PRGRT01 Study Guide 2023

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CONTENTS
Page
WELCOME vii
SECTION A: LEARNING IN GRADE R 1

LEARNING UNIT 1: IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.2 BASIC NEEDS OF THE YOUNG LEARNER 3
1.2.1 Basic physical needs of the young child 4
1.2.2 Basic emotional (Psychological) needs 5
1.2.3 Educational needs (Need to learn) 5
1.2.4 The need for respect 5
1.3 THE CONCEPTS “GROWTH” AND “DEVELOPMENT” 6
1.4 NORMAL OR TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT 7
1.4.1 Development milestones 7
1.4.2 Sequence development 8
1.4.3 Age-level expectancies (Norms) 8
1.5 A HOLISTIC VIEW OF THE CHILD 9
1.6 LEARNERS ARE UNIQUE 10
1.6.1 Each child is exceptional 10
1.6.2 Learners with special needs 10
1.7 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 12
1.8 CONCLUSION 13
LEARNING UNIT 2: LEARNER PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: GROSS AND FINE MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT 14
2.1 INTRODUCTION 14
2.2 THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R LEARNER 15
2.3 GROSS MOTOR SKILLS 16
2.3.1 Description of gross motor skills 16
2.3.2 Gross motor development milestones and range 17
2.3.3 Kinaesthetic (movement) perception 20
2.3.4 Enhancing the Grade R learner’s gross motor skills 22
2.4 FINE MOTOR SKILLS 26
2.4.1 Description of fine motor skills 26
2.4.2 The development of fine motor skills 26
2.4.3 Enhance Grade R learners’ fine motor skills 27
2.5 PLAY MATERIALS TO ENHANCE GROSS MOTOR AND SMALL MOTOR SKILLS
DEVELOPMENT 29
2.6 PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR INTEGRATION 30
2.7 CONCLUSION 31
LEARNING UNIT 3: PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 32
3.1 INTRODUCTION 33
3.2 VISUAL PERCEPTION 33
3.2.1 Visual discrimination 33
3.2.2 Visual memory 34
(iii) PRGRT01/501/2021
3.2.3 Form perception 34
3.3 FIGURE-GROUND PERCEPTION 34
3.3.1 Visual figure-ground perception 34
3.3.2 Auditory figure-ground perception 35
3.4 AUDITORY PERCEPTION 35
3.4.1 Auditory discrimination 35
3.4.2 Auditory memory 36
3.4.3 Auditory sequencing 36
3.4.4 Auditory closure 36
3.4.5 Auditory analysis and synthesis 36
3.5 TACTILE PERCEPTION 37
3.5.1 Tactile discrimination 37
3.6 OLFACTORY (Smell) PERCEPTION 37
3.7 GUSTATORY (Taste) PERCEPTION 38
3.8 INTERMODAL PERCEPTION 38
3.9 CONCLUSION 39
LEARNING UNIT 4: COGNITIVE (INTELLECTUAL) DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R LEARNER 41
4.1 INTRODUCTION 41
4.2 UNDERSTANDING HOW LEARNERS LEARN 42
4.2.1 Jean Piaget 42
4.2.2 Lev Vygotsky 45
4.2.3 Different learning styles 46
4.2.4 Implications of learning theories for teaching 48
4.3 CONCLUSION 49
LEARNING UNIT 5: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 52
5.1 INTRODUCTION 52
5.2 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES 53
5.3 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT SEQUENCE 54
5.3.1 Language development of the infant 54
5.3.2 The language development of the toddler 55
5.3.3 The language development of the pre-grade learner 56
5.3.4 The Grade R learner 57
5.4 THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 58
5.5 CONCLUSION 58
LEARNING UNIT 6: EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R
LEARNING UNIT 7: LEARNER 59

6.1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG LEARNER 60
6.1.1 Definition of emotional development 60
6.1.2 Importance of understanding emotional development 60
6.1.3 Basic emotional development terminology 60
6.2 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 61
6.2.1 The teacher’s role in enhancing healthy emotional development 63
6.3 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 63
6.3.1 No man is an island 63
6.3.2 Social skills of the Grade R learner 64
6.3.3 Importance of opportunities for social interaction 65
6.4 MORAL DEVELOPMENT 65
6.4.1 Universal morals and ethical rules 65
6.4.2 Piaget’s moral development theory 65
6.5 GUIDELINES FOR PROMOTING SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 66
6.6 CONCLUSION 67
(iv)
LEARNING UNIT 8: IMPORTANCE OF LEARNERS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENTS 71
7.1 INTRODUCTION 72
7.2 UNDERSTANDING THE CHILD’S ENVIRONMENT 72
7.3 ECOLOGICAL MODEL 73
7.4 UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNER’S ENVIRONMENT 76
7.4.1 Importance of knowing the learner’s total context 76
7.4.2 Completing and using ecomapping 77
7.5 CONCLUSION 77
SECTION B: TEACHING IN GRADE R 79

LEARNING UNIT 9: GRADE R TEACHING: IMPORTANCE AND OUTCOMES 80
8.1 INTRODUCTION: THE FIRST 1 000 DAYS AND THE FIRST FIVE YEARS 81
8.2 THE REASONS FOR GRADE R TEACHING 81
8.3 INCLUSION OF GRADE R IN THE COMPULSORY SCHOOL PHASE 83
8.4 CONTINUITY THROUGH THE EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PHASE 84
8.4.1 Continuity of experiences 84
8.4.2 Communication between home – ECE centre – Grade R – formal school 85
8.5 YOUR TASK AS A GRADE R TEACHER 85
8.6 RESPONSIBLE AND WELL-THOUGHT-OUT PURPOSE OF GRADE R 86
8.6.1 The physical care and safety of the young child 87
8.6.2 Compensating programmes (Breaking the poverty cycle) 87
8.6.3 School readiness as the primary purpose of Grade R 88
8.6.4 Development through the teaching and learning of the whole (holistic) learner 91
8.7 CONCLUSION 95
LEARNING UNIT 10: THE RIGHT WAY TO TEACH THE YOUNG CHILD 96
9.1 THE WAYS YOUNG LEARNERS LEARN 97
9.2 PLAY AND IMITATION AS METHODS OF TEACHING 97
9.2.1 Research on the importance of play 97
9.2.2 Characteristics of a play-based teaching approach 98
9.3 THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN A PLAY-BASED APPROACH 101
9.4 CONCLUSION 102
LEARNING UNIT 11: THE DAILY PROGRAMME OF A GRADE R CLASS 104
10.1 IT IS NOT THE SAME AS GRADE 1! 105
10.1.1 The daily programme in Grade R 106
10.2 THE DIFFERENT PERIODS IN THE DAILY PROGRAMME 107
10.2.1 Structured, teacher-guided periods 107
10.2.2 Free-play activities (inside and outside) 111
10.2.3 Routine activities as a feature in the daily schedule 115
10.3 GUIDELINES WHEN PLANNING A DAILY PROGRAMME 116
10.3.1 Guideline 1 116
10.4 CONCLUSION 122
LEARNING UNIT 12: PLANNING THE CLASSROOM AND THE OUTDOOR PLAY AREA 124
11.1 PROPER PLANNING OF THE CLASSROOM IS IMPORTANT 125
11.2 PLANNING THE DIFFERENT AREAS IN THE CLASSROOM 126
11.2.1 Large construction area (Block corner) 127
11.2.2 Emergent literacy area (Book and writing corner) 127
11.2.3 Science and Mathematics area 128
(v) PRGRT01/501
11.2.4 Perceptual skills learning area 129
11.2.5 Small constructions and fine muscle area 129
11.2.6 Visual art area 130
11.2.7 Fantasy area 131
11.2.8 Maintaining discipline in the classroom 131
11.3 PLANNING THE OUTDOOR PLAY AREA 132
11.3.1 Provide a variety of outside play opportunities every day 132
11.3.2 The teacher during outdoor play 133
11.4 CONCLUSION 134
LEARNING UNIT 13: CHOOSING LEARNING CONTENT FOR THE GRADE R CLASS 135
12.1 IMPORTANCE OF SUITABLE CONTENT (THEMES AND ACTIVITIES) 136
12.2 PRINCIPLES FOR CHOOSING SUITABLE CONTENT 137
12.2.1 Themes and activities must link up with the goals of teaching 137
12.2.2 Themes and activities must be developmentally appropriate 138
12.2.3 The themes must be relevant and meaningful 139
12.2.4 Themes must be fun 140
12.2.5 Themes must be inclusive and anti-biased 140
12.3 CONCLUSION 140
LEARNING UNIT 14: ORGANISATION OF LEARNING CONTENT USING AN INTEGRATED APPROACH
IN GRADE R 142
13.1 ORGANISING LEARNING CONTENT IN GRADE R 142
13.2 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH 143
13.3 USING AN INTEGRATED METHOD TO ORGANISE LEARNING CONTENT 144
13.4 PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING FOR AN INTEGRATED METHOD OF CONTENT
ORGANISATION 145
13.5 PLANNING STEPS FOR AN INTEGRATED APPROACH 146
13.6 WRITTEN PLANNING OF TEACHING IN GRADE R 148
13.7 THE WEEKLY WRITTEN PLAN 148
13.7.1 Daily lesson planning in Grade R 151
13.8 CONCLUSION 152
LEARNING UNIT 15: MULTICULTURAL AND ANTI-BIASED EDUCATION IN GRADE R 153
14.1 INTRODUCTION 154
14.2 SETTING UP AN ANTI-BIASED AND MULTICULTURAL APPROACH 154
14.3 EXAMINE YOUR ATTITUDE 154
14.3.1 Answer the following questions 154
14.4 SETTING UP A CLASSROOM THAT IS FREE OF ANY BIASED LEARNING MATERIALS 155
14.4.1 What is stereotyping? 155
14.4.2 When is one biased? 155
14.5 COLLECTING MULTICULTURAL AND ANTI-BIASED RESOURCES 156
14.6 PLANNING ACTIVITIES FOR A MULTICULTURAL AND ANTI-BIASED APPROACH 159
14.7 IDEAS FOR MULTICULTURAL ACTIVITIES 159
14.7.1 Activities focusing on the appreciation of being the “same” and “different” 159
14.7.2 Activities challenging prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination 160
14.8 ASSESSMENT IN AN ANTI-BIASED AND MULTICULTURAL CURRICULUM 161
14.9 CONCLUSION 161
BIBLIOGRAPHY 163
(vi)
WELCOME
It is our pleasure to welcome you to the module Learning and Teaching Language in
Grade R. This module will introduce you to important language concepts necessary for
developing language among Grade R learners. Furthermore, this module will develop
your knowledge, skills and competencies on how to teach and assess language concepts
for Grade R learners within diverse contexts. We trust that you will enjoy your studies
and that this module will inspire you to become a passionate, creative and resourceful
teacher in Grade R.
1 PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

The purpose of this module is to equip qualifying students with pedagogical and
contextual knowledge for teaching and learning in Grade R. This module will enable
you to understand, plan and implement a developmentally appropriate and culturally
responsive programme for Grade R learners. Furthermore, this module will allow qualifying
students to apply an integrated and play-based approach to teaching based on the holistic
development of the Grade R learner.
2 THEMES COVERED IN PRGRT01

Before you can start to teach Grade R, you need to be able to answer two crucial questions:
• Who is the Grade R learner?

• How do we teach the Grade R learner?
The answers to these questions will be the focus of the module on “Learning and Teaching
in Grade R”.
In the first section of the module, we focus on the Grade R learner. We need to know
how the young child develops and learns. Some of you may recognise this section
as developmental or educational psychology. Knowledge about the young child’s
development and learning will serve as the starting point, not only for module 1 but
also for all the following modules.
In Section A, Learning in Grade R, we investigate the various developmental facets of

the young child, including the child as part of a specific environment (context) and also
inclusive education.
In Section B, Teaching in Grade R, we will use our knowledge of child development and
learning to understand how to teach the young learner to further their development
and learning. We start by investigating the purpose of Grade R, teaching-related skills,
and aspects of a day in Grade R. The module includes a lesson on assessment in Grade R.
(vii) PRGRT01/501
PRGRT01 serves as the backbone of all the modules that follow. You may have to revise
the module during your studies and hopefully, even as a Grade R teacher.
The topics in the first module are not simple, and some sections are even difficult to
understand. Work through Tutorial letter 501 and complete the indicated activities. The
purpose of the activities is to link (often abstract) theory with every day practical events.
3 MODULE OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Specific outcome Assessment criteria
Explain and understand the role of the • The various facets of the development of
various facets of the development of the the Grade R learner as basis for teaching and
young child as basis for teaching and learning in Grade R are described.
learning in Grade R.
Explain and understand the cultural and • Knowledge regarding the learners’ con-
socioeconomic context of the child as begin- text when teaching the Grade R learner is
ning point for the planning of relevant con- explained.
tent and teaching methodologies in Grade R. • An anti-biased approach to teaching and
learning is implemented.
Identify and describe the key concepts in in- • Basic concepts and principles of inclusive edu-
clusive education and barriers to learning that cation and barriers to learning as bases for
form the basis for the practical implementa- the implementation of inclusive education
tion of inclusive education in Grade R. in Grade R are discussed.
Explain a play-based teaching approach and • The link between a play-based approach and
its implications for teaching in Grade R. learning and teaching in Grade R is applied.
Plan, implement and assess a developmen- • The suitability of a developmentally appro-
tally appropriate daily programme in Grade R. priate daily programme for a Grade R group
is identified.
Plan and design the indoor and outdoor play • A suitable classroom and outdoor play area,
areas and emphasise learning through play in which considers contextual constraints in
Grade R. Grade R is planned and implemented.
Explain the purpose and assessment process • Basic assessment theory suitable for Grade
relevant to Grade R learners. R teaching is explained.
(viii)
4 THE STRUCTURE OF TUTORIAL LETTER 501
Tutorial letter 501 consists of 14 learning units as outlined below.
(ix) PRGRT01/501
5 NOTIONAL HOURS
Notional hours are defined in terms of the amount of time it takes the average learner to
achieve the learning outcomes. It is estimated that a learner takes, on average, 10 hours
to complete 1 credit of learning. Since this is a 24-credit module, we estimate that you
should spend a minimum of 240 notional hours studying this module. This equates to
17,2 hours allocated per learning unit.
RECOMMENDED/ESTIMATED NOTIONAL HOURS TO BE SPENT ON EACH LEARNING

UNIT FOR THIS MODULE
Learning unit Reference Notional hours

Learning unit 1 Important concepts in child development 17,2
Learning unit 2 Learner physical development: gross and fine mo- 17,2
tor development
Learning unit 3 Perceptual development 17,2
Learning unit 4 Cognitive (intellectual) development of the Grade R 17,2
learner
Learning unit 5 Language development 17,2
Learning unit 6 Emotional, social and moral development of the 17,2
Grade R learner
Learning unit 7 Importance of learners in their environments 17,2
Learning unit 8 Grade R teaching: importance and outcomes 17,2
Learning unit 9 The right way to teach the young child 17,2
Learning unit 10 The daily programme of a Grade R class 17,2
Learning unit 11 Planning the classroom and the outdoor play area 17,2
Learning unit 12 Choosing learning content for the Grade R class 17,2
Learning unit 13 Organisation of learning content using an integrated 17,2
approach in Grade R
Learning unit 14 Multicultural and anti-biased education in Grade R 17,2
Total 240 hours
6 TIME ALLOCATION
Module 1 is worth 24 credits and NQF level 5.
An academic year is planned for around 30 weeks.
Depending on when you receive your study material, we usually start the academic year
on 15 February and end around middle November. (It is more than 30 weeks, but you
also need times when activity is not too much!)
(x)
What does this mean?
The total time to study module 1 should be more or less 240 hours. That includes all
activities related to the module – from opening the Tutorial letter 501 the first time until
you put down your pen after completing the examination paper.
PRGRT01 also serves as an introduction to modules 2, 3 and 4. (The subject-directed

modules.) It is essential to complete PRGRT01 before you start with your studies of the
rest of the modules.
Aim at completing the PRGRT01 as early in your studies as possible.
7 HOW TO STUDY PRGRT01

Start by reading Tutorial letter 501 as if it is a storybook! Do not make notes – just read
and enjoy the process. The reason for this step is that you get an overview of the module.
Having an overall picture of the module will assist you when you start to study detail.
The first assignment set for module 1 is multiple-choice questions, set on all the content
of Tutorial letter 501. We want to make sure that you understand the whole picture.
Start to go through the learning units; make notes and answer the questions and complete
the activities set throughout each learning unit. The purpose of the activities is to link
theory with everyday teaching events as well as to focus on essential aspects.
To ensure that you focus on the main themes, each learning unit starts with the purpose
and outcomes. You will also find questions and other activities throughout the learning
unit.
By completing these activities, you are actively involved and not merely memorising
facts to pass an examination.
The question(s) at the end of each learning unit aim to consolidate your knowledge and
to allow you to apply your newly gained knowledge.
Some of the questions will be part of the assignment you have to submit. Assignments
serve as an assessment tool for your understanding and ability to answer questions set
on the study materials.
NOTE: While studying each learning unit, keep the assignment questions in mind! Some
questions may require insight and the answer will not come directly from Tutorial letter
501. These questions will assist your understanding and insight in the study materials.
8 ASK FOR HELP!

Please remember that although you chose to study through open distance education,
it does not have to be a lonely road. If you struggle, contact your lecturer and become
part of a study group.
(xi) PRGRT01/501
Your lecturer is an integral part of your study journey, and your success is their success!
Enjoy the ride and remember at the end of the journey is one of the most fulfilling teaching
jobs – laying the foundation of the young learner’s learning and development.
9 PRESCRIBED READING
There is no prescribed textbook for this module.
10 RECOMMENDED READING
An overview of Grade R literacy teaching and learning in inclusive classrooms in South Africa
Norma Nel, Kesh Mohangi, Soezin Krog, Oluyemi Stephens DOI: https://doi.org/10.5785/32-
2-651 (request the article from the library)
Handbook for Grade R teaching. [Reda J Davin] https://unisa.on.worldcat.org/oclc/829362333
(xii)
SECTION A
LEARNING IN GRADE R
9
Not everything that can be counted, counts, and not everything that counts can be
counted.
– Albert Einstein
1 PRGRT01/501
LEARNING UNIT 1
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Read the learning outcomes before you start with this learning unit.
Keep referring to these outcomes as you go through the work.
Outcomes
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Identify essential concepts in learner development
• Understand these concepts in your engagement with young learners
• Apply these concepts when developing suitable teaching and learning activities for
Grade R
Key concepts
• Growth – refers to the physical changes of a human

• Development – refers to the overall changes in the total human being
• Barriers – refers to the things that hinder the growth and development of a human
• Needs – refers to the things that a child must have in order to grow and develop, such
as emotional, physical and educational needs
2
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Before we start with our study of the development and learning of a typical Grade R
learner, it is vital to understand critical concepts in child development and learning. These
concepts will assist you to understand the development of the young learner, and you
will be able to work effectively with the young learner.
You are going to focus on six basic concepts, namely:
• What is the young learner’s basic needs to be able to develop and learn optimally?
• What are the differences between “growth” and “development”?
• Normal or typical development. We will answer the question: What is normal?
• A holistic view of learner development – why it is essential to focus on the whole
learner when we discuss various aspects of development separately.
• Each learner is unique – why it is vital to view and understand every learner’s
developmental needs and pace.
• The concept "Inclusive education" and why it is essential to address the learner’s
unique needs.
1.2 BASIC NEEDS OF THE YOUNG LEARNER

All learners have basic needs that need to be met if they are to survive, thrive, and develop
to their full potential. Young learners are dependent on adults (or people fulfilling the
role of an adult) to survive. The younger the child, the more dependent the child is on
adults for survival.
In Grade R learners’ lives, adults such as their parents, caregivers, family, and even their
teachers play a vital role in meeting their basic needs.
We will discuss the importance of other people in the young learner’s life in the learning unit on The
Learner in Context, where we will look at the young learner as part of a wider community.
After years of research in learner development, Harley Rotbart, a paediatrician at Colorado

Children’s Hospital, identified seven essential requirements for learners to become happy,
successful adults. None of them involves “high-tech gadgets, video games, or fancy
clothes”.
According to Rotbart, these basic needs are:
• Security: The most basic requirement for learners is to feel safe, and to have their
survival needs such as shelter, food, clothing, medical care, and protection from harm
met.
• Stability: Stability comes from family and community. Ideally, a family remains together
in a stable household. Still, when that is not possible, it is important to disrupt the
learner’s life as little as possible. Children and their families should be a part of larger
learning units to give them a sense of belonging, tradition, and cultural continuity.
• Structure: Rules, boundaries, and limits without which children are forced to be adults
before they are ready, and they lose respect for the adults in their world.
3 PRGRT01/501
• Consistency: Learners need to know that the rules, boundaries, and limits set for
them are consistent. It assists the learner in knowing how to behave.
• Emotional support: The adults in their world, their words, and actions should
encourage learner trust, respect, self-esteem, and, ultimately, independence.
• Love: Saying and showing you love your child can overcome almost any parenting
“mistakes”. Unconditional love is a prerequisite for the young learner to thrive, develop,
and learn.
• Education: Every learner needs schooling to the level such learner can comfortably
handle, and in the direction, they want to go. The most important learning, however,
is the invaluable life lessons the learner’s caretakers provide during the time they
spend together.
• Positive role models: Adults, and especially parents or caretakers, are the child’s first
and most important role models. Instil values and teach learners empathy by being
the kind of person you want them to be (Based on Children’s Basic Needs, Rotbart, H).
You will realise that although these needs are essential for the healthy development of
the young learner, we, as adults, have many of the same needs. The significant difference
is that we can meet them independently (although we also need other people in our
lives to do so).
Activity 1.1
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) Find out what is the difference between a right, need, and want/desire! (Ask people
in marketing; they can explain it to you. Marketing works mostly on wants/desires.)
(2) Read the following statement. Do you agree with it? Discuss it with friends and
family – what are their viewpoints? “The basic needs of a child are a right, and it is
society’s responsibility to ensure and meet every child’s basic needs.”
Although we discuss the learner’s various needs separately, they are interrelated and
interdependent. Meeting a learner’s physical needs while neglecting psychological needs
may lead to severe developmental problems – the opposite is also true.
1.2.1 Basic physical needs of the young child

Physical needs are the basic requirements a human being must have to survive. For a
child these are:
• Shelter, warmth, and cleanliness

• Adequate clothing
• Adequate nutrition
• Preventive health and dental care
• Treatment of physical and mental illnesses
• Rest and activity in balanced proportions
4
1.2.2 Basic emotional (Psychological) needs
As you will have realised, a learner needs more than meeting their physical needs to
thrive. They have deep-seated emotional (psychological) needs. The primary three
requirements are:
• Affection and consistency – the young learner need adults who are nurturing (warm,
loving, caring) and can be depended on to be there for the learner
• Security and trust – familiar surroundings with adults who are reliable and respond
appropriately to the learner’s needs
• Realistic adult expectations – adults should have realistic expectations of what the
learner can and cannot do at each developmental level
1.2.3 Educational needs (Need to learn)

