work into the V shaped die and hence
bends it. This type of process can bend both very acute and very obtuse angles,
also anything in between, including 90°.

 Edge Bending (wiping)

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Edge bending is another very common sheet metal process and is performed
with a wiping die. Edge bending gives a good mechanical advantage when
forming a bend. However, angles greater than 90 degrees will require more
complex equipment, capable of some horizontal force delivery.

 Rotary bending

Rotary bending forms the work by a similar mechanism as edge bending.

However, rotary bending uses a different design than the wiping die. A cylinder,
with the desired angle cut out, serves as the punch. The cylinder can rotate
about one axis and is securely constrained in all other degrees of motion by its
attachment to the saddle. The sheet metal is placed cantilevered over the edge
of the lower die, similar to the setup in edge bending.

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Spring Back

At the end of the bending operation, when the pressure on the metal is released, there
is an elastic recovery of the material. This cause a decrease in the bend angle and this
phenomenon is called as spring back.

To compensate for springback two methods are commonly used:

 Œ Over bending—the punch angle and radius are smaller than the final ones.
 • Bottoming—squeezing the part at the end of the stroke.

Other types of bending

 Air Bending

Air Bending is the most

common type of bending
process used in sheet
metal shops today. In
this process the work
piece is only in contact
with the edge of
the Die and the tip of
the Punch. The punch is them forced the top of the die into the v-opening
without coming into contact with the bottom of the V.

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BEND ALLOWANCE

This is the stretching length that occurs duringbending. It must be accounted to

determine thelength of the blank

BA = 𝛼 (R + kt)

Where,

BA = bend allowance (mm)

𝛼 = bend angle (radian)

R = bend radius (mm)

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t = thickness of sheet (mm), and

k = constant,

whose value may be taken as 1/3 when R < 2t, and as 1/2 when R ³ 2t.

Example

A 20 mm wide and 4 mm thick C 20 steel sheet is required to be bent at 600 at

bend radius 10 mm. determine the bend allowance.

Solution.

Here, bend radius R = 10 mm Sheet thickness t = 4 mm

60
𝛼 = 2𝜋 ×
360
Since R > 2t, k = 0.5

Bend allowance

60
= (2 × 𝜋 × ) (10 + 0.5 × 4) = 12.56 𝑚𝑚
360
Bending Force :

The bending force is required to perform bending depends on the geometry of

the punch and die, strength, thickness and width of the sheet metal. The bending force
can be estimated from the following simple relation.

𝐾𝑏ƒ𝑇𝑆𝜔𝑡2
𝐹=
𝐷
Where

F = Bending force

TS = tensile strength of sheet metal

w = width of the part in the direction of the bend axis

t = thickness of sheet metal

D = Die opening dimension

Kbf = bending factor 1.33 = V-Bending

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Bending Operation

 Flanging

Flanging is one kind of bending operation in

which the edge of the sheet metal part is
bending at 90o angle to form a rim or flange. It
is often used to strengthen or stiffen the sheet
metal part. There are three type of flanging,
they are:

o Straight
o Stretch
o Shrink
 Hemming

Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over

on itself, in more than one bending step. This is often
done to eliminate the sharp edge of the piece, to
increase stiffness and to improve appearance. There
are two type of hemming, namely as:

o Flat
o Open

 Seaming – two sheet metal edges are assembled

 Curling – form the edges of the part in to a roll or curl as shown in figure

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Drawing

Drawing is sheet-metal forming operation used to make cup-shaped, box shaped or

other more complex-
curved, hollow shaped
parts. It is performed
by placing a sheet
metal blank over die
cavity and then
pushing the metal into
the opening with a
punch, as shown in
figure

The blank must usually

be held down flat
against the die by a blank holder.

Applications: beverage cans, cooking pots and automobile body panels.

DEEP DRAWING

Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is radially
drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch. The process is
considered "deep"
drawing when the
depth of the drawn
part exceeds its
diameter. This is
achieved by
redrawing the part
through a series of
dies. The flange
region (sheet metal
in the die shoulder
area) experiences a radial drawing stress and a tangential compressive stress due to

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the material retention property. These compressive stresses (hoop stresses) result in
flange wrinkles (wrinkles of the first order). Wrinkles can be prevented by using a blank
holder, the function of which is to facilitate controlled material flow into the die radius.