As indicated in the seven basic needs, the learner needs to learn and even more critical,
they need an environment and adults that will assist them in their need to learn. The
primary educational requirements to be fulfilled are:
• Freedom to explore and experiment, with necessary limits set and consistently
maintained
• Access to developmentally appropriate experiences and play materials
• A suitable match between a learner’s skill levels and the materials and experiences
available to the learner; just enough newness to challenge, but not so much that the
learner feels overwhelmed, incapable, or excessively frustrated
• Mistakes and errors are treated as essential steps in the learning process and not as
failures
Adults as role models of behaviour should demonstrate the appropriate responses

expected of the learner in everyday life.
1.2.4 The need for respect

Closely linked to the above requirements is the need for respect. The learner needs to feel:
• Accepted – accept the learner’s efforts and accomplishments, whether big or small,
errors as well as successes. “Look at that, and you buttoned up your jacket all by
yourself!” (no mention of the button missed)
• A respectful and helpful environment in which the learner’s efforts are encouraged:
“Good job, you picked up all the blocks. Shall I put these on the top shelf for you?”
• Recognising accomplishments. Enhancing the “I can do if” attitude is the most
crucial part of a learner’s self-esteem (feelings about one’s self-worth): “You’re getting
good at cutting out pictures.”
• Proper appreciation for a task well done with descriptive praise.
• Avoid a general remark such as “That’s nice” or “The drawing’s beautiful”. A more
suitable comment would be, “You were clever to use larger blocks for the base of your
tower now it will be strong and will not fall over easily.”
5 PRGRT01/501
• Awareness of the effort and concentration that goes into acquiring developmental
skills by giving a positive response to each small step along the way.
Meeting the child’s basic needs is fundamental for healthy development. Healthy
development means that children of all abilities, including those with special health care
needs, can grow up in an environment where their physical, emotional, and educational
needs are met. The early years of life are crucial for healthy development and learning
(Centre for Prevention of Disease NY).
Activity 1.2

(1) List the child’s physical and psychological needs.
(2) Do you agree with the following statement?
“Meeting a young child’s physical needs are more important than meeting their
psychological needs.”
(3) Give a brief reason for your answer.
1.3 THE CONCEPTS “GROWTH” AND “DEVELOPMENT”

The words “growth” and development” are often used as having the same meaning, yet
they are not the same.
• Growth refers to specific changes and increases in the learner’s size, such as increases
in height, weight, head circumference, shoe size, length of arms and legs, and body
shape. These are mostly genetic in nature, and there is little one can do to change
the learner’s growth. However, severe physical neglect can stump and delay growth.
• Development is the changes in the skills, behaviour, and knowledge level of the young
learner from the simple to the more complicated. It is a continuous progression where
the learner gains more complex knowledge, behaviour, and skills. The sequence is
the same for all children, but the rate of progress may vary from child to child. Severe
neglect can delay development, and the adults in the learner’s life play a crucial role
in enhancing (not racing) the child’s progress.
Study the table below to assist your understanding of the differences between growth
and development.
TABLE 1: The differences between growth and development

Growth Development
Refers to the increase of physical aspects of a Refers to overall changes in the total human
human (organism) being (organism)
Growth is quantitative, and can be measured It is qualitative (gets more complicated) and it
is not easily measured
Growth stops with maturity It is a lifelong process
6
It involves body changes It includes all over changes from origin until
death
Growth can influence development, but not Development can occur without growth
always
It is cellular It is functional
It is structural and stops with maturity It is organisational (takes place in a specific
order)
Source: Based on an online article by Shiva
Knowledge of learner growth and development enables you to:
• Understand what you can expect from the learner

• Choose and present developmentally appropriate activities
1.4 NORMAL OR TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT

The term “normal” or “typical development” in general implies that a learner is growing,
changing, and acquiring a broad range of skills according to some observable pattern,
which involves the following:
• It is a process by which children change in orderly ways in terms of size, neurological

structure (the brain and nervous system), and behaviour.
• It is a cumulative process where each new aspect of growth or development builds
on earlier stages.
• It is a continuous process of give and take between the learner and the environment.
• Healthy development is not a specific age or point but a range. No learner is probably
genuinely “normal” in every way. The range of skills and the period the various
developmental skills are acquired vary greatly. The statement is true even among
children with “normal” development.
Example
The typical age for walking is between eight and 20 months. However, it is not strange if
an infant starts to walk at eight and a half months and another only at 20 months. Both
are within the normal range, though several months apart from each other.
Remember: Age-level expectancies represent a range; it is not an exact point.

Most important: It is the sequence and not age that is the vital factor in assessing a child’s
development progress.
1.4.1 Development milestones

These are important observable points arrived at in children’s development. These points
are made up of essential motor, perceptual, cognitive (intellectual), creative language,
social, and emotional skills. The observable developmental milestone shows up in orderly
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steps and within predictable age ranges. The failure of one or more developmental
milestones to appear within a reasonable range of time is a warning to observe the child
intensively.
Activity 1.3

Talk to a mother/caretaker of a young child with a (seemingly) slow developmental
milestone.
(1) Briefly describe the “late” milestone.
(2) Why were the parents worried?
(3) Who did they visit to address the seemingly slow milestone?
(4) Does the young child need any specific therapy/intervention?
(5) Briefly describe the intervention/therapy/treatment.
(6) What was the most important lesson you learnt from your conversation with the
mother/caretaker?
1.4.2 Sequence development

A sequence or pattern of development consists of predictable steps along a developmental
pathway common to most learners. Learners should be able to roll over before they
can sit and sit before they can stand. What is important is the order in which learners
acquire developmental skills and not so much their age. The appropriate sequence shows
that the learner is steadily moving forward and developing. We should keep in mind
that development is not always smooth and even and there might be some regression
(seemingly taking a step backwards). Regression can happen for various reasons, such as
illness or a sudden change in the environment. Regression is a typical reaction by young
children to deal with changes. Although it is reasonable, we need to keep an eye on the
child’s development, if the regression gets more severe or lasts for more than three months.
1.4.3 Age-level expectancies (Norms)

Age-level expectancies are the chronological or age-related levels of development for a
specific developmental skill. Research on infants and children of various ages has revealed
an average age at which most learners acquired specific developmental skills. The average
age is called the norm.
Example
A toddler walks at 8½ months and is therefore ahead of the norm of 12 to 18 months. A

toddler who does not walk until 20 months is behind the norm. Both toddlers’ develop-
ment is considered “normal”.
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Activity 1.4
Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. TRUE FALSE
Give a brief reason for your answer.
• For young children to develop to their best potential, basic
needs should be met.  
• A development milestone that does not appear is a warning
sign.  
• The sequence of development consists of unpredictable steps
along a development pathway.  
• There is an exact point when a specific skill is achieved.  
• Sequence and not age is essential in evaluating a learner’s
progress.  
1.5 A HOLISTIC VIEW OF THE CHILD

There are two main reasons why we focus on a holistic view of the learner when studying
child development.
• All the facets of being human are linked. Although we will focus on various developmental
aspects of the young learner, we cannot see them as isolated “parts”.
Example
A young learner needs to feel safe and secure to learn optimally. Good physical care is
essential for learning, so is being part of a group necessary to learn various develop-
mental skills. The one facet of the learner supports the others.
• To be able to study and understand the development and learning of the young
learner, we need to have a system or framework. We separate the learner into the
most apparent segments or parts, to be able to look at each separately, but always
remember it is for study purposes only. In essence the learner is not intellect or social
but a unique whole.
The concept of “the whole (holistic) learner” is based on the accepted principle that all
areas of human growth and development are interrelated.
It is only to study each one in-depth that we separate the following areas:
• Physical/Motor development – this includes gross motor (whole-body movements),

fine motor (finger movements), and perceptual skills.
• Intellectual development – this generally means the ability to perceive, think, and
learn. Essential aspects are curiosity, memory, attention span (ability to focus on a
task), and problem-solving.
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• Language development – this is closely linked to intellectual development.
• Emotional, social, and moral development – this includes a learner’s relationship with
himself and concepts such as self-concept, self-esteem, and the ability to express
feelings in a socially acceptable way, and the ability to be part of a group.
• Creative and aesthetic development – this includes the learner’s ability to be creative
as enjoyment but also as a mode of learning. Linked to it is the learner’s ability to
appreciate the beauty in the world around.
Remember: None of the abovementioned areas develops independently of others. Every
skill the young learners develop, whether simple or complex is a mixture of all these areas.
Example
We can take social skills as an example and ask ourselves why some young learners
have excellent social skills.
To be able to play well with other learners a learner should have the following skills,
that is, he or she should be able to:
• Run, jump and climb and build with big blocks (excellent motor skills)
• Recognise likenesses and differences among play materials and so select the right
blocks in a joint building project (excellent perceptual skills)
• Solve problems, conceptualise and plan in cooperative play ventures (excellent cogni-
tive skills)
• Ask for, explain and describe what is going on (excellent language skills)
Source: Alien & Marotz, 1994
1.6 LEARNERS ARE UNIQUE
1.6.1 Each child is exceptional

Learners have many characteristics in common and share basic needs, yet there are
also many differences between learners. Each learner also possesses a unique blend of
components that make him or her one of a kind.
The cultural, ethnic, religious, and economic background of the family also shapes the
learner’s individuality. Learners mirror their primary environment – their home and family
– and of course, they should. It is vital that teachers (especially early childhood teachers)
be sensitive to family diversity and not only take note of but genuinely, value different
backgrounds.
“In all the world there is no other learner exactly like you. In the millions of years that have
passed, there has never been a child like you.” Pablo Casals
1.6.2 Learners with special needs

All learners are different, and they learn and develop at their own pace. Most children can
learn and develop without specialised interventions and learning activities. There are,
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however, learners that are so different that they cannot learn optimally without having
their individual development and learning needs considered. If these learners’ unique
needs are not met, they are often mislabelled as “naughty”, “lazy” and even “stupid”! It
is, therefore, usually the teacher that realises the learner is not learning and developing
as expected, is disrupting the class and needs intervention.
The Grade R teacher is often the first person to interact with young children in a school/
class context. The Grade R teacher therefore has the additional task to identify possible
learning and developmental barriers.
In all modules of this programme, we will discuss ways to accommodate the needs of learners with
barriers in the mainstream classroom.
It is not always possible to detect the reasons for a child’s behaviour and learning barriers.
However, it is vital to find out what the possible causes are because it is the first step to
assist learners to learn and develop their potential. Identifying the reason for learners’
barriers is the task of the class teacher alone but it is often a team effort, including the
child’s parents and medical and educational experts. We can divide the reasons for barriers
to learning and development into two main groups.
Located within the child (intrinsic factors)
Children with “disabilities” also referred to as “impairments”, refers to permanent

shortcomings in the child. The child may be born with an impairment or it can be the
result of illness or an accident.
• Sensory barriers – These occur when the child’s vision and/or hearing ability is affected
to the extent that it impedes the child’s learning.
• Physical barriers – A learner has a physical limitation when his or her physical
functioning is affected. Examples are children who are missing an arm or leg or both,
paraplegic children, and children suffering from epilepsy.
• Mental barriers – Children who are intellectually less able than average, which means
that they find it more challenging to learn. They will be behind children of the same
age in their development and will take more time to master new learning tasks.
• Behavioural barriers – Communication and behaviour barriers include learners on
the autistic spectrum, hyperactivity syndrome, and dyslexia. These learners have
special needs regarding their learning environment, but they can all be part of
mainstream education.
Located outside the child (external circumstances)
The child’s external circumstances (the environment, home, upbringing, or teaching) may
be so inadequate that they result in the child having barriers to learning and development.
There is a link between pupils’ achievement at school and the socioeconomic status of the
child’s community. The more disadvantaged the socioeconomic status of the community,
the higher the chances that, owing to the negative environmental influences, the children
of that community may develop barriers to learning and development. The following
factors may contribute to children developing barriers to learning and development:
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• Poor medical services – colds, ear, eye, and tooth infections and illnesses not
appropriately treated.
• Lack of cognitive stimulation – no books, newspapers, magazines, television, or radio
that can stimulate the child and broaden his or her general knowledge.
• Parents’ and society’s language use may be reduced and limited in terms of vocabulary
– languages are often mixed, and children fail to learn any language properly.
• Irregular, poor school attendance due to home environment.
• Often parents with no or very little schooling do not grasp the value of education –
such parents do not encourage their children to attend school regularly.
• Children growing up with violence, abuse and theft fail to learn what acceptable
norms of behaviour are.
Each learner, whatever barriers they have, has the right to get optimal learning and
development opportunities.
1.7 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive Education is a vital characteristic of the South African Education system. According
to the law, all learners need to be accommodated in South African schools. The following
are crucial elements in inclusive education:
• Acknowledges that all children can learn and that all children need support.
• Accepts and respects the fact that learners are different and have different needs and
that these needs are to be acknowledged as part of being human.
• Education structures, systems, and learning methodologies need to meet the needs
of all learners.
• Acknowledges and respects differences in learners, whether due to age, gender,
ethnicity, language, class, disability, or HIV status.
• It is broader than formal schooling and acknowledges that learning also occurs in the
home and community.
• It is about changing attitudes, behaviour, teaching methodologies, curricula, and the
environment to meet the needs of all learners.
• It maximises the participation of all learners in the culture and curricula of schools
while uncovering and minimising barriers to learning.
• It is about empowering learners by developing their strengths and enabling them to
participate critically in the process of learning.
Inclusive education encourages teachers to assist learners who may not be able to cope
when they start school. These learners need specialised assistance either for a certain
period or throughout their entire school career. These children are referred to as learners
who experience barriers to learning and development. The phrase “barriers to
learning and development” implies that barriers within themselves and/or in the school
and the community might prevent these young learners from learning. This phrase also
means that these children have needs that are different from those of the average learner.
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1.8 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we studied the growth and development of a child at various stages
in their lives and the differences between the stages. We also looked at the different needs
for development, as well as the holistic view of the child.
Final notes
To consolidate your learning of basic concepts, you need to complete an assignment on

the various concepts used when we discuss the holistic development of the young learner.
In the next learning units, we are going to discuss the different development facets of
the young learner in more detail, keeping the basic concepts in mind.
1SELF-ASSESSMENT
Complete the following tasks before you start with Learning unit 2.
(1) In your own words, describe the following concepts. Your answer must be as brief as
possible and not longer than two sentences.
(a) Basic needs of the learner
(b) Growth
(c) Development
(d) Developmental range
(e) Developmental milestones
(f) Developmental sequence
(g) A holistic view of the learner
(h) Each learner is unique
(i) Inclusive education
(j) Learners with special needs
(2) Write a two-page article for a magazine (1 000 words) regarding how external factors
can create specialised learning and teaching needs for Grade R learners.
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LEARNING UNIT 2
LEARNER PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: GROSS AND FINE
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Outcomes

• Identify typical gross and fine motor development in the young learner
• Understand perceptual motor integration
• Plan and present activities to enhance the Grade R learner’s gross and fine motor
development
• Identify possible barriers in young learners’ gross and fine motor development and
provide supporting activities
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Physical development of the young learner takes place in a specific order, and control
over the body follow a particular pattern:
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• It developments from the top (head) to toes
• From the middle to the body (the trunk), to the outside
• From large muscles to fine muscles
Our discussion on the young learner’s physical development will focus on the following
three main themes:
• Gross motor (use of large muscles) skills including balance

• Fine motor (use of fingers) skills
• Perceptual skills (use of senses)
Key concepts
• Physical Development – refers to the changes in the body of a human being

• Motor Skills – refers to the movement and actions of the muscles
• Kinaesthetic Perception – involves being able to detect changes in body position
and movements without relying on information from the five senses
2.2 THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R

LEARNER
The following is a word picture of what the expected physical appearance of a Grade R
learner should be:
By the age of five years, a learner’s
• Length is more or less twice than at birth

• Weight around five times of birth weight
• Growth of body fat slows down and the child is leaner than the chubby toddler
• Head does not appear top-heavy, as the appearance of the toddler. Although the
learner’s head still seems large, it is more in proportion to the body length
• The trunk is long and accommodates the internal organs better. That is why the
abdomen has flattened, and the chest seems more significant
• The neck becomes longer and slimmer, and it no longer appears as though the head
is sitting directly on the shoulders
• Facial features have a more mature look; the eyes appear more widely spaced because
the bridge of the nose has begun to form, and the lower jaw has filled out
• Shoulders become broader
• Fingers are longer and develop wrists that are more obvious
• By about six years, the learner’s brain is approximately 90% of its adult weight. However,
brain development continues at a steady pace. Malnutrition, which has been shown to
cause retarded brain growth during the early years, may result in developmental lags
• In about 90% of learners, handedness (use of the right or left hand) is set
The following sketch indicates the changes in human proportions from prenatal until
puberty.
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Two Five Neonate Two Six 12 15
months months years years years years
(foetal) (foetal)
Activity 2.1
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) Does the word picture above of a typical Grade R learner, illustrate Grade R learners’
growth or development? Give a brief reason for your answer.
2.3 GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
2.3.1 Description of gross motor skills

A Grade R learner’s gross motor development is critical, as the learner’s body is the starting
point of all learning experiences. If the learner cannot control their body well, they tend
later to experience learning barriers. With proper control over their whole body, children
will be more confident about exploring the world around them.
What are gross motor skills?
Gross motor (physical) skills are required for whole-body movement. They involve
the large (core stabilising) muscles of the body to perform everyday functions, such as
standing, walking, running, and sitting upright. It also includes eye-hand and eye-foot
coordination skills such as ball skills (throwing, catching, and kicking) (Kid Sense, 2019).
The learner’s body needs to develop to a certain extent before he or she can manage
specific tasks. Therefore, it is essential to know what a learner should be able to do at
certain stages of development. Let us look at the young learner’s large muscle skills
development and what we can expect from a young learner, taking each learner as a
unique individual into consideration.
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2.3.2 Gross motor development milestones and range
GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT CHART – AGE RANGE 2 YEARS 6 MONTHS – 6 YEARS

2 years 6 months 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years
WALKING Walks up and downstairs Walks alone upstairs Walks or runs alone up Can heel/toe walk. Walks Walks backward toe/
two feet to a step with with alternating feet, and downstairs, one foot up and down stairs car- heel.
hand on the wall downstairs two feet to to a step. Walks quickly rying objects in both
a step. Walks forward, on a narrow line hands
backwards and sideways
hauling large toys with
complete confidence
RUNNING Runs well forward While running can turn While running can skil- Can stop, start, and turn Runs around obstacles
around obstacles and fully navigate and turn while running
corners sharp corners
WALKING ON Walks on tiptoe (after Can stand and walk on Can now run on tiptoe. Runs lightly on toes
17
TOES demonstration) tiptoe
JUMPING Jumps with both feet in Jumps from the bottom Can jump from a low From standing jumps Jumps over a rope 25 cm
place step of a flight of steps, height with two feet with two feet together above the ground
two feet together together
STAND ON Tries to stand on one Maintains standing Stands on one foot for Can stand on either Can stand on either
ONE FOOT foot balance, heels together. two to seven seconds foot for eight to twelve foot for eight to twelve
Stands momentarily on seconds seconds
preferred foot
HOPPING Generally not present At 3 years six months Hops on preferred foot Can hop forward about Able to hop 3 metres on
can hop one to three four to six times ten hops on preferred alternate legs
times on preferred foot foot. One leg is more
dominant
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GALLOPING Generally not present Generally not present Some learners have a Most learners can gallop Can gallop, leading with
(basic but inefficient gal- (basic but inefficient gal- basic galloping pattern in a coordinated way right leg or left leg
lop at about four years lop at about four years on preferred foot
old) old)
SKIPPING Generally not present Generally not present Approximately 15% can Most learners about to 85% can skip
(one-footed skip at (one-footed skip at skip at this stage achieve this on alternate
about four years old) about four years old) feet
THROWING Ball thrown with forearm Can throw ball overhead Can roll a ball Immature underarm Throws and can catch
extension only pattern with a small bounced tennis ball with
ball. Can toss one to both hands
five beanbags into a
container
CATCHING Responds to “aerial” Catches large ball tossed Can catch beanbag. Thrower must be ac- Catches with hands.
ball with delayed arm gently and accurately Can catch a large ball curate for a successful Starting to catch a tennis
18
movements onto or between with elbows bent catch. Catches with ball
straight arms clapping then scoop-
ing action using arms to
chest
BOUNCING Generally not present. Can bounce a large ball Bounces/Pats large ball Small bounce and catch Single bounce and catch
Can roll a ball to an adult fairly competently two or more times with a small ball but not mastered
both hands always successfull Attempts more than
one bounce but often
too forcefully and the
bounce is irregular.
Dominant side only
KICKING Kicks a large ball a sta- Kicks a ball strongly Walks up and kicks Stands on one leg and Kicks moving objects.
tionary ball kicks with the other, Moves to object and at-
becoming stronger tempts to stop it
Reluctant to kick a mov-
ing ball
CYCLING Sits on pedal cycle and Rides cycle pushing ped- Expert tricycle rider ex- Rides a small bike with Has started to master a
steers but propels with als and steers it around ecuting sharp U-turns training wheels small bicycle
feet on the floor wide corners
CLIMBING Climbs easy playground Climbs playground Climbs ladders and trees Skilful in climbing, Requires a variety of
equipment equipment, often using and uses alternate arm sliding, swinging and equipment to encourage
two feet to a step and leg pattern digging exploration in climbing
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2.3.3 Kinaesthetic (movement) perception
Closely linked to gross motor development is the young learner’s awareness of movement
and the effect of gravity on the movement.
The kinaesthetic perception is the internal awareness of movement and the effect of
gravity on the motion of the body.
Movement is probably the first sensation that humans experience. Before birth, we feel
the flow and rhythm within our mothers’ bodies; after delivery, we are held and rocked.
Learners have kinaesthetic experiences when they move their bodies through space –
crawling, walking, and running through and around objects; climbing onto, down from
apparatus; rolling down a hill. To remain upright, to make judgments on how to move,
we need to have the ability to discriminate and control using the kinaesthetic sense.
Vestibular perception
The vestibular system is attached to the middle ear. It provides information as to which
position the head and the body are in relation to gravity. It also includes information
on whether the body is moving or is in a static place. Whether one is in an upright
position, hanging upside-down, turning around, or rolling over is experienced because
of the vestibular system. The young learner, therefore, is dependent upon the vestibular
system to give him or her the necessary information about their body’s position, posture,
movements, and balance.
Proprioceptive perception
The proprioceptive perception provides information about the movement of limbs and
where the limbs are in relation to the body. The sensations coming from our muscles
and joints are interpreted by the brain, and we are always aware of them. The young
learner does not need to look where his or her feet are to move them to walk or run. The
proprioceptive system, therefore, makes it easier for the learner to learn new motor skills.
A learner learning to read can concentrate on the words and sentences in the book and
need not think about how to hold the book or to move his head while following the words.
Body image
Body image is an awareness of how the body moves, the different parts of the body,
and being aware of the two sides of the body. Three essential concepts included in body
image are:
• Laterality
• Dominance
• Midline crossing
• What is laterality, and why is it important?
Laterality is the inner experience learners have that their bodies have two sides – a left
and a right side.
20
Laterality enables learners to know which side of their body is moving and when it is
moving. Learners start to develop this sense at about four years old. By the age of seven,
70% of learners should be able to identify the two sides of the body. If by the age of
eight, they are still unable to tell the difference between left and right, they could be at
a learning barrier. The inner experience of laterality needs to be well established before
learners can perceive left and right outside of themselves.
Laterality is crucial to such things as writing, spelling and especially mathematics. Learners
who have difficulties identifying left and right battle with mathematics because the
directional sequence of figures is significant. There is a big difference between the
meaning of 12 and 21.
• What is dominance, and why is it important?
Dominance is the learner’s preferred hand, foot, and eye to complete tasks. It is a
neurological preference and not learned and can be changed only with extreme effort.
• Why is established dominance essential for learning at school?
A learner needs to use the same hand, foot, and eye when carrying out tasks and this
function should preferably be established by the time they go to Grade 1. If this is not
the case, the child may have difficulties with spelling and reading. Grade 1 learners who
switch (inversions) letters (and numbers) like p for b, and bad for dab or pat for tap and
pool for loop, often struggle with unestablished dominance.
If a Grade R learner’s dominant foot, and especially eye and hand, are not on the same
side, the learner has cross-dominance. Cross-dominance may give rise to writing problems
because the learner’s eyes and hands are not coordinated.
• What is midline crossing, and why is it important?
Midline crossing means what it says, the learner can cross an imaginary midline of their
body.
The midline is like a non-permanent wall that keeps a learner from crossing one arm or
leg across the centre of the body into the other half. The first time a child crosses their
midline is when he or she can roll over on their own as babies. This ability sometimes
only develops fully at about seven years of age.
Midline crossing is essential when writing; a learner should be able to cross this imaginary
midline. The writing of learners who cannot do this is usually spaced poorly. Young learners
starting to read may also find it challenging to move their eyes from left to right, moving
over their midline to read a page in a book.
Activity 2.2
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITY BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

Observe a five-year-old playing outside for at least 30 minutes
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• Make a list of all the gross motor skills performed by the learner during your
observation
• Were you able to recognise opportunities for practice and use of laterality, domi-
nance, and midline crossing in the learner’s play?
• Describe the activity you observed that illustrated each.
2.3.4 Enhancing the Grade R learner’s gross motor skills

Opportunities to use our whole bodies are included in every activity every day. Various
activities during the school day enhance the young learner’s gross motor skills. Just being
active provides opportunities for a young learner to use and practice various gross motor
skills!
In Section B of this module, we will look at the requirements for a successful daily programme. You
will then also learn that enough time for being actively involved, is essential for successful learning.
There are also specific activities and time allocated for the development of gross motor
activities in the curriculum and daily schedule.
Big constructions (Block play) during free-choice activities
During free-choice activities, indoor and outdoor block play (even using boxes) is a
critical play activity. Big constructions with blocks or boxes provide the learner with
various opportunities to use his/her whole body. Block play develops according to a
developmental process, and this process is an indication of how the learner understands
space as well as an indication of the learner’s ability to use his or her whole body in a
purpose-driven manner.
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The stages of the development of Block Play
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The stages of block play
Stage 1:
Blocks are carried around but not used for construction and usually found amongst toddlers
Stage 2:
Building begins with horizontal to vertical rows
Stage 3:
The building of “bridges” (Space in between is connected by a third bridge)
Stage 4:
Encircling blocks are packed as to enclose space
Stage 5:
When the learner becomes more proficient, constructions are more complex and include
decorative, symmetrical patterns. They are not yet buildings.
Stage 6:
The structures have names, and fantasy play begins. The name also describes the function
of the structure.
Stage 7:
Structures from their own experiences are initiated. The learners are stimulated by real
buildings and try to repeat it in their block building. Block play becomes interwoven with
block play.
Outdoor play
One of the best opportunities to use and practice gross motor skills is during outdoor
play. As we will discuss in Section B, outdoor play is not the same as “break” in primary
school. It is a time during which the Grade R teacher is just as involved as during any other
period. The teacher ensure that the young learner has a variety of outdoor activities that
enhance various gross motor skills. The unique needs of the learners must be kept in mind
as well as the free-choice nature of this vital period in the daily schedule.
Physical Education
As part of the curriculum for Grade R, CAPS included physical education as part of Life
Skills. During this period, specific attention is given to the Grade R learners’ physical
development. One of the best ways to present physical education is by using an obstacle
course, including a variety of gross motor skills.
We discuss Physical Education and Music and Dance in more detail in PRGRT04.
24
An example of an obstacle course during a Physical Education lesson links to the
theme: The farm
NOTE: The teacher needs to prepare the lesson and set up the obstacle course beforehand.
The activities are only examples and have to be planned to suit each specific playground.
If the playground is small, then it may be necessary to repeat the course. The ideal is
to include many gross motor skills in the obstacle course. Use what is available on the
playground and add relevant low-cost apparatus, such as boxes and other suitable objects
in the outdoor play area.
Group: Grade R
Theme: Horses all over the farm (The Farm)
Purpose: Gross motor activity, including the position in space by experiencing space words
such as in, over, around, on top and next to.
Introduction
We are going to pretend that we are horses. We have been sleeping the whole night in
our stable and now it is time to visit the farm and gallop around!
[If possible, give each learner a homemade horse-mask – make sure that the learners’ eyesight
is not compromised.]
• The horses want to get out of the stable, but they need to walk out from their stables,
quietly and very slowly.
Main Part of Presentation
• When they are outside, they want to gallop as fast as they can. (Gallop as fast as you
can to the opposite side of the playground, to the tree) Show poster with instruction.
• When the horses get to the tree, the horses are tired, and they are standing still. Let
us see which horse can stand still without moving – not even an ear!
• Now they want to trot further slowly.
• They are going over a stream (walk on balance beam). (Show poster)
• Now they jump over some bushes (add a few low boxes for the learner to jump over).
(Show poster)
• Now the horses want to eat some grass. There is a hill in front of us. We have to move
slowly as the horses want to get to the top of the hill. (Climb up the jungle gym using
the ramp.) Walk up as slowly as possible. (Good for balance)
• When the horses are on top of the hill, they need to get down again. Walk down (or
slide down – do not let the learner walk down on the slide)
• Now there is a deep river, and the bridge is narrow (walk over a balance beam).
• Expand the “walk” by repeating any of the above movements or add new ones – make
use of as many of the various gross motor skills as possible.
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End activity
• Walk home (to the playroom) as slowly as you can. The horse is exhausted and wants
to get back to rest! (Control walking – coordination)
• Sing/Play a suitable song for the group while they rest on the carpet.
2.4 FINE MOTOR SKILLS
2.4.1 Description of fine motor skills

Fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscles in the hands and fingers.
These skills are necessary to use one’s fingers to do complete tasks that require finger
grip manipulations.
Well-developed fine motor skills are essential to complete tasks such as cutting, using
a fork or spoon, threading beads, moving puzzle pieces, zipping, buttoning, and tying
shoelaces. For school beginners, fine muscle control is vital. A learner who does not have
sufficient fine motor control do not have the manipulation skills necessary to handle a
pencil to form letters and numbers. (Little Cook House, 2016)
2.4.2 The development of fine motor skills

TABLE 2: The fine motor skills
A typical four-year-old is able to: A typical five to six-year-old is able to:
String and lace shoelaces Fold the paper into halves and quarters
Cut following a line Trace around his or her hand
String ten beads Draw a rectangle, circle, square, and triangle
Copy a cross and a square Cut out simple shapes
Open and place clothes pegs (one-handed) Reproduce letters
Draw a picture of a human with a body (not Add detail to drawn objects
just the head) Print own name and numerals 1–5
Print a few letters Colour in within the lines of own drawings
• Hold a pencil or piece of chalk competently and with ease.

• Press drawing materials in a controlled way – not too hard and not too soft.
• Draw a circle, a square, and a cross.
• Draw a triangle without turning the sheet of paper as they draw.
• Handle a pair of small, round-tipped scissors, fairly comfortably and can cut out a
simple shape, such as circle.
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2.4.3 Enhance Grade R learners’ fine motor skills
Remember that young learners need many opportunities to practice before they are
skilful enough to grip objects with their little fingers and to manipulate and use them
proficiently.
• Create opportunities for learners to tear paper and cut with scissors until they can
start cutting out simple shapes.
• An activity that is familiar to many learners is beadwork. Use stiff string or wool to
tread beads, blocks, buttons, or any other suitable objects. Learners have to use their
fingertips to pick up objects for threading. Use objects that gradually change from
large to small. Beading activities are excellent for finger-muscle coordination and
hand-eye coordination.
• Grade R teachers should create many opportunities for young learners to experiment
with a variety of art materials according to the typical development of art.
• Create many opportunities for learners to draw and paint freely.
The drawings of learners are an indication of their fine muscle control and development.
As a child gets more competent, their drawing progresses through stages – these stages
are parallel with development in other areas.
The development of children’s drawings
In the period from 0–9 years, learners’ art develops through three broad stages, namely,
the scribbling, pre-schematic, and schematic stage.
Stage 1: Scribbling (The beginning of self-expression; 18 months–3 years)
Scribbling is a significant step in the development of drawing and writing skills just as
babbling is an essential first step in learning to talk.
The scribbling stage is divided into three sub-stages:
• Uncontrolled scribbling
Uncontrolled scribbling starts at 18 months or even earlier. Uncontrolled scribbling begins

when the learner can make marks in his or her porridge, in sand, or on paper.
If given a thick marker or crayon, the learner will taste it, swing it around and make
uncontrolled marks on a large piece of paper at random.
• Controlled scribbling
At approximately two years, the toddler discovers that marks made can be controlled.
Although very random, the toddler’s scribbling indicates more control.
• Named scribbling
Young children start to make a connection between the motions of scribbling and start
giving these the names of familiar objects. They realise that the marks they are making
may represent something; this is a big moment for language development.
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Example of named scribbling
Flames after the child saw a fire
Stage 2: Pre-schematic stage (First attempt of representation; 3–4 years)
During the pre-schematic stage, young children begin making forms relating to their
environment. These forms are usually incomplete.
Children often first draw a human with the head and body depicted as one large circle
or oval, to which they add arms and legs. This head-foot man is a universal form drawn
by all learners who are allowed to draw freely without worksheets or colouring books.
Children in this stage use unrealistic colours. Objects in their drawings float randomly, as
they do not grasp the use of space.
Universal Head-foot figure
Stage 3: Schematic stage (The development of concepts; 5–9 years)
During this stage, learners start to draw recognisable figures, but according to their
interpretation of objects (“schema”). A child’s schema is their symbol for objects such as
humans, houses, and trees, which develop after much experimenting in the previous stage.
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Characteristics of this stage are:
• The learner starts to arrange the objects in their pictures using a baseline and often
a skyline. (Indication of what is at the top and bottom of their drawing)
• They use the whole page to draw or paint their picture.
• The lines of the objects in their picture meet (closes).
• The objects do not fly around in space – but is anchored on the baseline (except for
flying objects).
• The picture includes detail and often “tells a story”.
2.5 PLAY MATERIALS TO ENHANCE GROSS MOTOR AND

SMALL MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
As indicated, the Grade R teacher must ensure that there are enough opportunities for
both gross and small motor skills development. To assist you in supplying opportunities,
see the list of possible apparatus and activities to present. Some of the equipment is
expensive, but there may also be cheaper alternatives. Look around and be creative!
Example
• Use old tyres for swings; incorporate trees as climbing apparatus

• Ask a parent to build a ladder from sturdy pieces of waste wood
• Make educational games
• Use small blocks from wooden waste pieces
• Collect big boxes (best toy ever!)
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Play materials for large motor skills Play materials for fine motor skills
development development
• Tricycles and scooters • Puzzles
• Trucks and tractors • Lego and other manipulative materials
• Wagons • All art materials
• Climbing structures (trees, jungle gyms) • Clay and dough
• Crawling through spaces (barrels and boxes) • Music instruments
• Balls (large, small): for catching, running with, • Dress-up clothes
kicking, throwing • Dolls and doll clothes
• Rolling tyres, hoops • Books
• Swings (a variety, including belt swings, mon- • Learner size carpentry materials
key swings, and tyre swings) • Sand play
• Balance structures (loose planks, tyres, • Water play
bricks, slides)
• Music with a beat to which learners can
dance
• Beanbags for target throwing
• Boxes/Blocks for big constructions
Activity 2.3

(1) Make a list of every day and waste materials that you can use for activities to enhance
gross and small muscle skills. Share it with your peer students!
2.6 PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR INTEGRATION

Many tasks can only be accomplished if learners guide their body movements with their
senses. Ball games, drawing and writing, are skills requiring perceptual-motor integration.
• Eye-hand coordination begins when learners’ eyes can be guided to follow the
movement of their hands when they are drawing, writing or throwing a ball or beanbag
at a target.
• Eye-foot coordination is the ability to make the feet perform an action directed by
the eyes. If a learner has problems with eye-foot coordination, he or she will have
difficulties kicking or controlling a ball with their feet. Some activities to promote eye-
foot coordination include dribbling a large ball through an obstacle course, walking
on a line or hosepipe, and walking on the outside rims of tyres lying on the ground.
Activity 2.4
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXCERSICE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

• In your own words, describe eye-hand coordination and eye-foot coordination.
• Give a brief reason why each is important for school activities.
• Name an activity the Grade R teacher can present to enhance each skill.
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2.7 CONCLUSION
We have come to the end of our discussion on gross and small muscle development. Our
next theme is perceptual skills – how the young learner uses their eyes, ears, nose, taste,
and touch to learn about the world around them.
2SELF-ASSESSMENT
Test yourself!
Complete the following two assignments before you start with Learning unit 3
(1) Observe a group of Grade R learners playing with small blocks or building puzzles.
(a) Make a list of the fine motor skills you observe (use the list of skills from the table on
small muscle skills to assist you).
(b) Describe examples of midline crossing, dominance, and eye-hand coordination.
(c) Are the skills in the list realistic for a Grade R learner?
(d) What can you conclude from your observation? Give a brief reason for your answer.
(2) Collect drawings from a group of preschool learners and use the developmental stages
to categorise the pictures in the various stages. Write short notes on each drawing ex-
plaining why the drawing is an example of the particular stage.
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LEARNING UNIT 3
PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
Keep referring to them as you go through the work.
Outcomes
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Understand perceptual development
• Identify the different perceptual skills
• Provide experiences during daily activities to enhance the different perceptual skills
Key concepts
• Perception – the complex process by which the mind understands and gives meaning
to sensory information
• Visual Perception – the ability to interpret the information sent to the brain by the eyes
• Auditory Perception – the ability to hear, interpret, and understand the information
sent to the brain by the ears
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
Humans observe the world around them using the senses of vision, hearing, touching,
tasting, and smelling. Sensation refers to the detection of sensory stimulation, whereas
perception is the interpretation of what is sensed. Perception is the complex process by
which the mind understands and gives meaning to sensory information.
Example
When you look at a leaf, your eyes will see it, but the brain will interpret what is seen –
recognises it as a leaf.
The perceptual skills we discuss will focus on the skills that are important for the learning
process. An environment that provides opportunities for the development of perceptual
skills can be created in the Grade R classroom. Learners in such a class do not need “boring”
and sometimes even meaningless perceptual exercises.
3.2 VISUAL PERCEPTION

Visual perception is the ability to interpret the information the eyes send to the brain.
Learners typically develop visual perception skills in their day-to-day activities at home
and in the classroom. As they play with toys, books, games, and materials, they make
decisions based on what they see.
3.2.1 Visual discrimination

Visual discrimination is the ability to recognise similarities and differences in objects
observed through sight. Visual discrimination is an important skill. Learners use visual
discrimination to identify similarities and differences in objects. For example, to group,
classify and sort blocks according to colour, shape and size.
Activities that will enhance visual discrimination
• All activities that require sorting of objects according to colour, shape, and size
• Games “Find the odd man”; by looking at nearly similar objects but one is different
from the rest.
• Present the learners with a board with various pictures and ask them to match them up.
(OT Mom Learning Activities, Visual Discrimination)
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3.2.2 Visual memory
Visual memory is the ability to recall or remember the details of what you have seen.
Learners need to be able to remember what they have seen to recall what a word looks
like when reading and spelling.
Activities in Grade R that provide experiences for visual memory
• Cards with bright, clear pictures placed randomly face down. When a learner gets a
matching pair, they keep the pair.
• Activities where the teacher hides several objects, shows them for a brief period to
the class, and asks if they can remember what they saw.
• Matching games provide the same type of experiences.
3.2.3 Form perception

Form perception is the ability to identify and name shapes and forms within space.
Every object that we encounter has a particular structure, which can be recognised by
its outstanding features. A table is always a table, whether it is made of wood, glass, iron,
or plastic, or whether it is a large dining room table, or a small side table.
We use many opportunities in the Grade R class to provide for form perception.
• Box construction – learners can be made aware that a shoebox, toothpaste box, and
lipstick box are all rectangles even though their sizes differ.
• “I spy with my little eye”-games. “I see a square in the class.” “Where do we see the
biggest rectangle in the room?” (Door).
• Form-based games such as “Geoform”, form dominos, and completing the dots provide
valuable experiences.
Activity 3.1

(1) Describe in your own words the following two visual skills.
• Visual memory
• Visual discrimination
(2) Develop and make a board game suitable for Grade R learners to enhance either
visual memory or visual discrimination.
• Describe the games and the rules of the game.
3.3 FIGURE-GROUND PERCEPTION
3.3.1 Visual figure-ground perception

This is the ability to see objects in the foreground or the background and to make a
meaningful distinction between them – to separate them meaningfully.
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Example
• To be able to find a squirrel between the leaves in the tree.

• To be able to point out the red flowers in a garden with different coloured flowers.
Learners must be able to select the vital object and push what is unimportant into the
background. Learners struggling with figure-ground perception may seem inattentive
and disorganised. They are easily sidetracked by a sudden movement or by bright colours
in their environment.
Guidelines for the classroom
Do not have tablecloths or mats with bright colours or bold patterns for learners to work
on, as these will draw their attention away from their activities or tasks. Keep the work
surfaces neutral.
3.3.2 Auditory figure-ground perception

A learner with adequate auditory figure-ground perception can listen while ignoring
background noises.
Example
A learner can listen to a story while learners walk past the classroom talking.
The learner starting formal school should be able to concentrate on the essential sounds
and push those that are not crucial into the background. This ability already starts
developing with the baby who wakes up because of strange noises but calms down
when hearing his mother’s familiar voice.
3.4 AUDITORY PERCEPTION

Auditory perception not only involves the ability to hear but also to interpret and
understand the information sent to the brain by the ears.
3.4.1 Auditory discrimination

Auditory discrimination is the ability to observe the differences and similarities between
sounds. This ability is crucial for the acquisition of language. As this ability develops, the
young learner will be able to discriminate between more apparent differences such as cat
and cap and subtler differences, such as between the “m”- and “n”-sounds. If learners are
not able to discriminate between subtle differences and similarities, it will be difficult for
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them to associate the symbols of letters and numbers with their sounds. Poor auditory
discrimination can influence the learner’s ability to learn to read and spell.
3.4.2 Auditory memory

Auditory memory is the ability to retain and recall information heard by the ears.
Auditory memory starts developing very early. The infant recognises his or her mother’s
voice because they have heard it before and have kept it in their memory. An infant will
remember the sounds a cat (mew, mew), dog (woof, woof), and bird (cheep, cheep) make,
and repeat it when they see pictures of these animals in a book because the mother had
made those sounds when they looked through the book before. Associations are also
made with familiar sounds, which have been saved in the brain; for instance, learners who
run to the television to watch a children’s programme, when they hear its signature tune.
3.4.3 Auditory sequencing

Young children (even toddlers) remember the words of short rhymes. From remembering
a few high points in a story, the young learner will gradually remember the main episodes
as he or she follows in their logical sequence. Auditory sequencing is a crucial ability for
learning.
3.4.4 Auditory closure

Auditory closure is the ability to fill in a section of a spoken word or sentence that has
been left out or was not heard. This ability will develop from being able to fill in letters
in the word “hand me the plate” where the learner just heard “hand me – pl–e” because
the mother turned her head away while she was dishing up the food. Because the learner
has been in this situation before and half expected what his mother was going to say,
he was able to perform auditory closure – to understand the whole sentence. Knowing
the language and an understanding of the situation are necessary for auditory closure.
When starting formal school, the learner should have auditory closure, as there is always
some noise or distraction in a classroom, which results in specific phrases or words not
being heard.
3.4.5 Auditory analysis and synthesis

Sounds and words are made up of separate learning units. Words are made up of sounds
and syllables. Learners are first exposed to syllables when they clap out their names,
Le-ra-to, Than-di-ka, Ben-ny. After learners learnt to read a word as a whole, they sound
out the sounds of a word such as c-a-r. Analysing words plays a vital role in spelling or
in reading unfamiliar words. Learners do not identify the various sounds and letters in
words until Grade 1, as part of learning to read and spell. Auditory analysis and synthesis
is an essential perceptual skill in learning to read and especially to spell.
36
Remember: Visual perception always works together with auditory perception in reading
and spelling abilities. When the learner needs to write “morning”, he or she sounds it out
auditorily as moning (the r sound is not pronounced in English). As the learner has also
seen the word “morning”, he remembers that the word is written (synthesised) with an r.
Activity 3.2

(1) What is the difference between auditory discrimination and auditory memory?
(2) Briefly describe an activity to develop a Grade R learner’s auditory discrimination.
(3) Briefly describe an activity to develop a Grade R learner’s auditory memory.
3.5 TACTILE PERCEPTION

Tactile perception (touch) is the ability to recognise and interpret information conveyed to
the brain using the sense of touch through skin and fingers. As learners gain experience
of texture by touch, they are also able to see texture without contact. A newborn baby
is reacting to touch when he turns his mouth in the same direction where his cheek was
touched.
3.5.1 Tactile discrimination

Tactile discrimination is the ability to identify and match objects by touching and feeling.
Tactile discrimination is primary to higher-level perceptual and cognitive learning.
Tactile discrimination experiences may include the following:
Basic awareness of:
• Animal textures (chickens, cats, dogs, human hair, skin, nails)
• Wet material textures (finger paint, wet sand, mud, natural clay, water)
• Dry material textures (dry sand, pebbles, rocks, bricks, wood, rough and smooth paper)
• Clothing textures (wool, cotton, velvet, nylon, hessian)
• Food discrimination (tactually explore the texture, size, and shape differences of fruits
and vegetables)
• Geometric and form discrimination (tactually explore differences and similarities
between geometric form and other objects such as leaves)
• Symbol exploration (feel differences between wooden, sandpaper or textured letters
and numerals)
• Gradation (tactually grade textures from rough to smooth)
3.6 OLFACTORY (SMELL) PERCEPTION

Olfactory perception is the ability to recognise and interpret information sent to the brain
through the olfactory organs (smell) in the nose.
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Basic olfactory awareness
We can learn more about things by smelling them:
• There are pleasant and unpleasant smells
• Smoke tells something is burning
• Food can be recognised by smell (cover the learner’s eyes)
• The pleasant scent of flowers attracts bees
• Skunks’ bad odour protects them from predators
3.7 GUSTATORY (TASTE) PERCEPTION

Gustatory perception is the ability to recognise and interpret information fed to the brain
using the taste organs.
Basic gustatory awareness:
• Foods taste sweet, sour, bitter or salty
Tasting perception activities:
• Food can be classified during tasting activity

• Learner’s eyes may be covered, and they can be asked to identify food according to taste
• A learner may be asked to name a food according to its description, including its taste:
“I am thinking of a fruit that is round and red and sweet.”
3.8 INTERMODAL PERCEPTION