Deep drawing is always accompanied by other forming techniques within the press.
These other forming methods include:

 Beading: Material is displaced to create a larger, or smaller, diameter ring of

material beyond the original body diameter of a part, often used to create O-ring
seats.
 Bottom Piercing: A round or shaped portion of metal is cut from the drawn part.
 Bulging: In the bulging process a portion of the part's diameter is forced to protrude
from the surrounding geometry.
 Coining: Material is displaced to form specific shapes in the part. Typically coining
should not exceed a depth of 30% of the material thickness.
 Curling: Metal is rolled under a curling die to create a rolled edge.
 Extruding: After a pilot hole is pierced, a larger diameter punch is pushed through,
causing the metal to expand and grow in length.
 Ironing / Wall Thinning: Ironing is a process to reduce the wall thickness of parts.
Typically ironing should not exceed a depth of 30% of the material thickness.
 Necking: A portion of the part is reduced in diameter to less than the major diameter.
 Rib Forming: Rib forming involves creating an inward or outward protruding rib
during the drawing process.
 Stamping / Marking: This process is typically used to put identification on a part,
such as a part number or supplier identification.
 Threading: Using a wheel and arbor, threads are formed into a part. In this way
threaded parts can be produced within the stamping press.

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FORMABILITY OF SHEET METAL

Formability may be defined as the ease with which material may be forced into a
permanent change of shape.

The formability of a material depends on several factors. The important one

concerns the properties of material like yield strength, strain hardening rate, and
ductility. These are greatly temperature - dependent. As the temperature of material is
increased, the yield strength and rate of strain hardening progressively reduce and
ductility increases. The hot working of metal, therefore, permits relatively very large
amount of deformation before cracking.

There are several methods of predicting formability. A brief description of some

important methods follows.

Cup or Radial Drawing:

Cup drawing test uses a circular blank from the metal to be tested. It is inserted in
a die, and the severity of the draw it is able to withstand without tearing called the
drawing ratio, is noted. The drawing ratio is the ratio of the cup diameter to the blank
diameter.

Where Rd = drawing ratio

D = blank diameter

d = punch diameter

A drawing ratio of 50 % is considered excellent. As shown in Fig 4.1(a), either a flat

bottom punch with lubricated blank may be used to draw the cup, or as shown in Fig
4.1(b) a blank may be drawn by a lubricated hemi – spherical punch. In the first case,
the action is principally that of drawing in which cylindrical stretching of material takes
place. In the second case, there will be bi – axial stretching of the material. For drawing,
the clamping force is just sufficient to prevent buckling of the material at the draw radius
as it enters the die. The deformation takes place in the flange and over the draw radius.

Fukui Conical – Cup Test:

It utilizes a hemispherical, smoothly polished punch. No blank holder is required.

In each test, a drawing ratio which will result in a broken cup is determined. Formation
of wrinkles is avoided by using a fixed ratio between the thickness of the sheet, the size
of the blank, and the punch and die diameters. Under these conditions, the test
produces a known amount of stretching, drawing, and bending under tension.

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Normal Anisotropy Coefficient:

The material is subjected to uni-axial tensile test. The anisotropy coefficient is

derived from the ratio of the plastic width strain eW to the thickness strain et . A material
with a high plastic anisotropy also has a greater ―thinning resistance.‖ In general, the
higher the anisotropy coefficient the better the material deforms in drawing operations.

Strain-Hardening Coefficient:

Strain hardening refers to the fact that as a metal deforms in some area,
dislocations occur in the microstructure. As these dislocations pile up, they tend to
strengthen the metal against further deformation in that area. Thus the strain is spread
throughout the sheet. However, at some point in the deformations, the strain suddenly
localizes and necking, or localized thinning, develops. When this occurs, little further
overall deformation of the sheet can be obtained without it fracturing in the necked
region.

The strain – hardening coefficient therefore reflects how well the metal distributes
the strain throughout the sheet, avoiding or delaying localized necking. The higher the
strain – hardening coefficient, the move the material will harden as it is being stretched
and the greater will be the resistance to localized necking. Necks in the metal harm
surface appearance and affect structural integrity.