Intermodal perception is the ability to recognise, using one sensory modality (say, touch),
an object (ball) that is familiar through another modality (vision). The learner is blindfolded
and needs to recognise the object by touching it.
Activity 3.3

Match the term (below) and the perceptual ability:
(1) A lemon tastes bitter.
(2) Crawling through a box.
(3) Smoke tells us something is burning.
(4) Bark feels rough.
(5) Learners try to repeat the sound pattern clapped by the teacher.
(6) Sorting buttons according to colour.
(7) I am aware of hanging upside down on the climbing frame.
(8) I am able to concentrate on writing a new letter without having to think about
where an arm or a wrist is.
(9) I am able to gain a new skill without having to think specifically about where my
limbs are.
Choose your answers from the following terms:
38
visual discrimination, auditory memory, proprioceptive perception, tactile perception,
olfactory perception, kinaesthetic perception, vestibular perception, gustatory perception
Join what fits together with a line

• Gustatory perception • Wi dow = window
• Identify objects by touching • Identify a rabbit in the grass
• Auditory closure • Recognising and interpreting informa-
tion fed to the brain using the taste
organs
• Kinaesthetic sense • Tactile discrimination
• Visual figure-ground perception • Internal awareness of movement, touch,
and gravity
3.9 CONCLUSION
Perception and learning
As we come to the end of our discussion of the five senses, we need to focus on the
importance of the senses on a learner’s learning. Young learners learn as they interact with
the environment using the five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling
(plus the kinaesthetic senses).
Research indicated that some learners learn better through one sense or modality than
through others:
• A learner who enjoys looking at books and who notices your clothes may be a visual
learner.
• A learner who listens intently during story time and prefers that you tell him what to
do (they are usually also the first to hear a bird singing in the garden), is probably an
auditory learner.
• A learner who enjoys playing with materials of different textures, for example, finger
paint, clay, and feelie-box games, might be a kinaesthetic learner (one who learns
best through touch and body motion).
Many young learners are visual learners, but they generally use a combination of all the
senses to gather impressions. A teacher can expect more retention of knowledge if all
the senses are involved in learning.
Although healthy and normal perceptual skills are important in learning and development,
it is not a prerequisite. Many learners with perceptual barriers are successful students,
although they were not able to hear or see. It is the teacher’s task to ensure that perceptual
barriers are addressed as early as possible and to provide alternative means of teaching
and learning.
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3SELF-ASSESSMENT
Complete the following activity before you read further

Google the life of Helen Adams Keller (June 27, 1880–June 1, 1968). She was an American
author, political activist, and lecturer. She was the first deaf-blind person to earn a Bachelor
of Arts degree. After graduating from Radcliffe, she went on to become one of the most
influential people of the 20th century. She worked for the rights of persons with disabilities,
women and underprivileged sections of society. Read her life story. What do you think was
the main reason for her successful and fulfilling life?
GLOSSARY OF THE MOST ESSENTIAL PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
TIP: Print this list out and place it on the front cover of your daily planning file. You can check
that you address all the most essential skills necessary for learning without having a formal
perceptual programme.
A list of all the most essential perceptual skills and a description of each skill
(Ohlson, 2015)
• Auditory Perception (Hearing) – How the brain interprets what is being heard by the
ears. This is an essential skill for learning by listening.
• Auditory Discrimination – The ability to hear and discriminate between different sounds.
This skill is vital for speech development and spelling
• Auditory Memory – The capacity to remember what has been heard
• Body Image – How a person views his/her body
• Body Awareness – The cognisance of the body, and how it functions
• Classification – The ability to sort objects according to kind or class
• Discrimination – The ability to recognise similarities and differences between objects
• Hand-eye Coordination – The link between the hands and the eyes that is important for
skills such as writing, drawing, threading and ball skills
• Fine Motor Coordination – The capacity to direct the movement in the small muscles of
the hands, fingers and mouth, which are essential for writing and speech
• Form Perception – The ability to identify and name shapes and forms within space
• Form Constancy – The capacity to recognise structures and shapes from varying angles,
and in various sizes and colours
• Gross Motor Activities – Activities that involve the ability to use the large muscles of the
body
• Gross Motor Coordination – This is the ability to move the large muscles of the body
(arms, legs, neck, etc.) in a coordinated manner
• One-to-One Correspondence – The capacity to match similar objects or groups to one
another
• Phonics – The sounds of the letters in the alphabet
• Visual Perception (Sight) – How the brain interprets information received from the eyes.
Sight is an essential perceptual skill for all learning through looking
• Visual Discrimination – The capacity to recognise similarities and differences in informa-
tion by sight; it is a vital skill for all school learning areas
• Visual Memory – The ability to remember what the eyes have seen
• Visual Sequencing – The capacity to arrange objects, words or numbers in order
• Visual Seriation – The ability to place objects in an orderly series based on visual cues
(from biggest to smallest, from lightest to darkest)
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LEARNING UNIT 4
COGNITIVE (INTELLECTUAL) DEVELOPMENT OF THE
GRADE R LEARNER
First, read the learning outcomes before you start with this learning unit.
Keep referring to these outcomes while going through the work.
Outcomes

• Understand how intellectual development takes place
• Understand how young learners learn
• Support young learners’ learning
• Create learning experiences for learners in the preoperational stage
Key concepts
• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental

model of the world
• Vygotsky’s theory revolves around the idea that social interaction is central to learning
4.1 INTRODUCTION
By the time young learners start with Grade R, they have a considerable store of knowledge.
However, the experiences that learners have had in order to learn what they know, are more
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important than what they know. These experiences are known as the hidden curriculum
(Jacobs, Vakalisa & Gawe, 2011).
This hidden curriculum is essential, not because of learners’ factual knowledge, but because
of all the discoveries, solutions to problems, and learning that learners have experienced
in the process of acquiring this knowledge.
The importance of all general knowledge and learning is not what learners know, but how
they gained their knowledge. The process of acquiring knowledge is called metacognition.
Metacognition is also how learners discover how to learn, without which learning at
school would be impossible.
These skills (they are all higher-order thinking skills), include the following:
• The ability to pay attention

• Creative thinking
• Problem-solving
• Interpretation of information
• Evaluation of ideas or information
4.2 UNDERSTANDING HOW LEARNERS LEARN

How do learners learn to think, and what do they think?
Without the ability to think and learn, human beings would be unable to survive. Sheep
grow fleeces to enable them to adapt to a chilly climate. At the same time, humans react
intelligently to their environment to survive in it. Learning is a mechanism we use to allow
ourselves to gain some control or mastery over our environment (Edwards & Knight, 1994).
We do not know precisely how learners learn. We can only work with the best-recognised
theories on learning about what learners can do and how they understand events as
presented to us by researchers.
4.2.1 Jean Piaget

Thinking and Learning Processes
Jean Piaget undertook a lifelong study to understand the processes of how children think
and learn. Piaget identifies two processes when a learner learns a new skill or information:
• Assimilation is the process of fitting new information into existing knowledge (fits in
with what the child already knows).
• Accommodation is the process of revising current understanding and knowledge so
that new information can be incorporated.
Applying Piaget’s two processes, it is evident that teachers play an essential role in ensuring
that young learners’ learning is successful.
42
• A vital task is to ensure that new knowledge or skills link to previous experiences (can be
assimilated). This principle is essential when selecting a theme, a new activity, or even
a story. If further information does not link up with earlier experiences or knowledge,
it will be meaningless and not relevant for the young learner.
• After new knowledge or skills have been learned, assess whether it is accommodated.
The teacher needs to determine if the learner is using the latest information in a
meaningful manner – not just repeating information but also using it in everyday tasks.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget also found that a learner’s ability to think develops in seven identifiable stages.
As Grade R teachers, our concern is with the learner in two phases of Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development, namely,
• the preoperational stage (from about 2 to 7 years old), and

• the concrete operational stage (from about 7 to 12 years old)
Preoperational means that learners in this stage are not yet able to do certain kinds of
thinking. Piaget divides the preoperational stage into two sub-stages. Of these, we will
focus on the intuitive thought sub-stage (learner from ages 4 to 7).
Preoperational stage – As learners enter this stage, there is a remarkable increase in

their use of mental symbols (words and images) to represent the objects, situations, and
events they come across. However, preoperational means that the learner in this stage is
not yet able to perform certain kinds of thinking. The preoperational stage is divided into
two sub-stages, namely, the preconceptual period (2–4) years and the intuitive-thought
period (4–7) years.
PREOPERATIONAL Young children (2 to 4 years) The ability to make a word or an

STAGE can represent the real world object represent something else
(2 TO 6/7 YEARS) using symbols such as mental – the learner of 18 months who
images, words, and gestures. combines two or more words to
Preconceptual period Objects and events no longer form a simple sentence “me go”;
(2 to 4 years) have to be physically present to naming of scribble – mommy.
be thought about. They often Infants (1–3 months) pretend to be
fail to distinguish their point of sleeping or eating. By 2 years, tod-
view from that of others. dlers may use one object (block) to
They become easily captured symbolise another (car).
by surface appearances and are
often confused about causal
relations. Pretend play emerges.
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4Intuitive period Intuitive thought is little more Centration, the tendency to focus
(4 to 7 years) than an extension of a precon- (centre) on the most prominent
ceptual view, but children are aspect of an object when two
now less egocentric. or more issues are relevant – the
Children are more proficient colour of the object and not the
at classifying objects based on form as well.
shared perceptual attributes, Conservation – when materials are
such as size, shape, and colour. changed in shape or arrangement
Thinking is still called intuitive in space, the child may see them
because the understanding of as changed in the amount as well.
objects is based on their single It is crucial that young learners,
most noticeable perceptual therefore, work with precursors
feature (centred thinking). of conservation such as count-
The child is unable to conserve ing, one-to-one correspondence,
– to recognise that the proper- shape space, and comparing. They
ties of an object or substance also work on seriation (putting ob-
do not change when its appear- jects in a logical sequence, e.g. fat
ance is altered in some superfi- to thin) and classification (putting
cial way. things in logical groups according
to some common criterion such as
colour, shape, size, or use).
CONCRETE Begins to conserve (can see that The learners now become conserv-
OPERATIONAL STAGE quantity, size, length, volume ers as they become more skilled
remain the same no matter how in retaining the original picture in
(7 TO 12 YEARS) they are arranged). mind and make mental reversals
when appearances are changed.
Can handle several ideas at the Given a variety of objects of vari-
same time. ous colours, shapes, and sizes can
find all the “red, square, small
ones”.
Can understand other points of Can understand and follow the
view but still need to be in real rules and make up their own.
situations rather than in ab-
stract ones.
Concrete operational stage (from about 7 to 12 years old)
As learners start operating in concrete operational thinking, they become capable of

combining, separating, ordering and transforming objects in their minds. These mental
operations are termed “concrete” because even at this stage, they still cannot operate
objects mentally unless they are physically present.
Implication for Grade R teacher
These stages, where Piaget illustrates how children react to the world as they try to make
sense of it, can provide the Grade R teacher with valuable knowledge.
Piaget’s theory reminds us that Grade R learners
• Deal differently with what they learn than do older and younger learners
44
• Are much more likely to resort to intuition, because they cannot always hold two
separate pieces of information in their minds and then connect them
• Have certain limitations in their learning (things that they cannot do)
• Have individual capabilities in their learning (things that they can do)
• Need experiences in the areas of science and mathematics, and teachers should use
concrete objects to provide them. By observing, comparing, classifying, and combining
real objects (blocks, shells, stones, buttons, bottle tops, shapes, seeds growing in soil),
learners discover similarities, differences, and relationships.
Go back to the table of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
Complete the table and indicate what the main differences are between the think-
ing and learning abilities of a learner in the preoperational stage and the concrete
operational stage.
Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage
4.2.2 Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky (a Russian psychologist) believed that both developmental and social forces
influence cognitive development. He argued that people’s developmental tools such as
speech, writing and numbering aid them in the mastery of their environment. He believed
that speech was the most important tool because it enables us to interact socially and
helps us with thinking.
Piaget looked at development as coming mainly from the learner (the learner’s inner
development and spontaneous discoveries). Vygotsky puts more emphasis on the role of
the adult or the more mature friend as an influence on the learner’s mental development.
Let us explain the differences:
Piaget emphasised learners as intellectual explorers making their discoveries and constructing
knowledge independently.
Vygotsky developed the idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is the
area where the learner is now and where he can progress to with assistance from an adult
or a more mature friend. Vygotsky indicated that a learner shares a ZDP (zone of proximal
development) with the practitioner/teacher. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development has
a lower limit and an upper limit.
According to Vygotsky, there are tasks a learner can master but not on his or her own. (It
lies in the zone (area) of proximal (potential) development.) Still, with the help of others, the
learner can learn it. The support of adults and friends that are more competent provides
the necessary assistance or “scaffold” that enables the learner to move to the next level
of independent functioning.
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(See sketch for illustration of the zone (area) of proximal (potential) development)
{
Upper limit: Level of a more
advanced task a learner can
accept with the assistance of
an able instructor
Zone of Proximal
development
(Teaching)
Lower limit: Tasks too tricky

for learner to master alone
The principle of learning is that learners can do things (learn) with support and later
independently and in a variety of settings.
Piaget was concerned about pressuring learners and not asking them to perform tasks
before they are ready for them. Vygotsky, again, was concerned with learners being
challenged to reach their full potential. Today many educators find a combination of
Piaget and Vygotsky’s views provides a sound foundation for teaching young learners.
Activity 4.1
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING QUESTION BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

Compare the learning theories of Piaget and Vygotsky in a table format.
PIAGET VYGOTSKY
4.2.3 Different learning styles

In addition to learning by using their senses the various types of learning due to a
preference for a specific sense), learners also learn from the adults in their lives. Some
46
learners, however, demand more attention than others do as they learn. The terms “field
sensitive or dependent” and “field independent” can be used to describe certain types
of learners and the effect of their surroundings on their learning.
• The field-independent learner prefers to work alone, concentrates on his or her

activity, rarely seeks guidance from the teacher, and prefers open-ended activities.
These learners usually have a good sense of self, are independent and self-motivated.
It seems as if nothing can influence their learning, and they are very focused on a task.
The field-independent learner will try new activities without being urged to do so. In
terms of learning, this learner enjoys the discovery approach.
Field independent learners may struggle to focus on the “whole picture” as they
concentrate hard on the task at hand – forgetting the complete assignment.
• Field-sensitive (dependent) learners are the opposite of field-independent learners.

Field dependent learners prefer to work with others and ask for guidance from the
teacher. They have difficulty completing an open-ended activity without a model to
follow. For example, the field-sensitive learner usually waits until the other learners
begin an art activity to see what they are doing before starting on his or her activity.
Field-dependent learners need to be guided to complete and focus on a task – their
concentration wanders easily. As they are not as focused as the field-independent
learners are, they are less perfectionistic and complete activities easier.
Differences between field-independent and field-dependent learners
Learning Style Dimensions: Field independence vs Field dependence ... https://learnvercity.

com/4289/learning-style-dimensions-field-independence-vs-field-dependence/
• Field independent learners are self-motivated, while field dependence relies on external
motivation to complete a task.
• Field-independent learners perceive new knowledge or skills in terms of components
or parts and distinguish it from the background (can focus and does not get easily
distracted). Field-dependent learners perceive new knowledge or skills as a whole.
Parts are joined together with the background.
• Field-independent learners have a sense of separate identity, i.e. self-motivated. While
the field-dependent learner is externally motivated. (Online article: Learning style
dimensions: Field Independence; 06/13/2018).
Activity 4.2
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING
Try to find out how many of the learners in your class have field-sensitive or
468
field-independent learning styles.

469 Field-sensitive ............................................. Field-independent ..................................................
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4.2.4 Implications of learning theories for teaching
What can we as practitioners/teachers learn from the previous theories? In terms of
the learner’s way of learning, we should keep the following guidelines in mind when
attempting to provide challenging opportunities for learners to learn and develop:
• Learners learn through play

Play is what learners do best and enjoy most. For learners, play is their work. Play fosters
total development and it should be part of everything learners do.
• Learners learn by doing

Learners learn through active involvement with concrete objects. They need many first-
hand experiences with real things, such as counting real objects (stones, shells, buttons
and beads) and in science, they need to see things for themselves, for example, what
happens if a plant is watered/not watered.
• Learners learn through their senses

Learners learn by seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Imagine that each of the senses
is a path to the brain. The more senses involved at a time the more likely it is that learning
will take place.
• Learners learn through language

Learners need to talk about their experiences and to verbalise what they are thinking
about. Teachers can promote language development by describing what they are doing,
labelling objects, clarifying what learners believe by asking questions, and answering
their questions.
• Learners learn by being motivated

Motivation is essential if learning is to take place; the learner needs to be motivated to take
part in the learning experience. Creative learning and teaching resources, materials and
a stimulating environment will draw the learners’ attention and inspire them to want to
learn. Pleasing parents and teachers, praise, rewards, and other personal reasons further
motivate learners to learn.
• Learners learn on their level

Assess each learner’s background and skills so you can build on their experiences. If
activities are too easy, learners will be bored, but if they are too tricky learners will be
frustrated and will not want to take part. Activities should move from simple to more
complex so that learners will be successful.
• Learners learn through praise and reinforcement

Achieving success, positive experiences, and praise encourage learners to learn more while
building their confidence. Give constant learner reinforcement with verbal encouragement,
smiles and pats.
48
• Learners learn through imitation
Learners learn by watching others and then imitating what they see and hear. Among
other things, they will imitate the teacher’s writing and use of language as well as the
values and attitudes of their parents, teachers and peers.
• Learners learn through repetition

Learners build knowledge through repetition and accumulated experience. Young learners
enjoy repeating a favourite activity, story, song or rhyme. The amount of time spent on tasks
is also significant – learners should have enough time to work on activities (art, science).
• Learners learn by experimenting

Learners need the freedom to experiment, explore, try things out, and to make choices.
Since they learn through trial and error, accept their mistakes, and offer feedback and
support.
• Learners learn through exposure

Learners need to be exposed to a wide variety of learning experiences and materials,
as this is a period in their lives when they learn more than in any other period to follow.
Learners learn through social interaction with adults and other learners.
• Learners learn through being social

Teachers and peers play an important role in supporting learners’ development. Learners
learn much through talking, watching and playing with their friends, siblings and other
people in their lives.
• Learners learn in a positive environment

Learners need to feel accepted, loved, safe and secure to learn. A positive atmosphere is
more conducive to learning than one that is competitive or threatening.
• Learners learn when their physical needs are met

Learners who are hungry, sleepy and who feel unsafe or under stress will have a difficult
time learning. Make sure that learners receive sufficient nutrition, proper rest, and emotional
support.
• Learners learn holistically

Learning is not isolated but should be connected and integrated into all areas of the
curriculum. Early education should also focus on the whole learner by meeting his/her
physical, social, emotional, and intellectual needs.
4.3 CONCLUSION
If you follow these guidelines, learners should become independent learners. They want
to learn and are enthusiastic and excited about it. They will have a good foundation, be
confident in their abilities, and attain lifelong learning skills.
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Follow the advice that Frederick Moffett gives to teachers
Thus, a Child Learns
Thus a child learns;
by wiggling skills through his fingers and toes into himself;
by soaking up habits and attitudes of those around him;
by pushing and pulling his own world.

more by trial than error
more through pleasure than pain,
more through experience than suggestion,
more through suggestion than direction.

through affection,
through love,
through patience,
through understanding,
through belonging,
through doing,
through being.
the child comes to know a little bit of what you know;

to think that a little bit of what you think;
to understand your understanding.
That which you dream and believe and are
in truth, becomes the child.
As you perceive dully or clearly

as you think fuzzily or sharply;
as you believe foolishly or wisely;
as you dream drably or goldenly;
as you bear false witness or tell the truth–
thus a child learns.
(Frederick J Moffitt)
4SELF-ASSESSMENT
Answer the following questions
(1) In your opinion, what is the value of knowing learning theories for a teacher?
Justify your answer.
(2) A parent asks why it is essential to let young children play. Using Piaget’s theory, answer
the parent.
50
(3) You are asked to write a two-page (1 200 words) information guide on “Assisting the
Grade R learner’s learning” for a newly appointed Grade R teacher. (Indicate both Piaget’s
and Vygotsky’s theories and their application.)
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LEARNING UNIT 5
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Outcomes

• Understand that learners’ language is constantly developing
• Identify the stages of language development
• Make allowances for learners’ different language capabilities
• Implement ways to promote language development
Key concepts
• Language development – process of learning how to speak and communicate verbally

• Language is a system of symbols, both spoken and written
• Language skills refer to listening, speaking, reading and writing
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is generally accepted that the best years for language acquisition and development are
between the ages of two and five. During this period, the learner masters the basics of a
52
language. By the age of five, children usually have the necessary oral language skills for
expressing ideas and concepts. When it comes to verbal communication, five-year-olds
are reasonable masters of the language structure and the purposes for which language
is used.
There is a strong relationship between the four language skills – listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. Research suggests that these skills should be developed in an integrated
(whole language) approach, which is also the method proposed in this programme.
At the beginning of formal schooling, the learner has a comprehension (understanding)

vocabulary twice as big as the one they use in their oral vocabulary. Learners’ comprehension
vocabulary will continue to be bigger until in the intermediate school phase.
Perhaps the most exciting aspect of language development is that it usually takes
place without formal instruction. Language develops more effectively in language-rich
environments in homes and preschools.
We discuss the role of the teacher in providing a language-rich environment in Module 2:

Teaching Language in Grade R
5.2 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

The first question must be, "What is language?"
Language is a system of symbols, both spoken and written. This system allows humans
to communicate with each other.
Language is vital for the healthy and optimal development of every human being.
Although any language is difficult and complicated, learners learn to speak their home
language with ease in only four to six years. Why learners learn a language so quickly is
a question that linguists (scientists who study language) cannot fully answer, although
they have proposed various theories.
The most significant theories that attempt to explain language development:
The behaviourist model: According to this model, toddlers learn language because they
imitate the language of their caretakers and are rewarded for their attempts.
The linguistic model: Chomsky was the central figure in developing this model. According
to Chomsky, language is inherent in all learners and needs only to be enhanced by social
contact.
The constructivist model: Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky were the main contributors to
this model. According to them, learning a language is not an effortless process but a
task that needs deliberate effort. Language is learnt through social interaction. Observe
a baby, and you will realise that the first words are used for communication with others.
Vygotsky regards speech as the foundation of the development of intellectual skills, as
the learner needs words (communication) to be able to form concepts and to learn.
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According to the constructivist model, an essential aspect of learning to talk is a person
repeating in words what the toddler is trying to communicate. By repeating the toddler’s
intentions (ta-ta) and repeating the toddler’s “speech” in proper language: “Yes, daddy is
going to work”. The child hears correct grammar and starts to repeat it.
Although scientists’ opinions vary on the causes of language development, there is

consensus on the process of development. Piaget (1936) indicated that the foundations
of language development are laid during the year between birth and two years. Between
the ages of two to seven, the development of language is a significant achievement and
must be enhanced (website: www.verywellmind.com).
5.3 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT SEQUENCE

Language development follows a particular sequence that seems invariable, regardless
of the language being learnt. Language development depends on maturation as well as
learning opportunities. A child seems to understand concepts and relationships long before
they have the words to describe them. Therefore, receptive language (understanding what
is said) precedes expressive language (the ability to use words to describe and explain).
5.3.1 Language development of the infant

The newborn (birth to 28 days)
The beginning of speech and language development can be identified in several of the
newborn’s reflexes. These include the bite-release action that occurs when the infant’s
gums are rubbed, the rooting reflex, and the sucking reflex. Crying and fussing are
significant forms of communication at this stage.
Characteristics of a newborn’s communication are:
• Reacts to loud noises by blinking, moving, stopping a movement, shifting eyes about,
or making a startle response
• Starts to show a preference for certain sounds, such as music and human voices, by
calming down or quieting
• Turns head to locate voices and other sounds
• Makes occasional sounds other than crying
Source:
Chapter 4, Class Notes – Cengage. http://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/
downloads/143541294X_165967.pdf)
One to four months
After the first month, the baby starts to react more towards the people in his or her
surroundings.
54
Characteristic of language development
The baby begins to:
• React (stops whimpering, startles, turns head) to sounds such as voice, spoon, rattling,
ringing of a bell
• Coordinate looking, and body movements in face-to-face exchanges with parent or
caregiver
• Coo when spoken to or smiled at
• Say single vowel sounds (ah, eh, uh); also imitates vowel sounds produced by others
• Search for the source of voice (turns head, eyes look for the speaker)
• Laugh out loud
Eight to twelve months
• Babbles or chatters deliberately to get social interaction started; may shout to attract
attention; listens then shouts again
• Shakes head for “no” and may nod for “yes”
• Responds by looking for voice when his/her name is called
• Babbling in sentence-like sequences; followed a bit later by jargon (syllables and
sounds with language-like inflexion)
• Waves “bye-bye”; claps hands when asked
• Says “da-da” and ma-ma”
• Imitates sounds that are similar to those the baby has already learnt to make; will also
imitate car sounds, tongue click, lip-smacking, coughing
• Enjoys rhymes and simple songs and dances to music
• Hands toy or object to an adult when appropriate gestures accompany the request
5.3.2 The language development of the toddler

The one-year-old
• Produces considerable “jargon” – puts words and sounds together into speechlike
patterns
• Reaches the holophrastic period – first meaningful speech consisting of one word at
a time. This one word conveys an entire thought. The first word may be intelligible
only to the family, such as “ba” for “ball” or “awa’’ for “I want”
• Follows simple directions, “Give Mommy the cup”
• When asked, will point to familiar persons, animals, and toys
• Identifies three body parts if someone names them, “Show me your nose, mouth, ear.”
• Starts two-word phrases, “More cookie.” “Tata, bye-bye.”
• Responds to simple questions with “yes” or “no” and appropriate head movement
• Acquires and uses 5 to 50 words; typically, these are words that refer to animals, food
and toys
• Speech is 25 to 50% intelligible (can be understood by others)
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The two-year-old
• Enjoys being read to if allowed to participate by pointing, making relevant noises,

turning pages
• Realises that language is useful for getting others to respond to needs and preferences
• Uses 50 to 300 different words; vocabulary continuously increasing
• Receptive language is more developed than expressive language
• Utters three- and four-word statements; uses standard word order to form more complete
sentences
• Refers to self as “me” or sometimes “I” rather than by name. “Me go bye-bye”; uses
“mine”
• Expresses negative statements by tacking on a negative word such as “no” or “not”:
“Not more milk.”
• Repeatedly asks, “What’s that?”
• Uses some plurals; tells about objects and events not immediately present (a cognitive
and linguistic advance)
• Some stammering and dysfluencies are common
• Speech is as much as 65 to 70% intelligible
5.3.3 The language development of the pre-grade learner

The three-year-old
• Talks about known objects, events and people not present, “Sally has a pool at home.”
• Talks about the actions of others, “Daddy buys bread.”
• Adds information to what has been said in a conversation
• Answers simple questions appropriately
• Asks an increasing number of questions
• Uses an increasing number of speech forms that keep a conversation going: “What
did Sarah do next?”
• Calls attention to self: “Watch my ball roll.”
• Promotes the behaviour of others, “Let’s slide. You go first.”
• Asks for desired objects or assistance
• Uses social interaction words, “Hello”. “Bye”, “Please”
• Vocabulary has grown to 300 to 1 000 words
• Speech is 80% intelligible
• Uses verbs with “-ing” endings; uses “-s” to indicate more than one
The four-year-old
• Uses prepositions: “on”, “in” and “under”

• Uses possessives: “hers”, “theirs” and “baby’s”
• Uses negatives: “can’t”, “don’t” as well as “cannot” and “do not”
• Uses “Whose”, “Why” and “How many”
• Uses elaborate sentence structures: “The dog ran around the house”
• Speech is 90% intelligible.
• Begins to use the past tense of verbs correctly: “Sipho closed door.” “Tate went to work.”
56
• Refers to people, activities, events and objects, which are not present at the time:
“Koko has a fig tree at home.”
• Changes tone of voice and sentence structure to adapt to listener’s level of understanding:
To baby brother: Milk gone? To mother: “Did the baby drink all his milk?”
• Recites and sings simple songs and rhymes
5.3.4 The Grade R learner

The five-year-old
• A vocabulary of 1 500 words or more

• Tells a familiar story while looking at pictures in a book
• Defines simple words by function: a ball is to bounce; a bed is for sleeping
• Identifies and names at least four colours
• Recognises the humour in simple jokes; makes up jokes and riddles
• Produces sentences with an average length of 5 to 7 words
• States the name of own city and town, birthday and parents’ names
• Answers telephone appropriately; calls the person to phone or takes a brief message
• Speech is nearly 100% intelligible
• Uses “would” and “could” appropriately
• Uses past irregular verbs consistently: “went,” “caught,” “swam,” “gave”
• Uses past tense (-ed) appropriately for regular verbs: “jumped”, “rained”, “washed”
• Understands the singular and plural contrast for nouns: ball/balls, block/blocks, baby/
babies
The six-year-old
• Loves to talk, often nonstop; may be described as a chatterbox

• Able to carry on adultlike conversations; asks many questions
• Learns as many as 5 to 10 new words each day; vocabulary consists of 10 000 to 14 000
words
• Uses appropriate verb tenses, word order, and sentence structure
• Expresses displeasure: “That’s mine! Give it back!”
• Talks self through steps required in simple problem-solving situations (though the
“logic” may be unclear to adults)
• Enjoys being read to and making up stories
• Delights in telling jokes and riddles
• Capable of learning more than one language; does so spontaneously in a bi- or
multilingual family
Activity 5.1

(1) Make a list of all the language skills one can expect for a typical Grade R learner.
(2) Use English as guideline to find examples in the language of Teaching and Learning
in which you are competent to teach. (Translate the list if necessary.)
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5.4 THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
The teacher serves as a model of everyday language use. The teacher is a provider of
language experiences. Many of these events are planned, but most happen in the typical
course of activities. The teacher is an interactor, sharing experiences with the learner and
encouraging conversation.
These three roles should be balanced. These teaching roles require making consistent
decisions – knowing when to supply or withhold information to help self-discovery and
when to talk or listen. The teacher’s role as an observer is an ongoing responsibility that
influences all daily teacher-learner exchanges. Knowing learners’ interests, their present
behaviours and emerging skills help the teacher perform the roles mentioned above
based on the group and individual needs.
The role of the teacher in the young learner’s language development will be discussed in detail
in Module 2: Teaching language in Grade R.
5.5 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we focused our attention on the language development of the
learner at various stages of life and the characteristics of language development. We then
concluded with the role that the teacher plays in the learner’s language development.
5SELF-ASSESSMENT
Complete the following activity before you read further
(1) match the statement with the appropriate age.

• Speech is 95% intelligible six-year-old
• Refers to people not present five-year-old
• Uses past tense inflection (-ed) six-year-old
• Vocabulary consists of 10 000 to 14 000 words five-year-old
• Speech is nearly 100% intelligible four-year-old
• Defines words by function – a chair is to sit on four-fear-old
• Delights in telling jokes and riddles five-year-old
(2) List three major speech and language skills in order of their appearance that develop
between three and five years of age.
(3) Briefly discuss the role of the teacher in assessing the Grade R learner’s language
development.
58
LEARNING UNIT 6
EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF
THE GRADE R LEARNER
Outcomes

• Identify typical social, emotional, and moral development of the Grade R learner
• Apply the knowledge to be able to set realistic expectations regarding the Grade R
learner’s social, emotional, and ethical behaviour
• Ready to create an environment and present activities that are conducive for healthy
social, emotional and moral development
Key concepts
• Emotional development is the changing ability to experience and express personal

feelings as well as recognise and interpret those of others
• Social skills are the skills we use daily to interact and communicate with others
• Moral development speaks to the development of moral values, fairness, consistency
and respect for others
• Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and others
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6.1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG LEARNER
6.1.1 Definition of emotional development

The learner’s emotional development is the changing ability to experience and express
personal feelings as well as recognise and interpret those of others. The development of
emotions is closely linked to the learner’s cognitive development. It takes place within a
specific social and cultural environment.
(1) Why do you think is the emotional development closely linked to the learner’s
intellectual development?
(TIP: Think about your own emotions – do you act, or do you think about your feelings?)
(2) In your view, is emotional development linked to a specific social and cultural
environment? Give a reason for your answer.
(TIP: Without stereotyping, think about cultural differences between accepted emotional
behaviour; the English: stiff upper lip; the Italian’s very expressive emotions; Boys don’t cry.)
6.1.2 Importance of understanding emotional development

As adults, we are often “ruled” by our emotions. The saying “My heart says one thing
and my brain something else” – indicates the vital influence of emotions on adults. In
the young learner, emotions are an even more potent force and play an essential role in
all aspects of behaviour.
A learner’s emotional development takes place on both a conscious and a subconscious

level and monitoring a learner’s emotional progress is an essential part of raising a healthy,
well-adjusted learner. A learner’s environment can have a significant impact on his or her
behaviour and development. As Grade R teacher, you can help a learner to develop to
his or her full potential by:
• Understanding the stages of emotional development and how they influence a

learner’s behaviour
• Using this understanding to create an environment that fosters a learner’s emotional
development (Frost, 2016)
6.1.3 Basic emotional development terminology

Egocentric
Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and others. Young children are
egocentric and may not understand that other people have a different view, feeling,
or position to them. Young children are selfish, but this is because they are unaware of
others. Part of the young learner’s emotional development is to become less egocentric.
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Self-concept
A self-concept is an understanding a person has of themselves and is based on previous

experiences and situations. It answers the questions: “Who am I?” The development of the
self-concept is a continual process. Children begin to establish a self-concept in infancy
and continues throughout childhood. As children interact with other people, they start to
learn their importance and role in their environment. Learners begin to value themselves
when they are nurtured and encouraged. Developing a positive self-concept builds
confidence and provides individuals with tools necessary to succeed (Thompson, 2017).
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is an individual’s evaluation of their worth, and an individual’s feelings about

themselves. Self-esteem includes beliefs about oneself (for example, “I am competent”,
“I am worthy”) as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride and shame.
Healthy self-esteem is essential for young learners to feel secure enough to believe that
they can learn and become more competent. Children with low self-esteem are afraid to
try new activities, as they think they will fail.
Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the ability to control behaviour by monitoring desires to act according

to accepted practice. The Grade R learner’s self-regulation is still developing but better
than that of the two-year-old with very little self-regulation (throwing tantrums). One
of the tasks of the Grade R teacher is to assist learners in developing self-regulation by
being a role model. You need to control your emotions and model proper behaviour in
all circumstances. Explosive responses in adults are characteristic of poor self-regulation
and is often seen as immature behaviour (poor impulse control).
6.2 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

The baby (birth to one year)
Characteristics of the emotional development from birth are:
• During this phase, the learner changes from complete dependency to autonomy
(being more independent)
• The baby’s first smile and expressions of joy promote social interaction and healthy
attachment (bonding) with primary caregivers. Smiling and emotional expressions of
interest appear as early as six weeks of age (Emotional development | Britannica.com.
https://www.britannica.com/science/emotional-development)
• By four to five months of age, babies selectively smile at familiar faces and other
infants, and their caregivers begin to share positive emotional exchanges with them
• The expression of sadness, (crying), encourages empathy (understanding how another
person feels) by caregivers and helping behaviour. The baby also expresses anger
signals to indicate protest and discomfort
• The infants’ unique tendency to experience and express particular emotions are usually
referred to as their temperament
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• By the age of four months, babies recognise and respond differently to negative
emotional expressions, such as sadness and anger by others
• During the second six months of life, infants begin to express emotions based on
circumstances. Feelings start to emerge dynamically as the infant begins to take a
more direct role in emotional exchanges with others, especially their caretakers. The
emotional bond with the caregiver is increasingly essential, as babies seek support
for exploration and look for signals of danger
Toddler years (one to three years)
During the toddler years, the child strives to become more independent. This becomes
clear in their expression of anger and defiance as they struggle to be more independent.
(The terrible twos)
The toddler years are characterised by:
• The ability to differentiate between self and others
• The start of basic empathy and moral behaviour (starting to understand “No!”).
• By the end of the second year of life, toddlers respond to an adverse reaction from
other people
The preschool years, including Grade R (three to six years)

During the time between three and six years, the child starts to
• Label their own emotions – they can tell whether they are unhappy or sad
• Understand basic emotions – they can differentiate between happiness and negative
emotions
• Distinguish negative emotions such as sadness, anger and fear from each other
• Understand that what makes one learner happy may not make another learner feel
the same way
• Recognise and identify emotions in facial expressions
• Experience emotions such as guilt, but not fully developed until the learner understands
fundamental values and standards of accepted behaviour
• Develop a self-regulated emotional response
The development of emotional self-regulation is particularly important during the preschool
years. The expression of positive emotions and warm relationships between parents and
other adults in the learner’s life promotes effective emotional self-regulation. On the other
hand, frequent feelings of negative emotions in the family and harsh, punitive discipline
increase the experience of distressing emotions that may lead to psychopathology
(abnormal emotional behaviour). Appropriate relationships characterised by shared
play activities are also crucial for the development of emotional regulation during early
childhood. Learners gain emotional understanding and the capacity for empathetic and
helping behaviour from emotional exchanges with friends.
The following is a list of the emotional skills we can expect from a Grade R learner:
• Recognises successes and feels pride in their work
• Recognises and appreciates their uniqueness
• Perseveres with most self-chosen tasks
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• Shows autonomous behaviour and self-discipline by making decisions and choosing
activities on their own
• Develops an emerging awareness of the consequences of their behaviour
• Is prepared to take risks and go into new situations
6.2.1 The teacher’s role in enhancing healthy emotional development

• The most essential condition for healthy emotional development is consistent
boundaries. Without boundaries, learners do not feel safe, which is vital for emotional
development.
• Create opportunities for learners to play and work with each other. Help them to realise
what type of behaviour is acceptable. Quarrelling among learners is normal, but a bully
or a learner who is always pushing others around is not fair. The kind of behaviour
teachers want young learners to acquire is called pro-social, unbiased behaviour, which
includes sharing, cooperation, helpfulness, and mutual respect.
• You should help learners to feel positive about themselves. You can achieve this by
creating a nurturing, supportive environment in which learners feel wanted, secure
and safe.
• You must provide an environment that promotes self-respect, tolerance and mutual
regard for all learners. You must never forget that learners model their behaviour on
yours.
When learners know that you, the teacher, like and accept those who are different from
the rest of the group, they will do the same.
• Provide activities that will enable learners to experience success. In other words, ensure
that you choose developmentally appropriate activities. Make sure that there are
activities that will allow learners to unload negative feelings or uncertainties positively.
• Restless or aggressive learners can be calmed down by looking at books, singing a
song, listening to music, squeezing soft playdough, or handling finger paint.
Activity 6.1
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) List the positive emotional outcomes for Grade R. Indicate how the adult can promote
these outcomes.
6.3 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

6.3.1 No man is an island
It is evident that essential adults (parents, caregivers and practitioners) in young children’s
lives play a dominant role in helping or hindering them in their emotional and linked
social development.
Socialisation begins with parent-child relationships in infancy, where patterns of response,

need fulfilment and give and take have their roots. Learners in the Grade R class, therefore,
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already have many socialising experiences. Social competence could be developed in
the following areas:
• self-concept
• peer interaction and friendships
• gender role identity
• racial and cultural attitudes
• foundations for moral development
Activity 6.2
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION

(1) Is there a relationship between social and emotional development? What does this
mean for the development of a positive self-concept?
Learners do not live on their own. They need other people, not only adults, to assist in
meeting their basic needs; they also need friends and other people of various ages. Young
learners need to become less egocentric. Young children think only about themselves and
see themselves as the centre of their world. Being egocentric is the typical behaviour of
a very young child. They have to learn to be part of a group, to share and to understand
that other people have opinions and feelings too.
For example:
Grade R learners have to learn how to cooperate and take turns. The teacher must be
aware that not all learners have mastered these skills.
Typical social skills of the Grade R learner are list below. As we have emphasised various
times, the list is what we can expect, but not all learners will have mastered all the skills. It
is part of the Grade R teacher’s task to assist the learners in learning these skills, by creating
opportunities for socialising and most important by modelling good social behaviour.
6.3.2 Social skills of the Grade R learner

Social skills of Grade R learner
• Enjoys group play and competitive games
• Likes adult companionship
• Chooses their friends and can be sociable
• Is aware of rules
• Insists on fair play
• Accepts and respects authority
• Asks permission
• Enjoys jokes
• Has a sense of self identity
• Is sensitive to ridicule
• Agrees with the uniqueness of others
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6.3.3 Importance of opportunities for social interaction
Although young learners need adult guidance to promote pro-social development, they
also need opportunities to interact with peers with minimal adult intervention. Positive
peer social experiences are more likely to occur during free-play activities (block play,
sand play, art, fantasy play, and playing on apparatus outside) than during adult-guided
presentations (music, drama, physical education and language activities). There is a
significant correlation between the frequency of learners’ contact with peers and the
development of empathy (feeling for the other) skills, which are essential skills for social
development.
Racial and cultural attitudes
Similar to young children’s early recognition of gender differences, learners develop an

awareness of racial differences as from three years of age (Anselmo & Franz, 1995). Pre-
schoolers use the most readily visible physical differences as cues, namely, skin, hair and
eye colour.
A rather subtle variation in learning about different people arises when the learner
begins to discover cultural differences. Family, neighbourhood, school, books, and mass
media can introduce the learner to the fact that people might meet their daily needs in
different ways.
All people need to communicate, but they have different languages; all people need
to eat, but they do not always eat the same types of food; all people require clothing,
shelter, and transportation, but they may meet these needs in unique ways. A focus on
the similarities among people and mutual respect should be the basis of multicultural
programmes for young learners.
6.4 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
6.4.1 Universal morals and ethical rules

Moral development is a long-term process to which many factors contribute. People
who model values, fairness, consistency, respect, and concern for others must surround
learners. Learners’ observations about how others behave, how they are treated, and
their cognitive development contribute to their emerging sense of morality.
Some universal interpersonal moral rules, such as not harming others, are found across
cultures. There are also ethical rules, which are essential for a specific culture, which
everyone should respect.
6.4.2 Piaget’s moral development theory

Piaget researched learners’ moral reasoning as they played games governed by rules. He
found that the learner’s understanding of rules changes systematically with age:
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• The first stage of ethical understanding describes the preschool learner up to the age of
approximately five years. The learner feels free to change rules at any time or to invent
rules as they go along in the game. They allow their own private needs and desires
to determine what the rules will be. Egocentric behaviour is central during this stage.
• The second stage is characterised by a decline in egocentrism and a tendency to see
rules as handed down by a higher authority. Rules are seen as being permanent and
unchangeable.
During both stages, learners put more emphasis on the result of their behaviour than on
the intention of the behaviour. They feel that the learner who accidentally knocks over
and breaks 10 glasses shows worse behaviour than the learner who intentionally breaks
one glass because he is cross with his mother.
As learners enter the primary school phase, they will begin to put more importance on
the intention of the action than the amount of damage done.
6.5 GUIDELINES FOR PROMOTING SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
As Grade R teacher, you will be working with learners mostly in the first stage (pre-
conventional level) of moral development. It is essential to recognise their abilities and limits
in terms of moral reasoning and to support them on the road to ethical understanding.
The following guidelines might help in this task:
• Use “other” orientated thinking. When giving learners reasons for doing or not
doing something, help them understand their behaviour in terms of the impact it will
have on others. Rather than just saying “we don’t run inside”, say “we don’t run inside
because we could hurt other learners if we bump into them”.
• Use stories to promote thinking and discussion about moral issues. Favourite
learners’ stories often pose ethical problems, but with a teacher’s guidance learners
can say what they are thinking. The teacher’s role is not to judge or moralise, but to
encourage discussion by asking appropriate questions. An example of such a book is
“The little red hen”. These stories could also be dramatised or used in a puppet show.
• Provide enough time for learner-selected play and materials that promote
cooperation. Dramatic play allows a learner to take the viewpoints of others. Equipment
that requires more than one learner to operate encourages collaboration, and group
games encourage turn-taking. Any group activity in which learners work toward
a common goal will invite cooperation. After a visit to the zoo/pet shop/farm/beach,
learners can contribute to a group picture in art activities.
• Provide activities that help the learner become more aware of how we can show
emotions. Collages, masks, drawings, cutting out happy and sad faces, and acting
out feelings can strengthen this awareness.
• Initiate thinking games that encourage the learner to seek multiple alternatives
to social problems. Flannel board characters or puppets can enact a common social
problem, for example, one dealing with sharing. We can address violence by dealing
with what one can do when four learners want to ride on the scooters, and there are
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only three scooters. Do you hit your friend to get the bike? Is there something else
that you can do?
• Caring for and showing kindness and consideration to people in our environment
– children younger, smaller than we are, the elderly, the disabled, and learners with
special needs. Caring for animals and plants in our environment – caring for a pet; the
birds in the school garden; watering plants.
• Realise that not all cultures share the same values. Communication with parents can
help practitioners understand values that are essential to families and help to reinforce
these values with the learner in a developmentally appropriate manner.
Self-concept awareness, friendship, gender role, cultural awareness, and moral development
are all part of an interrelated process that makes up the learner’s social-emotional
development. The level of the child’s social-emotional development will not ensure that
the learner’s responses will necessarily be appropriate. Various factors contribute to pro-
social behaviours, such as the example of significant people in the learner’s life and the
values that are stressed as being important.
Activity 6.3

(1) Social-emotional and moral development are interlinked and difficult to separate
in the development of the Grade R learner.
(2) Write five guidelines you will keep in mind to assist the Grade R learner’s social-
emotional and moral development.
(3) Although young children recognise racial differences at a very young age, it does not
indicate that they are biased towards different races. Racial discrimination is learnt.
• Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
• How will you assist the young child not to be biased towards children that are
different from themselves?
6.6 CONCLUSION
This learning unit covered the emotional, social, and moral development and its importance
in the overall development of a learner. We also touched on the racial and cultural attitudes
and the importance of respecting each other’s cultures.
6SELF-ASSESSMENT
Complete the following exercise before you start with the next learning unit
In Learning unit 1, we discussed the concept of “the holistic child” – the whole child is involved
in any activity he or she completes. As we have considered all facets of the young child,
complete the following exercise to illustrate that we need to remember that we engage the
whole child.
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Study the obstacle course below that a Grade R teacher planned for her group. Although the
main focus is on the development of the learner’s physical development, various other areas
of development are also involved.
Tips:
• Use the example in learning unit 1 by Alien and Marlotz as a guide.
• Use the following table to ensure all faces are included. The table consists of various head-
ings; use all the information from previous units to ensure that you include all possible skills.
[Note that various learners take part in the activity!]
Skills involved in completing the obstacle course
Development area Skills required in the obstacle course