For many stamping operations, stretching of the metal is the critical factor and is
dependent on the strain – hardening coefficient. Therefore, stampings that need much
drawing should be made from metal having high average strain – hardening
coefficients. Yield strength should be low to avoid wrinkles or buckling

Forming Limit Curve:

The forming – limit curve is a good index of determining the formability of sheet
metal. Essentially, it requires to draw a curve that shows a boundary line between
acceptable strain levels in forming and those that may cause failure, Fig 4.2.

Fig 4.2 The relationship of major, e1 , and minor, e2 , strains is established by

measurement after forming.

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The curve indicates the relation between major and minor strains that are
perpendicular to the plane of the sheet. To determine these strains, a grid of circles is
marked on the sheet metal, say by an electrolytic stencil – etching process. After the
metal is deformed, the circles are measured to obtain the major strain e1 and the minor
strain e2 , as shown in Fig 4.2 Typically, ten to fifteen data points are obtained from a
test specimen in the region of fracture. Ellipses lying both in the failed region and just
outside of it are measured. The forming – limit curve is then drawn to fall below the
strains in the necked and fractured zones, and above the strains found just outside
these zones (Fig 4.3)

With controlled variation in

specimen size it is possible to plot an
entire forming – limit curve from one test
setup. A reasonably accurate forming
limit curve may be obtained with four
specimens while a precision curve may
be obtained with eight specimens.

In may be noted that ―local‖

ductility varies for different metals, so no
universal forming – limit curve can be developed. For example, two metals may have
peak local ductilities of 20% and 50% at a given minor strain. The metal with the 20 %
local ductility (high strain –
hardening coefficient) may
turn out to be the best choice
because the strain will then
have a better distribution
throughout, allowing the
entire sheet to be stretched
20%. If the other sheet
showed little strain
hardening, it might stretch by
50% in local area, but leave
the rest of the sheet
relatively unstrained.

Through the use of

formability – prediction
techniques. Designers and
fabricators are able to make
a wider choice of metals and
obtain date quickly on newer
metals. The essential data
can be obtained before the
die is designed. Also metal suppliers will be able to establish whether a material
possesses required formability before it is shipped from the plant.

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Stretch forming

Stretch forming is a very accurate and precise method for forming metal shapes,
economically. The level of precision is so high that even intricate multi-components and
snap-together curtainwall components can be formed without loss of section properties
or original design function. Stretch forming capabilities include portions of circles,
ellipses, parabolas and arched shapes. These shapes can be formed with straight leg
sections at one or both ends of the curve. This eliminates several conventional
fabrication steps and welding.

The stretch forming process involves stretch forming a metal piece over a male
stretch form block (STFB) using a pneumatic and hydraulic stretch press. Stretch
forming is widely used in producing automotive body panels. Unlike deep drawing, the
sheet is gripped by a blank holder to prevent it from being drawn into the die. It is
important that the sheet can deform by elongation and uniform thinning.

The variety of shapes and cross sections that can be stretch formed is almost
unlimited. Window systems, skylights, store fronts, signs, flashings, curtainwalls,
walkway enclosures, and hand railings can be accurately and precisely formed to the
desired profiles.

Benefits

 Close and consistent tolerances,

 No surface defacing,
 No distortion or ripples,

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 No surface misalignment of complex profiles

 smooth and even surface results

This process is ideally suited for the manufacture of large parts made from aluminum,
but does just as well with stainless steel and commercially pure titanium. It is quick,
efficient, and has a high degree of repeatability.

Stretch forming method

 Form block Method

 Mating Die Method

Hydroforming
Hydroforming, sometimes referred to as fluid forming or rubber diaphragm forming, was
developed during the late 1940's and early 1950's in response to a need for a lower cost
method of producing relatively small quantities of deep drawn parts.

Hydroforming, in simple terms, replaces the punch in traditional stamping with liquid--
usually water--to provide shaping force. Hydroforming refers to the manufacture, via
fluid pressure, of hollow parts with complex geometries. Hydroforming can be used to
shape tubes or extrusions—where it finds its greatest use--or to shape sheet blanks.