Physical development
Gross motor development
Fine motor development
Perceptual skills
Intellectual development
Language development
Social development
Emotional development
Moral development
Aesthetic development
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LEARNING UNIT 7
IMPORTANCE OF LEARNERS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENTS
Outcomes

• Understand that each learner lives in a unique environment
• Explain the environmental impact on the child’s development
• Be able to address ecological influences in an inclusive education approach
Key concepts
• Social background – refers to the kind of family and society from which the learner
comes.
• Environment – refers to the area or community in which the learner is growing up.
• Ecological system theory – looks at a child’s development within the context of the
system of relationships that form his or her environment.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, increasing efforts have been made to understand how their social
backgrounds shape children’s development. Every young learner comes with a particular
social and economic history. Different socioeconomic settings in South Africa and global
influences have an impact on young learners’ development and learning in a variety
of ways. Our challenge is to understand the forces, connections, and interrelationships
between the learner and these influences.
7.2 UNDERSTANDING THE CHILD’S ENVIRONMENT

Uri Bronfenbrenner (1970) developed a way in which to understand the influences of
learners’ environment on their development. According to Bronfenbrenner, the learner’s
life as an ecosystem.
Remember: If you had Biology, you would remember the concept ecology.
Ecology is the study of the relationships between plants, animals, people, and their
environment, and the balances between these relationships. (Collins Dictionary)
Bronfenbrenner sees children’s lives also in terms of the relationships they have with all
the people that can influence it.
According to Bronfenbrenner (1998), we look at the learner’s context and all the
interconnected systems, to assist us in understanding the learner. Bronfenbrenner’s
suggests that each socioeconomic environment, contains various structures that influence
the learner’s growth and development. The child’s changes could be physical, biological,
social, cultural, and emotional. An essential fact in Bronfenbrenner theory is that: What
happens in one system affects and is affected by other systems.
According to Bronfenbrenner (1998), we must consider four factors if we want to understand

children’s development as it is affected by or affects other people:
• Personal factors are persons (such as parents, brothers and sisters, family, friends,
strangers) who can encourage or discourage reaction from others who are involved
in the learner’s life.
• Process factors are patterns of interaction between the people in the learners’
environment.
• Context includes the learner’s family, school(s), class(s) and local communities.
• Time is essential as changes occur due to the child’s development or changes in the
environment.
A second critical component of Bronfenbrenner’s model is the understanding that children

are active participants in their development. The way they observe and understand their
circumstances influence the way they develop.
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Teachers and other adults in the young learner’s life must take into account that the young
child is growing up in a complex world:
• Television has made the world smaller, and the child is confronted with the whole
world and not only his or her immediate environment.
• Family structures have changed. The extended family is disappearing; families move
so frequently that there is a loss of a close-knit community.
• Working mothers and single-parent families are no longer exceptions but a reality.
• Violence against, and sexual and physical abuse of children are widespread.
• The effects of the HIV-epidemic are devastating and are visible in HIV-orphans, and
child-headed households.
• There are imbalances in education, especially between urban and rural schools, and
schools in poor communities. Learners that are most at risk are not receiving the best
possible education.
Teachers have to take the environment of young learners into account. Especially, unpleasant
situations and complications in the environment that can affect the learners’ learning
and development. As mentioned above, a young child’s environment can sometime be
challenging and this implies serious and new responsibilities for Grade R teachers. As
teachers, you need to address the needs of all the learners in your class.
Activity 7.1

Discuss the following with a teacher in your community:
(1) What environmental factors influence the learners in your community?
(2) How does the teacher address and accommodate these influences in their teaching?
7.3 ECOLOGICAL MODEL

An ecological model was developed by Bronfenbrenner (1989), who pointed out that each
child lives in a particular sociocultural environment, which influences the development
of that child. This model consists of four areas, namely,
• the microsystem,
• the mesosystem,
• the exosystem and
• the macrosystem.
The following diagram illustrates the four systems.
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ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
The microsystem
The microsystem is the setting in which the child lives. The microsystem includes family and
the interpersonal relationships experienced by children in a face-to-face environment at
home. A grandmother who moves in, or a sibling being born will influence the microsystem.
Activity 7.2

(1) What influence can the birth of a sibling have on the young child and the rest of the
family? (the microsystem)
The mesosystem
The mesosystem comprises interaction, relationships and experiences in the family

and school and other meaningful interaction, such as the church. For example, children
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whose parents have rejected them may have difficulty in forming positive relationships
with teachers.
Activity 7.3

(1) What influence can home schooling have on a Grade R learner from an ecosystem
perspective? (Do you think it is good/bad for the young learner?)
The exosystem
The exosystem consists of experiences in which the child does not play an active role, but
which influence the other people in the child’s life. For example, the mother’s experiences
at her work may affect her relationship with her husband and child.
Activity 7.4

(1) Thandi’s father has lost his job. What influence can this have on Thandi? What can
you do to support her and her family?
The macrosystem
The macrosystem involves the culture in which children live. Culture refers to the behaviour
patterns, beliefs, language, and all the other products of a group of people and passed
on from generation to generation.
Activity 7.5

(1) In South Africa, Grade R classes are characterised by multi-cultures, races and religions.
Talk to a Grade R teacher and write down at least five tips/guidelines on how to
make sure that all learners’ cultural and religious traditions are being honoured and
treated with respect.
(2) You have four Grade R learners in your class who are unable to understand and use
the language of teaching and learning (LOTL) of the class. How are you going to
address their language needs?
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7.4 UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNER’S ENVIRONMENT
7.4.1 Importance of knowing the learner’s total context

To form a complete picture and understand a young child’s development and learning,
the teacher needs to be well aware of a child’s behaviour in all settings, such as in the
family and at school within a specific socioeconomic and cultural environment.
One way of getting to know a child’s home environment is through home visits.
Unfortunately, due to safety, costs, and privacy reasons home visits by teachers are not
possible these days. It remains a good strategy as the teacher can observe the young
learner in their home environment.
Parent visits to the school is a more realistic approach and without being “nosy”, ask
parents questions such as:
• Number of brothers and sisters, and other children living at home

• Number of adults living at home
• Relationships between the child and family and other members living at home
• Socioeconomic status of the family; be sensitive but do ask questions about whether
they can meet all the children’s basic needs and the employment status of adults
involved.
• Activities in which family takes part, such as a church, cultural activities, sports and
hobbies.
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Activity 7.6
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER.

Study the above comic.
(1) Why do you think the teacher wants to talk to the parents?
(2) Why is the issue problematic?
(3) Briefly explain how you can assist the parents in addressing the issue.
7.4.2 Completing and using ecomapping

A way to illustrate and understand all the relationships and factors that can influence a
child is to complete an ecomap. The ecomap is a paper-and-pencil exercise designed to
provide a simple, visual overview of the child’s life as spent in the family and community.
During a parent interview/visit the teacher invites the parent(s) to participate in completing
their child’s ecomap.
• Start the ecomap by drawing a circle in the middle of the page and placing the child’s
name in the centre.
• Draw further circles to represent the most important influences in the child’s life
– Start with the immediate family – parents, siblings

– Family not living in the household, the extended family – grandparents, influential
aunts, uncles, etc.
– Connect the circles with lines to illustrate relationships and influences
– Other connections related to health care, recreation, extracurricular activity, parents’
workplace, the child’s best friends outside school, babysitter, and so forth, can be
added to provide more information
Using information collected to complete the ecomap, the teacher understands how
learners spend their time and energy outside the classroom. The purpose of an ecomap
is a better understanding of the child’s unique needs or life events that may be affecting
the child’s classroom performance.
Completing an ecomap is a time-consuming exercise and teachers make use of this

method only when they want to identify severe environmental barriers in young learners.
7.5 CONCLUSION
In Learning unit 7, we covered the environment of the learner and the kind of background
they come from. We emphasised the importance of observing the learner in order to
understand the environment they live in and how it influences their development.
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7SELF-ASSESSMENT
Complete the following to test your understanding

(1) Explain, with the use of an example, how you will complete an ecomap for a learner in
your grade R class.
(2) Briefly explain why it is essential to understand and to consider the young learner’s
environment when addressing special education needs of Grade R learners.
(3) Write a two-page (1 200 words) article for the school’s monthly newsletter on the fol-
lowing topic: “We are not nosy – but to understand your child better, we need to know
you better.” (Explain to parents/caregivers why it is essential to know the learner’s home
and social environment.)
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SECTION B
TEACHING IN GRADE R
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LEARNING UNIT 8
GRADE R TEACHING: IMPORTANCE AND OUTCOMES
Keep referring to these outcomes as you work through the learning unit.
Outcomes

• Indicate why Grade R is important
• Discuss critically possible reasons for the Grade R year
• Indicate why Grade R is vital for the young child’s total development
• Discuss the outcomes of Grade R
Key concepts
• Grade R: Grade R is the year of schooling before Grade 1

• Early childhood: early childhood, defined as the period from birth to eight years old,
is a time of remarkable growth with brain development at its peak
• Learning and development: learning and development is a systematic process to
enhance skills, knowledge and competency, resulting to better performance in a par-
ticular setting. Learning, training, and development are often used interchangeably
• Society: a society is a group of people involved with each other through persistent
relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory,
typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations
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• Foundation Phase: foundation phase begins with the skills that a learner acquires in
Grade R. This phase further accommodates Grades 1, 2 and 3. In this phase, learning
takes place mostly in the form of a play-based approach
• CAPS document: Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) is a single,
comprehensive, and concise policy document introduced by the Department of Basic
Education for all the subjects listed in the National Curriculum Statement for Grades R–12
• Caregiver: someone who takes care of a family member without being paid to do so
8.1 INTRODUCTION: THE FIRST 1 000 DAYS AND THE FIRST

FIVE YEARS
Research found that the first 1 000 days in a human’s life are the most crucial. Children
learn more during the first five years than the rest of their lives (regardless of what they
study for the rest of their lives).
The previous learning units have made us realise that the early childhood years are
significant because they form the foundation for all later learning and development.
However, it is unfortunate that many learners are deprived of early education and play
opportunities that will develop their potential to the full. As Grade R teachers, we are
not part of the first 1 000 days, but we can play an essential role during their fifth year
of living and learning.
8.2 THE REASONS FOR GRADE R TEACHING

Grade R as part of compulsory teaching and learning comes a long way. In fact, it comes
from as far back as 1992, when the NEPI document was released. The NEPI (National
Education Policy Initiative) document is the research report of the NEPI Educare Research
Group and was a project of the National Education Coordinating Committee. The NEPI
document, although drafted before the election of the first democratic government,
indicates various issues that are currently still relevant.
Please note: Educare is an acronym for the Education and Care of the child before school.
Read the following abstract from the NEPI document
PROVISION
Educare provision has been characterised by disparities in both access to and quality of
Educare and an overall lack of access for the vast majority of South African learners. The
principle underlying all emerging policy options is the removal of the racially determined
disparities in subsidisation by both education and welfare departments and in teaching
education. Access to formal tertiary training opportunities must also be equalised by the
reinstating of pre-primary training courses at colleges.
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A preschool year for five-year-olds
The option of providing a one-year preschool programme for all learners before formal
school entry, either within or linked to the schooling system, has attracted a great deal of
support from the broader educational field, including the ANC Education Desk. A preschool
year for five-year-olds would significantly increase and equalise access, which is essential
from an education redress perspective. However, it reflects the specific education perspective
concerned with school readiness. This is not a sufficient educational intervention to redress
historical imbalances and does not address the developmental needs of learners under
the age of five or the need for care for learners of working mothers. From a development
policy perspective, a combination of the preschool year and support for other programmes
would be necessary.
Source: NEPI, 1992:39
According to the NEPI document (1992:39), there are strong moral, social, political,
economic, and programmatic arguments for increased support of early childhood care
and development:
• Learners have a right to live and to develop to their full potential. Associated with this is the
power of women to have choice and control over their lives, which requires the availability
of good quality child-care services.
• Society perpetuates its moral and social values through its learners, and this process begins
in early childhood. Programmes for young learners can help change racist attitudes and
gender stereotyping, promote cooperation and respect for the rights of others, and lay the
foundations for democratic participation in decision making.
• Improving the quality of life for young learners helps to redress inequalities brought about
by poverty and discrimination.
• Young learners provide a rallying point for communities that can cross political divisions,
strengthen social structures, and promote community development. “Learners first” can be
an effective strategy in working towards peace and unity. Learners’ needs can also provide
a starting point for the development of a wide range of community-based activities and
services.
• Society benefits economically by investing in child development by increased economic
productivity and cost-saving. This argument is based on growing evidence that early
childhood programmes can improve both mental and physical capacity and educational
attainment. Cost savings also result from reduced wastage in the school system and a
reduction in social problems such as delinquency and teenage pregnancy.
• The effectiveness of a variety of services including health, education, and women’s
programmes can be increased through their being combined with child development
programmes. There is increasing evidence that there is a synergistic effect when the needs
of the child are met both from within the family and in the community context.
Each of these points of view offers good reasons for increased attention to the development
of young learners, and when considered in combination with research evidence, there is a
convincing case for early childhood care and education. One of the essential tests is whether
learners who participate in early childhood Educare programmes are likely to do better at
school than those who do not.
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Early school repetition and dropout
One of the significant challenges facing early childhood education is to educate a large
group of preschool learners and help them to reach the level of development required
for the first school year. According to the NEPI report (1992:3), between 25 and 35 per
cent of coloured and black learners repeat the first year of school and some stop school
attendance.
According to the NEPI report, there are two sets of factors that contribute to poor school
performance.
The first set includes aspects such as unavailability or inaccessibility of schools, poor
quality education (crowded classrooms, inadequate material resources, poorly trained
teachers), and the fact that schools do not respond adequately to local needs and needs
circumstances. These factors demonstrate how schools are ready/not ready for teaching.
The second set of factors relates to the learners’ readiness for school and life in general,
which in turn is a reflection of the child’s general condition and the family’s attitudes and
habits as it is influenced by the social and cultural environment.
Activity 8.1

(1) The early school dropout figures quoted in the NEPI document is frightening. The
document identifies two sets of factors contributing to poor academic performance.
Name the factors.
(2) It is essential to realise that the first factor identified is the “(un) readiness of schools
for learners.” Can we make sure that every Grade R learner is ready for school?
(3) How can we make sure that the “school is ready for the child”?
(4) “Good early childhood education also makes economic sense.” Do you agree with
this statement? Give a reason for your answer.
8.3 INCLUSION OF GRADE R IN THE COMPULSORY SCHOOL

PHASE
With the above information as background, it is easy to understand why a compulsory
school year (Grade R) has been added to the Foundation Phase. The Foundation Phase
now includes Grades R, 1, 2, and 3.
In 1994, the following was said about Grade R in the White Paper on Education:
“one-year reception class (pre-school) plus nine years to Grade 9.”
“the Grade R, the first year of the compulsory general education programme ...”
Grade R (R stands for Reception year) is the name of the year before Grade 1. (Please note
it is not Grade 0!) Although Grade R is part of the Foundation Phase, it remains part of
the early years of the child’s development.
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Grade R is part of play-based teaching and learning according to the document that
indicates what should be taught and learned in the different school grades. This document
is called the CAPS document (it is an acronym for Curriculum and Assessment Policy
Statements). There are CAPS documents for all possible subjects, and Grade R is included
in the subject documents that deal with the subjects relevant to the Foundation Phase.
Grade R, as part of the Foundation Phase, has three subjects: Literacy, Numeracy, and
Life Skills. Life skills include Beginning knowledge, Personal and Social wellbeing, Visual
and Performing Arts, and Physical Education.
Although Grade R is part of all the official policies regarding teaching and learning in
schools, one thing remains essential – Grade R is not:
• a watered down Grade R nor
• a supercharged preschool year.
Grade R is a unique year during which a young child is taught at a unique stage of their
development – the transition between a toddler and a school child. During this year, we
need to know the needs of the developing 5-year-old and use teaching and learning
methods and activities linked to their developmental level.
8.4 CONTINUITY THROUGH THE EARLY CHILDHOOD

DEVELOPMENT PHASE
The years 0 to 9 are known as the early childhood development (ECE) phase. Any teacher
in the early childhood development phase, including Grade R, must understand that
because there is continuity in the child’s development, there must also be continuity
in the WAY we teach the child and WHAT we teach the child during the early childhood
development phase.
The child must feel comfortable every year because there is a link between the school
years. Two of the most important ways to ensure that continuity is possible are to plan
for continuity of experiences or learning content to create communication channels
between all stakeholders.
8.4.1 Continuity of experiences

Learners’ development is continuous from baby to toddler to Grade R and through the
rest of the Foundation Phase. Learners need educational experiences that are continuous
through the early childhood development phase. Teaching and learning experiences
must build on one another. Continuity of experiences also means that the content from
preschool across the school years will be coordinated and continuous.
Example
Before learners will be able to learn to write in Grade 1, which will later end in the ability
to write essays, they need opportunities to:
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• scribble as a baby and toddler
• draw in the year before Grade R
• draw, as well as observe their own words written down and experiment with writing
sounds as they hear them, in Grade R
• learn to write words and short sentences in Grade 1
• write essays in later school years
Reflect for a moment: Did you realise that scribbling in mud is the first step in writing
an essay?
8.4.2 Communication between home – ECE centre – Grade R – formal

school
Even if learners are from the same community, they are likely to have had very different
experiences before entering Grade R. If learners are to make a move between home –
ECE centre – Grade R – formal school comfortably, the teachers need to understand the
previous experiences of the learners they teach. Communication between home – ECE
centre – Grade R – primary school is essential. As a Grade R teacher, you must establish
ways of communicating with parents, other teachers the child may have, and the teacher/
principal of the primary school that the child will attend.
In Learning unit 7 we discussed the child and his/her family, and we will also discuss parents/caregiv-
ers’ guidance later in this learning unit.
Activity 8.2
(1) Write a paragraph on why continuity is essential during the early childhood phase.
8.5 YOUR TASK AS A GRADE R TEACHER

It is easy to feel despondent after reading about the lack of excellent schooling opportunities
for all young learners in South Africa. As a teacher interested in the young child, you have
taken an important step to help to solve this problem by improving your teaching abilities
and knowledge.
As a Grade R teacher, you must help to create an environment that is conducive to the
optimal development of learners and that assists their parents in fulfilling their essential
role in the lives of their children. As a Grade R teacher, you are the most crucial resource
in the Grade R classroom. An excellent teacher will be remarkable even in an under-
resourced classroom located in a challenging socioeconomic environment. However, it
will require more effort under such circumstances. This is evident from the many under-
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resourced classrooms in underprivileged communities where Grade R teachers are doing
excellent jobs.
As a Grade R teacher, you have an essential role to play in educating learners from diverse
backgrounds and cultures and starting their journey as lifelong learners. Cartwright
(as quoted in Exchange Every Day, 2019) indicates in the book, Developing People, the
importance of ensuring that all early childhood programmes have skilful teachers.
To be able to do this, you need:
(1) In-depth knowledge of what we want to achieve with the learners in Grade R
(2) Sound understanding of the theory and practice of Grade R education
(3) A desire to teach the young child by laying the foundation for lifelong learning
(4) To be physically healthy, as working with young learners is a physically demanding task
(5) To be an emotionally stable person. You need to be secure in yourself. Barbara Biber
of Bank Street College of Education indicates that such a teacher can function with
principles rather than prescriptions, exert authority without requiring submission,
work experimentally but not at random, and can admit mistakes without feeling
humiliated. (Barbara Biber, in Childhood Education, as cited in Exchange Every day, 2019).
(6) The goal of this programme is to provide you with the knowledge, skills, and correct
attitude to be a good Grade R teacher. You also need to look after yourself on a
physical and emotional level to meet the requirements of the task.
8.6 RESPONSIBLE AND WELL-THOUGHT-OUT PURPOSE OF

GRADE R
Grade R can play an essential role in addressing imbalances in our society and the
educational opportunities of learners. To be able to do this, we need to know what we
would like to achieve with the learners during Grade R.
We need to determine what the main focus of our teaching and learning efforts in Grade
R is to ensure systematic and successful education. As Taylor (1980) says: “Good teaching
does not just happen; it is the result of careful planning and foresight.”
Our first task is to determine what the primary purpose of Grade R is, as it will serve as
the starting point for all our teaching efforts.
Identifying the purpose of early childhood education, including Grade R, we need to

take into account the:
• needs of the parents or caregivers and the community

• young learners’ needs and abilities and what they should be able to do
• child’s right to be a child
• community’s values and norms
There are four main reasons for early childhood care and education that may also be the
reason for (purpose of) Grade R. We will discuss all of them and indicate what part they
play in setting the intention of Grade R.
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Activity 8.3

(1) What do you think is the main reason for having a Grade R year?
8.6.1 The physical care and safety of the young child

The main objective of many ECE centres and unfortunately, Grade R classes are the care
for young learners in safe environments. Some of these centres pay attention to certain
educational aspects, but their main focus is to provide for a secure environment. The
people who care for the learners do not need specialised training, as the educational part
takes place without a clear structure or programme with well-defined learning objectives.
Hymes (1981:30) describes the purpose of care as follows: “The aim of old-time day-care
was simply to provide custodial care to take learners, to keep them safe, to return them
whole to parents at the end of the day, in one piece and undamaged.”
Care as the purpose of Grade R can be criticised for the following reasons:
• Learner’s physical safety is over-emphasised. Of course, young learners must be in a

safe environment, but this should never be the only objective. The other aspects of
development are overlooked with the one-sided emphasis on the care of the young
child.
• If care is the primary goal, the adults who care for the learners are not necessarily
qualified Grade R teachers and education is often random and accidental.
ECE centres where care is the main objective, do respond to a need, especially the need of
working parents, namely that the child is physically cared for in a safe environment while
they are at work. Unfortunately, these centres often do not meet the critical function,
namely, teaching to enhance the development of the young child.
However, the physical care and safety of young learners in Grade R remain essential. The
physical care of the young learner is evident in the inclusion of routines, such as using
the toilet, cleanliness (washing hands, brushing teeth), and snack and lunchtimes. The
subject, Life Skills includes themes on the physical care and safety of the young learner.
However, the care and safety of the Grade R learner cannot be the main focus.
8.6.2 Compensating programmes (Breaking the poverty cycle)

Compensation for sociological and economic barriers in the child’s home environment is
considered the main objective of various early childhood education programmes. These
programmes focus on helping deprived learners to escape the poverty cycle later in life.
These programmes also address social-economical change through early preventative
education. Compensation programmes aim to assist learners in changing their behaviour
and attitudes.
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Programmes aimed at breaking the poverty cycle and addressing social injustice are
undoubtedly relevant, especially for the uneven economic society of South Africa.
Unfortunately, social change and upliftment cannot be realised through early childhood
education alone.
Social upliftment and transformation as the main objective of early childhood education
are questioned. An important question is, “Is such a drastic intervention in learners’ lives
justifiable?”
The following is criticism against social change and compensating programmes as the
purpose of Grade R:
• The compensation education programmes are often very structured and rigid and
sometimes deprive learners of being children and learning through spontaneous
discovery.
• Education becomes a process of diagnosis and prescription. The focus is on young
learners’ needs, disabilities, barriers, and problems, rather than seeing them as persons
reaching out and growing.
• Social change and upliftment in this context are unrealistic. Change cannot simply be
brought about by a compensation programme in Grade R. Biesheuvel mentioned in
1978 already, that education alone cannot break the cycle of poverty.
These findings are essential. We need to help parents and learners who require assistance.
Still, social change can only take place if there is cooperation between parents, the
community, and all related government departments.
The ECE centre or primary school can also serve as a community centre to address some
community needs, such as adult literacy or parenting classes.
Activity 8.4
BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE

(1) Do you agree with the above findings on the role of Grade R education as social
change and upliftment strategy?
(2) Visit a Grade R class in a primary school or ECE centre. Ask the Grade R teacher how
the community is involved. (Remember, not the parents!)
(3) Is the school/centre used as a community centre? If not, why not?
(4) What community activities take place at the school?
8.6.3 School readiness as the primary purpose of Grade R

What would you indicate as the main purpose of Grade R?
Your answer is most probably: School readiness!
If you ask any parent what they think is the most important purpose of Grade R – they
will answer, “To get my child ready for school”.
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When one studies the concept of school readiness, it becomes evident that it is not easily
measured or even defined. However, two crucial facts do become visible in the different
views and definitions of school readiness:
• The term school readiness is not easy to describe for the simple reason – Who decides
when the learner is ready for school and for what type of school?
• Adults in the life of the young child play an essential role in the development and
learning of the child.
Study the following comic.
Activity 8.5

(1) What does the comic tell you about the little boy?
As with compensation programmes, a programme with the main aim of “school readiness”
is criticised for various reasons:
(1) School readiness programmes are limited programmes that focus on skills needed
for the school and not skills needed by the learners.
(2) Such programmes deprive learners of the right to be a child because opportunities
for free-choice activities to play freely are limited.
(3) The programmes focus on preparatory school skills. Little attention is paid to
necessary learning skills, such as creativity and problem-solving.
(4) Some learners may be able to read and write, but other aspects of their development
are neglected. The development of whole-body movement (gross motor activities)
during sufficient outdoor playtime is not considered to be as necessary as school
readiness skills.
(5) Formal programmes expect too much from some learners and again offer no
challenge to others.
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(6) Due to the rigid nature of a readiness programme, some learners may need to
progress faster than they are comfortable doing. Such learners are deprived of the
opportunities under which they can learn and develop.
(7) Grade R becomes a watered down Grade 1, instead of meeting the unique needs
of preschool learners.
(8) If school readiness is the main objective, the focus is on the child, to be ready for
school, instead of the school being prepared to meet the child. The school must
be inclusive of all, as all learners are learning ready. The young learners can be on
different levels of development, but the school must accommodate everyone.
The underlying philosophy of inclusive education in South Africa is that the school must always
be ready for the learner – notwithstanding their barriers to learning.
Activity 8.6
Do you agree with the following statements? Briefly give a reason for your answer.
(1) Are we helping the child to be ready for school?
(2) A typical child allowed to develop to the best of his/her abilities will be school-ready
at the age of six.
(3) The Grade R teacher has to address learning and behaviour barriers during the year
to assist the child to be school ready.
(4) During Grade R, we are preparing the child forlife and not only for school.
(5) In Grade R, we concentrate on developingthe child’s perceptual skills.
Let us stop a minute and recap!
When we want to determine the purpose of Grade R, we need to consider:
• The needs of the parents or caregivers (which will be satisfied if our aim is care and
safety) and the community (compensation programmes can meet these)
• The community’s values and norms as an essential requirement. As indicated, a
problem with compensation programmes is that the community is not involved so
the programmes do not meet this requirement.
• The needs and possibilities of the child – none of the above programmes meet this
requirement in full.
Reflect before you read further

In your opinion, did we discuss a purpose that meets all three above?
If in your opinion the answer is no, then you are correct. We have not discussed a purpose
that meets all the requirements. We still have not reached the following:
• The young learners’ needs and abilities and what they should be able to do
• The child’s right to be a child
We need a purpose that will include:
• The development of the total child
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• The needs and abilities of the Grade R learner now (not in the future)
• The needs, values, and norms of the community (especially parents/caretakers)
• The safety and care needs of the Grade R learner
• Inclusivity and compensation for learning barriers
By focusing on the whole learner, we are also assisting the child on a path of lifelong
learning – an essential 21st century life skill.
Activity 8.7
BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER ANSWER THE FOLLOWING

(1) Indicate briefly why one of the following purposes for Grade R does not meet the
requirements for an acceptable goal.
• Safety and care
• Compensation
• School readiness
8.6.4 Development through the teaching and learning of the whole

(holistic) learner
Excellent teaching and learning in Grade R will ensure the following:
• Learners will have good physical care in a safe environment

• The family of learners is engaged as valued partners
• The community from which learners come contribute to social change and upliftment
• The typical child is able and ready for learning in Grade 1
Grade R serves as a basis for a positive life for the child and the family and has the potential
to promote future learning. The learner will also be in an environment that is characterised
by security, and protection from bias and social injustice, so that healing at the level of
attitudes and the psyche, as well as reconciliation and nation-building, can take place
(Department of Education 1996:8).
To meet the purpose mentioned above, we need to apply the purpose in our everyday
teaching – we do that by ensuring that our goal is the development of the whole Grade
R learner.
Let us go back one step:

You will realise that according to CAPS (mentioned earlier), outcomes are formulated for every
school subject and school grade (R–12). The outcomes indicate what the learner must know, can
do, and feel at the end of each school Grade 1n all the relevant subjects.
In Module 2, we will discuss the outcomes of Teaching Languages, Module 3, Teaching Mathemat-
ics and Module 4, Teaching Life Skills in Grade R.
We now look at the development of the total learner as the purpose of Grade R and not only at the
outcomes of the three subjects. Taking our mission of developing the whole learner into account,
we divide these learning outcomes into five different facets of the young learner.
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Remember this “breaking up” of the young learner is only to help us organise the various
outcomes and to ensure that we meet the overarching purpose of Grade R.
The purpose of Grade R is to develop the young learner as a(n)
(1) intellectual (Cognitive) and linguistic,

(2) emotional (Affective),
(3) physical (Fine and gross motor),
(4) social,
(5) moral, and
(6) an aesthetic human being.
Enhancing the young learner’s intellectual and language development
During Grade R, we focus on the following skills and knowledge:
• Nurturing an investigative attitude aimed at acquiring knowledge to develop independent

problem-solving skills. Learning skills such as observation, sorting, comparison, and
classification
• Developing an inherent desire to learn, a positive attitude towards learning, and a
lifelong love of learning
• Basic mathematical concepts, such as more, the less, and the same amount (equal), and
simple measurement and time concepts,
• A number concept of not less than ten,
• Using numbers up to ten correctly in daily activities and concrete experiences
• An understanding of position in space by using concepts, such as in front, behind, on
top, under, left, and right correctly
• Basic and concrete knowledge of scientific concepts, such as observing, predicting,
classifying, and comparing, and the ability to use these in practical everyday science
activities
• Basic understanding of precautions against transmittable diseases in their immediate
environment
• Basic knowledge of physical self-care and safety
• The ability to think creatively and to solve problems independently through a variety
of creative activities
The development of home language is one of the main focus areas in Grade R. In Grade
R, we aim to improve the following language skills and knowledge:
• The ability to communicate with ease in the young learner’s home language
• An understanding and exposure to different emergent reading and writing experiences
in a print-rich environment
• To use home language to reason and to obtain knowledge
As many Grade R learners are in a class where the language of teaching and learning (LOTL)
is not the same as the primary language they use at home and English is the language of
teaching and learning in most schools from Grade 4, we have an additional task in Grade R:
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• To expose the young learner to English (if English is not the home language) in a
learner-friendly and secure setting
We will discuss English as the language of teaching and learning for non-English learners
in Module 2, Teaching Home Language in Grade R.
The physical development and perceptual skills of the Grade R learner
During Grade R, we focus on the following physical skills and knowledge:
• Ensuring the young learner’s health, through medical and dental services
• Providing information about a healthy body and the learner’s responsibility to be
healthy through the guidance and input from the adults in their lives
• Becoming physically independent
• Developing an accurate body image by discovering their own bodies’ potential as it
offers them a point of departure for their intellectual development
• Developing their total body (gross motor skills) by providing activities where they use
their bodies (physical education)
• Developing their fine motor skills (using their fingers) through visual art activities
and educational games
• Improving their perception (senses) through educational games and activities presented
during the school day
• Overcoming or accommodating any physical barriers by identifying barriers and
providing the necessary assistance
Social development aims for Grade R
During Grade R, we aim to develop the following social skills and knowledge:
• Unbiased attitudes towards age, gender, religious belief, and race

• Ability to form relationships with both peers (friends) and adults
• Ability to meet group demands and get involved positively in groups (through the
necessary adult support)
• Understanding the right to say no to any form of abuse by adults and peers
• Ability to communicate and listen in a group situation by considering the rights of peers
• Developing an appreciation for the cultures of peers through exposure to relevant
stories, songs, and rhymes
• Acquiring gratitude and respect for authority in their daily lives
Emotional skills and development aim for Grade R
During Grade R, we aim to enhance the following emotional skills:
• Assisting the young learner to build a positive self-image through a realistic

understanding of their value and potential
• Learning to exercise more control over their emotions, and to express feelings in
acceptable ways
• The ability to complete an activity before starting another
• An elementary understanding between work and play
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• Learning to trust people, while vigilant about their safety, within a supportive and
safe environment
• To experience emotional security and stability as this is the foundation for learning
Moral development as aim for Grade R
During Grade R, we aim to develop the following ethical skills and knowledge:
• An understanding of the values and norms underlying society

• Accepting authority and developing self-discipline
• Respecting all people, irrespective of age, gender ability, or culture
• Appreciating religious beliefs and cultures that differ from their own, especially those
of peers in the class
Aesthetic development as the aim of Grade R
During Grade R, we aim to assist the young learners to:
• Be aware of the beauty in the world around them for them to appreciate and help to
preserve
Do you agree that the development of the whole learner includes far more than subject
knowledge, school readiness, and compensation programmes? To be able to realise these
aims, we need to include the parents/caregivers of our learners. Grade R teachers need
to give guidance and support to parents.
Support and guidance to parents
The Grade R teacher’s role as counsellor to parents/caregivers is often overlooked. Still, it

is evident in research that parental involvement in the learner’s school activities is linked
to school success (Davin, 2018). During the Foundation Phase and more so Grade R, the
teacher’s role has an added dimension that of parent support.
The Grade R teacher can assist parents/caregivers as role models of how to handle
problematic issues in raising a young child.
By keeping open communication lines, the parent/caregivers will not only be informed
about the learner’s school activities, but such open communication lines can also serve
as a source for parental involvement.
Ways to establish communication between Grade R teacher and parents are:
• home visits
• parent meetings
• parent evenings/days
• weekly or monthly newsletters that are sent to learners’ parents
• SMS messages
• WhatsApp groups
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The ways of communication are not as crucial as that communication must take place on
at least a weekly basis. If parents/caregivers are involved, they understand their learners
better, and involvement leads to better collaboration between teacher and parents/
caregivers.
At this stage, you should realise that Grade R teaching is not an easy task – but involves
in-depth knowledge about the Grade R learner. Before we start with the next learning
unit, complete the assignment below.
8.7 CONCLUSION
In this section, we focused on the importance of teaching Grade R. By now, we realise
that the early childhood years are significant because they form the foundation for all
later learning and development. Research reveals that the first 1 000 days in a human’s
life are the most crucial. Children learn more during the first five years. As teachers, we
might not be part of the first 1 000 days, but we can play an essential role during their
fifth year of living and learning. We noted that Grade R, as part of the Foundation Phase
has three subjects, namely, Literacy, Numeracy, and Life Skills.
We concluded this section by exploring how parental involvement in the learner’s school
activities is linked to school success (Davin 2018). During the Foundation Phase and more
so in Grade R, the teacher’s role has an added dimension – parental support.
8SELF-ASSESSMENT
A compulsory Grade R (and even RR) will be in place as soon as funds are available.
Write a letter of two pages to your local member of parliament to bring the following to his/
her attention:
• Reasons why South Africa needs a compulsory Grade R; mention the economic benefits
of such a mandatory year.
• What the purpose of Grade R must be.
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LEARNING UNIT 9
THE RIGHT WAY TO TEACH THE YOUNG CHILD
The correct place to start with any teaching effort is with the purpose after which we
have to investigate the best teaching method(s) to reach the goal.
The main aim of this learning unit is to find the best way to teach Grade R learners, using
the young child’s natural methods of learning.
Outcomes

• Name and discuss the two most important ways in which the young child learns
• Give reasons why play is significant for the development of the young child
• Explain your role as a teacher in facilitating quality play
Key concepts
• Observation: an act or instance of looking attentively or watching

• Imitating: to follow as a model, or example. To make a copy of
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• Play: play is the work of children. It consists of those activities performed for self-
amusement that have behavioural, social, and psychomotor rewards. It is child-directed,
and the rewards come from within the individual child; it is enjoyable and spontaneous
• Emotional development: emotional development refers to the emergence of experi-
ence, expression, understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth and the growth
and change in these capacities throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
9.1 THE WAYS YOUNG LEARNERS LEARN

In the young child’s life, the most important ways of learning are playing with and imitating
others (especially adults). To a child, play is not a mere pastime but an activity that they
perform with seriousness and dedication. Play is a child’s work! Evidence of this is evident
when you watch young learners as they play alone and with others.
Although play is of such importance in the young learner’s learning and development, it
does not indicate that the adult (or teacher) has no role in the learner’s life. Young children
learn through imitating others, especially the adults in their world.
Teachers should take an active part in organising play and learning activities, and their
input is essential as it serves as a model for learners. Plan activities and situations where
the learner can copy you.
Activity 9.1

(1) Complete the following sentence: “When deciding on the teaching method for
Grade R, the teacher must link the way they teach to …”
(2) Name the two most important ways the young child learns.
9.2 PLAY AND IMITATION AS METHODS OF TEACHING
9.2.1 Research on the importance of play

When one studies research about the value of play for the young child, one fact is clear –
play is of the utmost importance for the development of the young child. Play is essential
for the intellectual, imaginative, and emotional development of the child and provides
the necessary steps to a further stage of development and learning.
A significant fact to keep in mind is that good quality play may not result in better
achievement in IQ tests. However, play fosters competencies (outcomes) that are important
in the 21st century. Play fosters self-esteem, task orientation, problem-solving skills,
positive attitudes towards learning, persistence, flexibility, and creativity. These outcomes
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are precisely the ones we want to promote in the child in Grade R (see Learning unit 1
on the purpose of Grade R).
Activity 9.2
COMPLETE THE EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER
(1) Go back to the purpose we identified for Grade R.
• Can you identify the competencies that are enhanced through play?
(2) Which 21st-century skills can you develop in the young child by providing play
opportunities?
(3) Ask any teacher in a school beginner’s class what she/he expects from the new
school beginner.
• Link their expectations to the 21st-century skills that play enhances.
Quality play opportunities enhance the development of the whole child. The child’s
emotional, social, and language development, intellectual development, and perceptual-
motor skills are all enhanced by play.
9.2.2 Characteristics of a play-based teaching approach

As indicated before, we teach the young child by using their natural inclination to learn
through play and imitation. Play-based teaching and learning require a dedicated and
well-trained teacher. Play-based education is not an “easy” way to teach but needs insight
on how to plan the teaching effort to result in successful play and learn.
There are four main characteristics of play-based education in Grade R:
• The daily schedule is not rigid, but flexible within certain limits
• The class has various learning areas planned for a variety of play activities and
opportunities
• The learning content suits the child’s interests and experiences and emphasises self-
discovery and self-activity (active involvement)
• The teacher continuously assesses the learners’ learning processes, using a variety of
assessment methods, of which observation is the most crucial method
We discuss each of the above characteristics in various lessons in Tutorial letter 501. The
above components are what make Grade R unique and different from the other grades in
the Foundation Phase.
To assist in acquiring a better understanding before we start with our in-depth discussion
on a play-based approach, we look briefly at two features, namely, the classroom and
content.
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(1) Planning the school/centre and classroom
The classroom in a play-based approach differs from that of a traditional classroom. Some
centres and schools are planned to accommodate various play opportunities, sometimes
even across age groups. To provide this, the school has an open plan design. An open-
plan school/centre consists of open areas and few permanent walls.
Because the walls are not permanent, the building can be rearranged to accommodate
larger or smaller areas for different activities. The structure can, therefore, be adapted to
suit other users of the building (such as a community centre), as well as teaching needs.
Although an open-plan school is not a prerequisite for a play-based approach, this type
of structure does facilitate this approach.
Activity 9.3
DO THIS EXERCISE BEFORE YOU PROCEED

(1) Visit a Grade R class near you. Does the school have an open-plan design? Ask the
Grade R teachers/principals if they know about the concept of an open school plan.
(2) Can the size of the classrooms change? For what other purposes are the school
building/classrooms used?
The most noticeable feature of a play-based approach is the organisation and planning
of the classrooms. The classroom differs significantly from a traditional classroom.
• The traditional classroom room with rows of tables and chairs has disappeared – and
has been replaced by various learning areas. Learners can visit these areas according
to their preferences
• The Grade R classroom is not quiet and has a relaxed atmosphere. It may sometimes
even appear chaotic to the uninformed
• The activities in the learning areas change daily, to ensure various play and learning
opportunities
• To promote cooperation between learners, the tables and chairs are placed in groups
and not in rows. Learners do not have their own demarcated tables and chairs
• Socialisation is enhanced by allowing learners to talk to each other while busy with
activities
In Learning unit 11, we will discuss the planning of classroom and play areas in detail.
(2) Learning content and teaching methods in a play-based approach
In a play-based teaching approach, the teacher must ensure that the learning content
meets the needs of the learners by linking the content to their environment and interests.
It is also vital for content to be relevant to their daily lives. A way to ensure this is to involve
the learners in selecting suitable themes. Learning content should focus on what the
learners need to know now – not what they must know in the following year.
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Another feature of the learning content of a play-based approach is that the content
(learning material) is not the end goal – it is the means to reach what we want to achieve.
The process of learning is more important than content (Crothers, 2013). A perfect end
product is not the end goal. Our aim is to assist learners to solve problems and to be
creative; the learning process is more critical and more emphasised than the end product.
Mastering the learning content by learning it like a parrot (as in traditional teaching) has
no place in a play-based approach.
Although the CAPS documents provide the Grade R teacher with guidelines for proposed
themes and learning content, the teacher needs to ensure that the learning material is
relevant to the learners’ needs but also links with their environment.
To be able to choose and present relevant content, the teacher needs to:
• have knowledge of each learner’s needs, interests, and environment

• know and understand every learner in their group
Secondly, the teacher must know all the relevant themes they teach. Making a factual
mistake is an unforgivable error in early childhood teaching. You are laying the foundation
for all future learning – make sure you share correct information.
In Learning unit 13, the selection and planning of learning content will be discussed in detail.
Activity 9.4
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION BEFORE YOU CONTINUE

(1) A play-based approached is criticised for placing too much emphasis on the learner’s
needs and not enough on reaching the learning outcomes.
Do you agree with this statement? Briefly substantiate your answer.
In a play-based approach, there is a shift in emphasis from teaching to discovery. The

learners are active partners in the learning event. Teaching methods where the learners
are actively involved in the teaching and learning process are used.
The following are the two most used teaching methods:
• Self-activity (active involvement):
The learners are actively involved in the learning process – they are actively engaged,
not passive listeners.
• Self-discovery (experimentation):
The teacher uses well-chosen, concrete material (real examples) to guide the learners
in using their discoveries to find solutions to problems and gain knowledge. Because
the learners are actively involved, they are part of the teaching effort and discover facts
themselves. (See it, feel it, taste it, smell it, and hear it.)
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Activity 9.5
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITY BEFORE YOU CONTINUE

One of the most prominent characteristics of a play-based approach is the learning
content and methods. Think back to your school years and in a table, indicate the
differences between a play-based and traditional teaching approach.
(To get you started, we add a few clues!)
Play-based approach Traditional teaching approach
Choosing content
Relevant, meaningful According to set guidelines
*
*
Teaching methods
Passive
Look, listen and learn
9.3 THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN A PLAY-BASED APPROACH

As you would have realised from our discussion of the play-based approach, the teacher
has a different position than in traditional teaching. The teacher’s contribution is still
significant, but there is definitely a shift, and this is manifested mainly in the following areas:
(1) Excellent planning of teaching and learning
In a play-based approach, the teacher’s first task is to make an effort to plan the classroom
and daily activities/lessons. As already indicated, the classroom does not have rows of
tables but is organised in various learning areas. The classroom must be well planned
and change regularly to provide a variety of play and learning opportunities.
To plan play-based activities that will still meet the outcomes required is not an easy
task. The teacher has to prepare a variety of free-choice activities, discussions, and group
presentations to meet the learning needs of the Grade R learner.
(2) The scope of the teacher’s knowledge
The teacher needs to have an excellent understanding of the learning readiness activities
required for reading, writing and mathematics. Added to this, in-depth knowledge of
child development and learning and developmental needs of every learner in the class
is required. (Werry, 2019)
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(3) The teacher-learner relationship
Because Grade R learners are still very young, there is a difference between the relationship
between teacher and learner in the play-based approach and that in more traditional
classes.
The teacher-learner relationship is characterised by the following:
• Mutual trust and accessibility

• Sincerity and honesty
• Respect for each other’s human dignity, opinions, and statements
• Empathy for learners’ feelings towards school and learning event
• Understanding and encouragement of the child’s need for independence
This more “democratic” relationship between teacher and learner does not mean that
the teacher can withdraw from the teaching-learning event. The teacher remains the
responsible adult.
(4) Discipline
Linked to the Grade R teacher’s approach to discipline is the teacher-learner relationship.

The Grade R teacher need to guide the learners to take on more and more responsibility
for their actions. Any form of bodily harm towards a learner as punishment is not allowed.
Find the reason for the harmful behaviour and assist learners in using ways that are more
acceptable to express themselves. The teacher remains the authority but is a sympathetic
figure.
(5) Assessment
The Grade R learner is assessed as a unique person. For a play-based approach to be

successful, the teacher needs to observe and assess every learner, every day.
The teacher uses various assessment methods and assessment is an ongoing process,
not a one-time test. Observation is an important assessment method. We use assessment
results to determine how successful our teaching was and to assess learners’ learning
and development.
9.4 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we explored, named and discussed the two most important ways in
which the young child learns. We looked at a teacher’s role in facilitating quality play, as
well as reasons why play is significant for the development of the young child.
In conclusion, we learnt that in a play-based approach, there is a shift in emphasis from

teaching to discovery. We also explored how learners can become active partners in the
learning experience. We need to explore teaching approaches that provide opportunities
for learners to be actively involved.
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9SELF-ASSESSMENT
We have reached the end of Learning unit 9. Complete the exercise before you start
with Learning unit 10.
Write a newsletter to the parents of the learners in your Grade R class and explain why you
use a play-based approach in Grade R.
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LEARNING UNIT 10
THE DAILY PROGRAMME OF A GRADE R CLASS
The daily schedule of a Grade R class is not the same as the timetable for Grade 1. The
purpose of this learning unit is to assist you in understanding why the daily schedule is
different and how to plan and implement a daily programme for your class.
Outcomes

• explain the differences between the daily programme for a Grade R class and a time-
table for Grade 1
• name and discuss the three main time blocks (periods) in the daily schedule
• name and review the four main guidelines to follow when planning a daily programme
• evaluate a given timeline for a reception year class by applying the theory underlying
a successful daily programme
Key concepts
• Learning environment: learning environment refers to the diverse physical locations,

contexts, and cultures in which learners learn
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• Presentations: a presentation is the process of communicating a topic to an audi-
ence. It is typically a demonstration, introduction, lecture, or speech meant to inform,
persuade, inspire and motivate
• Disorganised: functioning without adequate order
• Constructive: promoting further development or advancement
• Traditional classroom: a traditional classroom is where a teacher moderates and
regulates the flow of information and knowledge. A traditional classroom involves a
standard curriculum delivered in person by a teacher
10.1 IT IS NOT THE SAME AS GRADE 1!