In tube and extrusion hydroforming, the workpiece is inflated by introducing fluid into the
cavity while the tube undergoes axial or radial compression. The tube then expands
where permitted by the tooling to the die wall. Such hydroforming in many cases is
preceded by forming steps such as bending the tube to distribute where it‘s needed—
corner radii, usually--for final hydroforming, or bent in order to fit into the die.
Hydroforming dies used for tubes or extrusions consist of upper and lower blocks and
plates as well as axial units used for sealing and end-feeding of the part.

A sheet blank can be formed via fluid applied directly or through a bladder system to
force the sheet to assume the shape of the die wall or punch end. Here, the punch may
provide additional pressure to assist in the process.

The hydroforming process requires specialized presses—or specially fitted hydraulic

presses--and tooling as well as fluid delivery, storage, disposal and reclamation
capability. Fluid pressure can range from the about 3,000 to nearly 100,000 psi.

Competitive processes

Deep-draw stamping, tube bending, fabrication.

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Applications -

In automotive, the process delivers hollow parts such as radiator frames, engine
cradles, exhaust manifolds, roof and frame rails and instrument-panel supports. Various
rails, manifolds and supports find use in aircraft and appliance applications. Parts made
through sheet hydroforming, currently a low-volume specialty process, include
automotive deep-drawn fuel-tank trays and body panels as well as appliance parts such
as panels and sink basins. The process also works well with smaller parts such as
fittings and fuel filler necks

Benefits -

 Lighterweight parts in applications where it has replaced traditional stamping,

fabrication and assembly methods.
 One-piecehydro formed parts can replace assemblies, thus increasing structural
integrity while saving on material costs and reducing scrap.
 Hydroforming is better suited in producing parts from high-strength steel and
aluminum than competing processes.

Recently, technology has allowed inclusion of operations such as piercing during

hydroforming.

Capacities:

Part size is dependent on press size. Currently, the largest hydroforming press
available can churn out parts to nearly 20 ft. long, but typical parts are less than half that

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size, and can be produced in sizes down to a few inches. Cycle times are slower than
traditional stamping methods.

Materials:

High-strength steel and aluminum are the materials of choice in hydroforming

parts for automotive use. But any sheet material that can be cold formed is a candidate
for hydroforming.

Electrohydraulic Forming

In electrohydraulic forming, an electric arc discharge is used to convert electrical

energy to mechanical energy. A capacitor bank delivers a pulse of high current across
two electrodes, which are positioned a short distance apart while submerged in a fluid
(water or oil). The electric arc discharge rapidly vaporizes the surrounding fluid creating
a shock wave. The workpiece, which is kept in contact with the fluid, is deformed into an
evacuated die.

The potential
forming capabilities
of submerged arc
discharge
processes were
recognized as early
as the middle of
1940s. During the
1950s and early
1960s, the basic
process was
developed into
production systems.
This work principally
was by and for the aerospace industries. By 1970, forming machines based on
submerged arc discharge, were available from machine tool builders. A few of the larger
aerospace fabricators built machines of their own design to meet specific part
fabrication requirements.

Electrohydraulic forming is a variation of the older, more general, explosive

forming method. The only fundamental difference between these two techniques is the
energy source, and subsequently, the practical size of the forming event.

Very large capacitor banks are needed to produce the same amount of energy as
a modest mass of high explosives. This makes electrohydraulic forming very capital

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intensive for large parts. On the other hand, the electrohydraulic method was seen as
better suited to automation because of the fine control of multiple, sequential energy
discharges and the relative compactness of the electrode-media containment system.

RUBBER PAD FORMING

The name of
rubber pad forming
is also called as
Guerin Process.

Rubber pad
forming (RPF) is
a metalworking proc
ess where sheet
metal is pressed
between a die and
a rubber block,
made
of polyurethane.
Under pressure, the
rubber and sheet
metal are driven into
the die and conform
to its shape, forming the part. The
rubber pads can have a general
purpose shape, like a membrane.
Alternatively, they can be machined
in the shape of die or punch.

Rubber pad forming has been

used in production lines for many
years. Up to 60% of all sheet metal
parts in the aerospace industry are
fabricated using this process. The
most relevant applications are indeed
in the aerospace field.It is frequently
used in prototyping shops and for the
production of kitchenware.

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METAL SPINNING PROCESS

The metal spinning process starts with special machinery that produces
rotationally symmetrical (i.e. cone-shaped) hollow parts; usually from circular blanks.
Shear forming, a related process where parts are formed over a rotating conical
mandrel, can be used to produce not only cone-shaped parts but also elliptical or other
concave or convex parts. Often, shear forming is used in conjunction with metal
spinning. Metal spinning is used as a replacement for the stamping and deep drawing
processes.

The metal spinning process starts

with a sheet metal blank which rotates on a
lathe. The metal disc is pressed against a
tool (called a mandrel or a chuck) with a
tailstock. The metal disc, tailstock and tool
rotate in a circular motion and a roller
presses against the metal to form the metal
over the tool through a series of passes by
the roller. The resulting part is a piece that
duplicates the exterior portion of the tool it
was formed on. The basic shapes in metal
spinning are cones, flanged covers,
hemispheres, cylindrical shells, venturis and
parabolic nose shapes.

Metal spinning yields pots and pans, vases, lamp shades, musical-instrument
parts and trophies. Automotive parts include wheel discs, rims, hubcaps and clutch
drums. Other examples include radar reflectors, parabolic dishes, hoppers, concrete-
mixer bodies, drums, pressure bottles, tank ends, compensator and centrifuge parts,
pulleys, hydraulic cylinders, engine inlet rings and a variety of jet-engine and missile
parts.

Some of the advantages of metal spinning include -

 Low capital-investment
 Low tooling and energy costs
 Short setup times
 Quick and inexpensive adaptation of tooling and methods to accommodate
design changes
 Ability to carry out other operations such as beading, profiling, trimming and
turning in the same production cycle with one setup.

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 Forming forces are appreciably lower than competing processes due to

localized working.
 Economical for one-off parts; prototypes; and small, medium and high
volumes.
 Any sheet material that can be cold formed for metal spinning including - cold
rolled steel, hot rolled steel, aluminum, stainless steel, brass, copper and
exotic metals such as titanium, Inconel, and haste alloy.

Tooling for spinning is relatively inexpensive and simple to employ, translating to

a short lead time for parts. Tight tolerancing requirements may require secondary
operations, but the advent of automated spinning machines allows more precise forming
than with manual spinning machines, with less reliance on operator skill.

Explosive Forming

Explosive forming has evolved as one of the most dramatic of the new
metalworking techniques. Explosive forming is employed in aerospace and aircraft
industries and has been successfully employed in the production of automotive-related
components. Explosive Forming or HERF (High Energy Rate Forming) can be utilized to
form a wide variety of metals, from aluminum to high strength alloys. In this process the
punch is replaced by an explosive charge. The process derives its name from the fact
that the energy liberated due to the detonation of an explosive is used to form the
desired configuration. The charge used is very small, but is capable of exerting
tremendous forces on the workpiece. In Explosive Forming chemical energy from the
explosives is used to generate shock waves through a medium (mostly water), which
are directed to deform the workpiece at very high velocities.

Methods of Explosive Forming

Explosive Forming Operations can be divided into two groups, depending on the
position of the explosive charge relative to the workpiece.

Standoff Method

In this method, the explosive charge is located at some predetermined distance

from the workpiece and the energy is transmitted through an intervening medium like
air, oil, or water. Peak pressure at the workpiece may range from a few thousand psi to
several hundred thousand psi depending on the parameters of the operation.

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Contact Method

In this method, the explosive charge is held in direct contact with the workpiece
while the detonation is initiated. The detonation produces interface pressures on the
surface of the metal up to several million psi (35000 MPa).

The system used for Standoff Method consists of following parts: -

1) An explosive charge
2) An energy transmitted medium
3) A die assembly
4) The workpiece.

The die assembly is put together on the bottom of a tank. Workpiece is placed on
the die and blankholder placed above. A vacuum is then created in the die cavity. The
explosive charge is placed in position over the centre of the workpiece. The explosive
charge is suspended over the blank at a predetermined distance. The complete
assembly is immersed in a tank of water.

After the detonation of explosive, a pressure pulse of high intensity is produced.

A gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and then collapses until it
vents at the surface of the water. When the pressure pulse impinges against the
workpiece, the metal is displaced into the die cavity.

Explosives

Explosives are substances that undergo rapid chemical reaction during which
heat and large quantities of gaseous products are evolved. Explosives can be solid
(TNT-trinitro toluene), liquid (Nitroglycerine), or Gaseous (oxygen and acetylene
mixtures). Explosives are divide into two classes; Low Explosives in which the
ammunition burns rapidly rather than exploding, hence pressure build up is not large,
and High Explosive which have a high rate of reaction with a large pressure build up.
Low explosives are generally used as propellants in guns and in rockets for the
propelling of missiles.

Advantages of Explosion Forming

1. Maintains precise tolerances

2. Eliminates costly welds.
3. Controls smoothness of contours.
4. Reduces tooling costs.

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5. Less expensive alternative to super-plastic forming.

Die Materials

Different materials are used for the manufacture of dies for explosive working, for
instance high strength tool steels, plastics, concrete. Relatively low strength dies are
used for short run items and for parts where close tolerances are not critical, while for
longer runs higher strength die materials are required. Kirksite and plastic faced dies
are employed for light forming operations; tool steels, cast steels, and ductile iron for
medium requirements.

Material of Die Application Area

Kirksite Low pressure and few parts

Fiberglass and Kirksite Low pressure and few parts
Fiberglass and
Low pressure and large parts
Concrete
Epoxy and Concrete Low pressure and large parts
Ductile Iron High pressure and many parts
Concrete Medium pressure and large parts

Characteristics of Explosive Forming Process

 Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric.
 Low tooling costs, but high labor cost.
 Suitable for low-quantity production.
 Long cycle times.

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Transmission Medium

Energy released by the explosive is transmitted through medium like air, water, oil,
gelatin, liquid salts. Water is one of the best media for explosive forming since it is
available readily, inexpensive and produces excellent results. The transmission medium
is important regarding pressure magnitude at the workpiece. Water is more desirable
medium than air for producing high peak pressures to the workpiece.

ADVANTAGE

1. It can simulate a variety of other conventional metal forming techniques such as

stamp- or press-forming and spin-forming in a single operation.
2. Explosive hydro-forming can efficiently form large parts – up to 4‘ square or 10‘ in
diameter.
3. It is particularly suitable for short production runs of a large parts such as occurs
in aerospace applications.
4. It maintains precise tolerances and Eliminates costly welds.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Low tooling costs, but high labor cost.

2. Suitable for low-quantity production.
3. Due to shock waves and spillage of water it is not suitable to carry out indoor.
4. It should be done in open air.

Electro Magnetic Forming

The process is also called magnetic pulse forming and is mainly used for
swaging type operations, such as fastening fittings on the ends of tubes and crimping
terminal ends of cables. Other applications are blanking, forming, embossing, and
drawing. The work coils needed for different applications vary although the same power
source may be used.

To illustrate the principle of electromagnetic forming, consider a tubular work

piece. This work piece is placed in or near a coil, (Refer figure). A high charging voltage
is supplied for a short time to a bank of capacitors connected in parallel. (The amount of
electrical energy stored in the bank can be increased either by adding capacitors to the
bank or by increasing the voltage). When the charging is complete, which takes very
little time, a high voltage switch triggers the stored electrical energy through the coil. A
high – intensity magnetic field is established which induces eddy currents into the
conductive work piece, resulting in the establishment of another magnetic field. The
forces produced by the two magnetic fields oppose each other with the consequence
that there is a repelling force between the coil and the tubular work piece that causes
permanent deformation of the work piece.

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Either permanent or
expandable coils may be
used. Since the repelling
force acts on the coil as well
the work, the coil itself and
the insulation on it must be
capable of withstanding the
force, or else they will be
destroyed. The expandable
coils are less costly and are
also preferred when high
energy level is needed.

Magnetic forming can

be accomplished in any of
the following ways,
depending upon the
requirements.

 Coil surrounding work piece. When a tube – like part x is to fit over another
part y (shown as insert in Fig. (a)), coil is designed to surround x so that when
energized, would force the material of x tightly around y to obtain necessary
fit.
 Coil inside work piece. Consider fixing of a collar on a tube – like part, as
shown in Fig. (b). The magnetic coil is placed inside the tube – like part, so
that when energized would expand the material of the part into the collar.

In electromagnetic forming, the initial gap between the work piece and the die
surface, called the fly distance, must be sufficient to permit the material to deform
plastically. From energy considerations, the ideal pressure pulse should be of just
enough magnitude that accelerates the part material to some maximum velocity and
then let the part come to zero velocity by the time it covers the full fly distance. All
forming coils fail, expendable coils fail sooner than durable coils, and because
extremely high voltages and currents are involved, it is essential that proper safety
precautions are observed by the production and maintenance personnel.

Applications

Electromagnetic forming process is capable of a wide variety of forming

and assembly operations. It has found extensive applications in the fabrication of
hollow, non – circular, or asymmetrical shapes from tubular stock. The compression
applications involve swaging to produce compression, tensile, and torque joints or

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sealed pressure joints, and swaging to apply compression bands or shrink rings for
fastening components together. Flat coils have been used on flat sheets to produce
stretch (internal) and shrink (external) flanges on ring and disc – shaped work pieces.

Electromagnetic forming has also been used to perform shearing, piercing, and
riveting.

Peen Forming

Shot peen forming is a

dieless process performed at room
temperature, whereby small round
steel shot impact the surface of the
work piece. Every piece of shot
acts as a tiny peening hammer,
producing elastic stretching of the
upper surface and local plastic
deformation that manifests itself as
a residual compressive stress. The
combination of elastic stretching
and compressive stress generation
causes the material to develop a
compound, convex curvature on
the peened side.

The shot peen forming

process is ideal for forming large
panel shapes where the bend radii are reasonably large and without abrupt changes in
contour. Shot peen forming is best suited for forming curvatures where radii are within
the metal's elastic range. Although
no dies are required for shot peen
forming, for severe forming
applications, stress peen fixtures
are sometimes used. Shot peen
forming is effective on all metals,
even honeycomb skins and ISO
grid panels.

Shot peen forming is often

more effective in developing

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curvatures than rolling, stretching or twisting of metal. Saddle-back shapes also are
achievable. Because it is a dieless process, shot peen forming reduces material
allowance from trimming and eliminates costly development and manufacturing time to
fabricate hard dies. The shot peen forming process also is flexible to design changes,
which may occur after initial design. Metal Improvement Company can make curvature
changes by adjusting the shot peen forming process.

Parts formed by shot peen forming exhibit increased resistance to flexural

bending fatigue. Unlike most other forming methods, all surface stresses generated by
shot peen forming are of a compressive nature. Although shot peen formed pieces
usually require shot peening on one side only, the result causes both sides to have
compressive stress. These compressive stresses serve to inhibit stress corrosion
cracking and to improve fatigue resistance. Some work pieces should be shot peened
all over prior to or after shot peen forming to further improve fatigue and stress
corrosion cracking resistance.

Shot peening of parts that have been cold formed by other processes overcomes
the harmful surface tensile stresses set up by these other forming processes.

SUPERPLASTIC FORMING
The superplastic forming (SPF) operation is based on the fact that some alloys
can be slowly stretched well beyond their normal limitations at elevated temperatures.
The higher temperatures mean the flow stress of the sheet material is much lower than
at normal temps. This characteristic allows very deep forming methods to be used that
would normally rupture parts. Superplastic alloys can be stretched at higher
temperatures by several times of their initial length without breaking. Superplastic
forming can produce complex shapes with stiffening rims and other structural features
as well.

The process begins by placing the sheet to be formed in an appropriate SPF die,
which can have a simple to complex geometry, representative of the final part to be
produced. The sheet and tooling are heated and then a gas pressure is applied, which
plastically deforms the sheet into the shape of the die cavity.

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Process Advantages --

 Reduced weight for high fuel efficiency

 Improved structural performance
 Increased metal formability and part complexity
 Near net shape forming of complex shapes reduces part count
 Cost/weight savings
 Low-cost tooling
 Low environmental impacts - non-lead die lubes, low noise

Materials used -

1) Titanium alloys
2) Aluminum alloys
3) Bismuth-tin alloys
4) Zinc-aluminum alloys
5) Stainless steel
6) Aluminum-lithium alloys

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