One of the tasks of Grade 1 teachers is to create a learning environment in which learners
can learn while playing. The play and learning opportunities in Grade R are presented
according to a daily schedule or programme.
The daily schedule in Grade R differs from the formal time roster of Grade 1. The daily
programme for Grade R is a framework within which play and learning opportunities are
planned according to the learners’ developmental and learning needs. The most important
feature of a successful daily schedule is that the day is divided into different blocks of
time and is flexible. This does not mean that the programme is not well planned, but the
main feature is that it is not rigid. The teacher can (and must) adapt the schedule (within
certain limits) as the need arises during the day.
As already indicated, people may think that the daily schedule in Grade R has no structure
or organisation, as it may appear to be chaotic. Still, in reality, the learners find themselves
within a framework or structure with flexibility. A well-thought-out daily schedule is a
prerequisite for successful teaching in Grade R.
To be able to plan and have a more manageable day, the daily schedule is not divided into
periods for different subjects, but according to flexible time blocks for various presentations.
Activity 10.1

Visit a Grade R and Grade 1 class and complete the daily timetable of each grade
by completing the following table.
Grade R daily programme Grade 1 timetable

Divided into table blocks
Flexible
All periods should more or less be the
same length
Determined by group’s daily needs
Break/Playtime
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10.1.1 The daily programme in Grade R
Before we start with our discussion of the various components of the Grade R daily
schedule, study the example below.
TAKE NOTE: The daily programme below is an example. You will find different programmes in
different settings/schools, but as you will realise when we discuss the requirements for a suc-
cessful daily schedule, there should be enough time allocated for each of the presentations.
TABLE 10.1: An example of a daily schedule for a Grade R class (Based on Davin, 2019)
Time Presentation Example of activities
7:45–8:15 School starts The teacher greets each learner
Structured teacher-guided individually.
activity: Group discussion Discussion of news, weather chart, and the
theme of the week
Beginning Knowledge (BK) and HL
8:15–9:45 Free-choice activities inside Visual art activities, block play, educa-
the classroom tional games, and fine-motor
(integrated activities) activities, science activities, emergent
mathematics, fantasy play
(integrated activities)
9:45–10:15 Routine activities Cleaning up, toilet routine,
refreshments/snacks
(Life skills)
10:15–10:40 Structured, teacher-guided Music and dance, physical education (in-
activity: Group activity cluding auditory perception)
(Life skills)
10:15–10:40 Free-choice activities out- Outdoor apparatus, science activities,
doors on the playground gardening, woodwork,
(integrated activities) playing with mud, sand and water, art ac-
tivities, physical education
(Life skills)
10:40–11:45 Routine activities (Life skills) Cleaning up outdoors, toilet routine
11:45–12:00 Structured, teacher-guided Emergent mathematics, language (includ-
group activity (emergent ing emergent reading and spelling), life
mathematics, languages, skills activities, games and experiments
and life skills) (including visual, auditory, and tactile
perception)
12:20–12:40 Structured teacher-guided Story time (home language)
group activity
12:40–13:00 Structured teacher-guided Recap of the day (group discussion)
group activity (language) The departure of half-day learners
Routine activities (life skills) Rest for full-day learners
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Each of the different lessons or presentations during the Grade R school day has a specific
focus and purpose for being included in the day. In the following sections, we are going
to look at the importance and requirements of “time block”/presentation in more detail.
10.2 THE DIFFERENT PERIODS IN THE DAILY PROGRAMME

There are nine different periods (also called “time blocks”) during the day. Although a
specific time is allocated for each period, it is only used as a guideline. A particular period
can last longer or can be shortened to accommodate the specific needs of the class on
that day. However, it is good to keep the periods more or less in the same sequence, as it
gives the learners security if they know what is going to happen. Keeping to a (more or
less) series of activities is especially important at the beginning of the year with learners
who are in a class situation for the first time.
These eight different periods in the daily programme are divided into three main features:
• Structured, teacher-guided periods are under the guidance of the teacher. They are
short and usually focus on a single learning activity or a compilation of related activities.
These presentations are more structured, and there are two types of presentations:
– Group discussion
– Group activities
• Routine activities
• Free-choice activities (inside and outside the classroom)
Activity 10.2
Are the following statements true or false? TRUE FALSE

• Because teaching in Grade R is based on play, it does not have
a daily programme or timetable.  
• The programme is divided into time slots for different subjects.  
• The timetable of the reception year is not rigid.  
• There are no time limits in the Grade R timetable.  
10.2.1 Structured, teacher-guided periods

Group discussions
Group discussions are essential in the daily schedule as these periods are more structured
and under the direct guidance of the teacher. Group discussions are opportunities during
the day where the learners can take part in conversations as a group. The purpose of these
discussions is language development through the sharing of news and for imparting
Beginning Knowledge as part of Life Skills.
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An additional reason is that the young learner needs information/knowledge to be able
to play. During group discussions, the learner is exposed to new information that can
be included in their play. The information forms part of the theme for the week and is
relevant for the learners.
During the first group discussions of the day, the teacher guides the learners to share
news about themselves and their families. During this time slot news is shared, there is a
short conversation about the weather and the theme of the day is discussed.
According to Davin (2019), group discussions are primarily based on the question-and-
answer method and are less active. The teacher needs to ensure that all learners have
an opportunity to participate. Learner participation must be encouraged by allowing
everyone to tell the class about their own experiences.
Activity 10.3

(1) Name the kind of lessons or activities that are part of group discussions.
(2) Why do you think it is essential to include group discussion in the Grade R daily
programme? Give at least two reasons.
Group presentations
During group presentation, the whole class takes part in the same activity presented by
the teacher (as opposed to “free-choice activities” where the class is divided into smaller
groups and the learner can choose the activity in which they want to take part).
There usually are three opportunities for group presentations in the daily programme.
Group presentations include opportunities for the following:
• Music (including dance)

• Physical Education
• Mathematics activities (including mathematical games)
• Home Language activities (including storytelling, the dramatisation of well-known
stories and rhymes, verses and rhymes, language games)
• Beginning Knowledge (including activities about science and technology)
Group presentation must not be longer than 20 minutes, including cleaning up. Although
group activities are presented by the teacher and are therefore more “formal”, – play
remains a critical method.
“If the child stops to play, learning stops!”
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The importance of structured, adult-guided periods in the daily schedule
The inclusion of structured, adult-guided periods is essential because they contribute to

the following facets of developing the total learner:
(a) Social development
Group discussion and presentation involve group interaction – the learners learn how to
act in groups. An elemental form of a group spirit develops because the group functions
as a learning unit. It is especially helpful for learners who may be experiencing problems
with being part of a group. Learners must learn to be egoistic – they are not the centre
of everything, and other learners have a rightful place too.
(b) Moral development
During group discussions and presentations, learners learn that there are laws, values,
and norms, which apply to all people. They also learn to accept authority.
(c) Aesthetic development
An essential aim of group presentations and discussion is to show learners to appreciate

the world around them. Learners are exposed to stories and music, and to share joy
while appreciating beauty; this forms the foundation for understanding and respect of
the world around them.
(d) Intellectual development
Structured, adult-guided presentations play a significant role in enhancing the learner’s

intellectual skills, such as:
• Improving learners’ language skills

Listening to stories, telling their news, hearing news from other learners, and getting
opportunities to talk all contribute to improving learners’ language skills. During these
sessions, the teacher must pay close attention to his or her (the teacher’s) personal
language usage. Teachers often speak “down” to young learners, instead of using mature
language and words. Take note of learners who do not talk, or who talk very little in a
group situation. Some learners rarely get the opportunity to speak. There may be learners
whose vocabulary and word pronunciation are inadequate. Give additional attention to
the language development of these learners.
• Learners acquiring more knowledge

During group discussions, exciting themes such as events in nature, the parents’
occupations, functions and manufacturing of goods, and exciting festivals of different
cultural groups are discussed. The information encourages learners to talk and become
enthusiastic about new knowledge. The learners’ interest in learning and wanting to learn
more are more critical than remembering the facts surrounding the discussion.
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• Learners learning to listen and concentrate
During music and story time, learners learn to listen and focus, as they usually enjoy these
activities and want to participate in them.
(e) Affective development
Shy, introvert learners often benefit from being part of a group while taking part in a
music activity or listening to a discussion or story. By being part of a group, they feel
safe and secure. Newcomers especially enjoy group activities until they get the courage
to take part in activities on their own. Learners are not forced to participate in activities
until they feel ready to do so.
(f) Balance in schedule
Structured group activities, due to their nature, offer variety and structure to the daily
programme. It also provides the teacher with the opportunity to guide learners to play
more constructively.
The role of the teacher during structured, teacher-guided group periods
The success of structured, adult-guided group periods depends on the Grade R teacher,
who need to focus on the following five aspects:
(1) Planning and preparation
Group discussions and presentations must be thoroughly planned and prepared. Learners
become easily bored if the lesson is disorganised, boring and has little variety. The teacher
must know precisely what needs to be done and how it will be presented. All resources
must be prepared beforehand and be at hand so that the lesson flows uninterrupted.
(2) Enthusiasm
The teacher must enjoy and be interested in what is being offered. If he or she is half-
hearted and unimaginative, the learners will have the same attitude.
(3) Involve all the learners
The teacher has a prominent role during group discussions and presentations, but that
does not mean that learners should be passive spectators. They must be actively involved.
Their ideas must be incorporated into the lesson. There must be time for spontaneous
participation.
(4) Discipline
Learners should never be forced to participate. This does not mean that a learner should
be allowed to disrupt the whole group. If a learner disrupts the group, the learner should
sit quietly next to the teacher. Alternatively, supply the learner with an activity that will
keep such learner busy in an area where the teacher can see him or her. Negative discipline
(such as sending the child away from the group) should not be applied to learners with
behavioural problems. It is imperative to try and stay positive at all times and to explain
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calmly to the learner that their behaviour is unacceptable. Allow the learner back in the
group as soon as they behave.
Rules must be applied consistently, and learners need to know what is expected of them.
Ensure that all rules are reasonable and kept to the minimum. The reason for rules is to
create a pleasant atmosphere and experience for all.
(5) Observation
Teachers must observe the learners throughout and adapt the presentation according
to their needs. If there are any signs of restlessness, boredom or unhappiness, change
the lesson or even end it.
Activity 10.4
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ON GROUP PRESENTATIONS BEFORE YOU

READ FURTHER
(1) Make a list of all the group presentations in a typical Grade R daily programme.
(2) Why is it essential to include group presentations in the daily programme?
10.2.2 Free-play activities (inside and outside)

Free-choice activities are at the heart of the regular schedule for Grade R. It is during
these times that the child can choose between a variety of planned activities both in
the classroom and outdoors. These activities cover traditional subjects like mathematics,
language, and life skills through play in an integrated way using a theme.
We discuss planning and using an integrated approach in Grade R in detail in learning

unit 13.
We call these presentations “free choice” because the learner chooses within certain limits,
what he or she wants to do, how they do it, how long and with whom they want to do
it. As we use play as the underlying approach, the learner experiences joy and pleasure,
while learning.
Although the learners experience various activities as “play”, the teacher plans and
prepares every activity thoroughly. Select every activity with a specific purpose. Provide
learners with a large variety of play opportunities during free-choice periods. An array
of activities offers them the chance to choose but does not mean that they are free to
engage in unacceptable behaviour.
The teacher plans the various activities inside the classroom to take place at the same
time and not one after another. The learners, therefore, have a choice of activities, and
they can decide for themselves in which order they are going to tackle the different
activities. The same principle applies to outside activities.
As outdoor play activities are part of the planned activities for the day, outdoor free-
choice activities are just as important as free-choice activities presented in the classroom.
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Remember: Free-choice activities outdoors are not equivalent to “playtime” or break in
the Grade 1 timetable. The Grade R teacher is actively involved with the learners during
outdoor play and also needs to present a variety of play activities outdoors.
The reasons for the inclusion of free-choice activities in the daily schedule
Free-choice activities provide learners with the following learning opportunities:
• They can choose for themselves, and this is the start of responsible, independent
decision-making
• As the focus is on play, there are no right or wrong choices, and each learner takes
part according to his or her development level
• These periods teach the learners acceptable social behaviour, because when playing
with other learners, they need to be less self-centred and to give others a “turn”
• They learn to solve problems, think creatively, and take responsibility for their actions
and behaviour
• They provide variety in the daily schedule as young learners still need to learn to sit
for prolonged periods and concentrate
Using play and imitation to teach the Grade R learner does not mean that the teaching
is unplanned and that the learners can do whatever they like. On the contrary, this
approach demands more planning and a greater sense of purpose than the more academic
orientated approach of, say, the primary school.
Opportunities for quality play and imitation that result in learning do not happen
accidentally. You should plan and take specific steps to make sure that these opportunities
for play and copying in your classroom are meaningful and will result in learning.
The Grade R teacher’s role in free-play (choice) activities
• Provide first-hand experience (knowledge)

• No child can play without real experiences
• Knowledge is a prerequisite for being able to play creatively
Example
• How can learners play at making a cake, if they have never seen someone bake a cake?
Young learners need a variety of experiences from the world around them to be able to
recreate them in play, and it is the teacher’s responsibility to create experiences.
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Thorough planning and preparation
Because the learners have a choice between a variety of activities, the educator must
ensure that all activities are well prepared. Provide the following play opportunities:
• A visual art activity, which is more challenging

• Two additional art activities (one must be drawing/painting using a variety of media)
• Construction with blocks or boxes (small or big)
• Educational games and activities that enhance perception skills (such as, puzzles and
other (usually commercial) educational games)
• Plan activities for the various learning areas in the classroom
The Grade R learner needs a choice of activities that change regularly, as the constant
repetition of activities leads to boredom and harmful behaviour. The choice of activities
must be planned to meet the needs of the learners, but at the same time, to achieve the
goals of the lesson.
The Grade R teacher must prepare all activities to be ready before the learners arrive at
school. After news and theme discussion, the learners must be able to proceed to free-
choice activities without a waiting period. By doing so, the teacher will ensure an inviting
environment conducive for learning through play.
TIP: Do not display all possible play materials or equipment at once; hold some back for
when play starts to disintegrate later during the free-choice period.
Choosing suitable play materials
Although young learners can play without any equipment, appropriate play materials
enrich their play. The teacher must select play materials that suit the learners’ current
interests and experiences.
TAKE NOTE: Suitable play materials are never too complicated and complete.
Example
A wooden car is better than a realistic-looking fire truck since the wooden car can also
be an ambulance or whatever the learner wants it to be.
Also, ensure that you have a variety of play opportunities and a range of accessories that
will enhance play.
Express the learner’s experiences in words
One of the teacher’s most important tasks is to verbalise the learner’s experiences.
Learning takes place when the teacher informs the learner what they have discovered
or verbalises their play needs.
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Example
If the learner needs more blocks while building a tower, the teacher verbalises the need
for more blocks.
Sipho, I see you need more blocks. How many blocks do you need?
Do you need long or short blocks?
Assist the learners in talking about their activities. Free choice is a period in the daily
schedule where learners use language freely and practise language spontaneously.
Safety remains a significant issue
Although we understand the importance of young learners discovering the world around
them, their safety remains a priority. Some activities can be dangerous, such as tree
climbing or playing on the jungle gym outside, beading, and some art activities using
JIK or candles. Inform the learners of any possible dangers and have safety rules in place.
Also, ensure that all play materials, inside and outside the classroom, are safe and in
excellent upkeep. Broken play equipment with sharp angles are dangerous and a possible
safety hazard. The Grade R teacher should never relax their vigilance.
Play takes place within specific rules
If you observe young learners play, you will realise that their play has specific, simple
rules. Rules organise play, and children are free to play as they please, as long as they
keep within the rules, especially safety rules.
Observation and assessment
Observation of learners enables the teacher to give learners the necessary help and
guidance to play constructively. While observing the learners, the teacher should take
note of the theme of the play, and how learners express themselves (language usage
and vocabulary). Spontaneous play provides an excellent opportunity to get to know
the learner.
Be careful not to analyse their play. You can easily make wrong conclusions about the
psychological aspects of the learner, as you are not a play therapist.
At the end of each free-choice session, reflect on the play opportunities and if it was a
success, note any changes that you will implement when repeated. Reflection is vital for
the improvement of teaching.
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Activity 10.5

Make a list of at least five activities you can present during free-choice activities inside
and outside the classroom.
CLASSROOM FREE-CHOICE OUTDOOR FREE-CHOICE ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES
Is the following statement true or false? Give a reason for your answer.
“Playing outdoors is the same as ‘playtime’ or ‘break’ in the Grade 1 timetable.”
10.2.3 Routine activities as a feature in the daily schedule

As the young Grade R learner usually still needs help with their physical care, the inclusion
of routine activities should be part of the daily programme.
Routines are regular activities that take place at more or less the same time each day. They
include events such as arrival (and putting away their bags) and departure, refreshments
and meals, bathroom time, and rest.
The purpose of routine activities in the Grade R daily schedule
• Routines provide a framework within which the school day is planned

• Routine activities create a sense of predictability and this assists in a feeling of security,
especially at the beginning of the school year
• The learners can anticipate certain parts of the daily programme, for example: “When
we have done with music, we get milk.” This assists their understanding of time.
• It provides opportunities for learners to become physically more independent.
• Routines such as hand washing after visiting the toilet and eating healthy snacks are
part of the topics included in the Grade R subject, Life Skills.
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Activity 10.6
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) Name the routine activities in a Grade R programme.
(2) Why are the inclusion of routine activities important in a Grade R programme?
(3) Compare the three primary type of presentations in the Grade R daily programme
by completing the following table.
Free choice Structured Routines

adult-guided
Length
Main purpose
Role of the teacher
Number of presenta-
tions per day
10.3 GUIDELINES WHEN PLANNING A DAILY PROGRAMME

When planning a schedule for Grade R, there are certain guidelines to follow to ensure
a well-balanced and thought-out programme. These guidelines are:
• the unique needs of the learners

• activities that will cater to the whole learner
• balance
• the layout of the school and classroom
• flexibility and consistency
Activity 10.7
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) Talk to Grade R teachers and ask them if they can identify any other factors that can
influence the daily programme.
10.3.1 Guideline 1
Meet the unique needs of your class
It is not possible to give a suitable programme for all Grade R classes as each class will
(and must) have different needs. A good teacher will consider the specific group and plan
the daily schedule according to their needs.
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Learners living in high-density population areas (for example, learners who live in flats
or apartments with very little outdoor space) will have different needs than learners
who live in rural, farming areas. Learners from urban areas may need more outdoor play
opportunities. In contrast, learners from rural areas may need more time in a print-rich
environment and more activities to enhance their emergent reading skills.
Learners from disadvantaged communities have special needs that need to be

accommodated.
• The learners may have additional language acquisition needs, which means including
more time for language activities in the programme. You could plan story listening
opportunities during outdoors free play to enhance their language development. Ample
time to play with and talk to first language friends is the best way to learn a language.
• Learners with language barriers need opportunities to play uninterrupted with friends
who are fluent in the language.
• Learners for whom English is not the home language need to become familiar with
English in a very informal way. Set aside time for activities to introduce English to the
class.
• Any learners with developmental or learning barriers need time for individual or small
group activities. (Davin, 2019)
Activity 10.8

Indicate how you would accommodate the needs of the following groups of learners
in the daily programme:
(1) A Grade R class where the majority of learners come from a high-density population
area, such as Hillbrow in Johannesburg.
(2) Learners with language deficiencies in their home language (it is also the language
of teaching and learning of the class).
(3) Learners not fluent in English, the language of teaching and learning of the class.
(4) Learners with special educational needs, such as a mental barrier (slow learners).
10.3.2 Guideline 2
Provide activities that will cater to the whole child
In a successful daily programme, it is possible to link activities to the purpose of Grade

R. As the purpose of the reception year is to develop the whole learner, we will include
activities that will achieve this goal. Teachers should strive to develop every facet of the
learners and not focus only on perceptual and intellectual abilities (as so often happens).
A successful daily schedule included activities that enhanced the learners’ physical,
emotional (affective), social, intellectual, aesthetic, and moral development.
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Physical development
Physical development (especially gross motor skills) is promoted by including physical

education, music, and outdoor free-choice activities. Fine motor (small muscle, such as
fingers) and perceptual skills are developed by adding activities such as visual art and
educational games. As indicated earlier, routine activities promote the learner’s physical
independence.
Affective development
Learners’ emotional development is promoted through activities such as religious

education, music, children’s literature, and visual art.
Social development
Various social skills are developed throughout the day.
Intellectual development
Intellectual development is promoted by opportunities for language (use throughout

the day) and knowledge development. Group discussions are mainly geared towards
this. Excursions and science experiments extend knowledge and develop thinking skills.
Aesthetic development
Aesthetic development is stimulated by presentations such as visual art, music and

storytelling.
Moral development
Religious teaching and similar activities develop children’s righteous disposition.
Activity 10.9

Study the example of a daily programme given earlier in this learning unit and, applying the
discussion on the purpose of Grade R, complete the following question.
Complete the following table indicating the activity(ies) in the example of a daily
programme that will develop a specific developmental facet or skill of the young
learner.
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Developmental area Activity in the timetable
• Gross motor (whole-body) ....................................................................................
• Fine motor (finger muscles) ....................................................................................
• Physical independents ....................................................................................
• Emotional – to feel good about ....................................................................................
him/herself ....................................................................................
• Emotional – care about others ....................................................................................
• Language development ....................................................................................
• Communication skills ....................................................................................
• Problem-solving skills ....................................................................................
• Number, shape concepts ....................................................................................
• Understanding of the world ....................................................................................
• Appreciation of nature ....................................................................................
• Moral development ....................................................................................
• Aesthetic development ....................................................................................
• Developing a healthy learner
10.3.3 Guideline 3
The schedule must be balanced
Because we want to cater to all the needs of the child, we need to have a balanced
programme. A balanced programme does not mean an equal amount of time for each
activity, but the time allocation is according to the needs of the group. The order of the
presentations in the programme must also be balanced, and there must be variety in
the order of the schedule.
We will have a balanced programme if we include:
• time for indoor and outdoor activities

• time for free-choice activities and structured, adult-guided activities
• time for group and individual activities
• time for active and quiet activities
• consistency and flexibility
We also need to take the rest of the school into consideration.
• The balance between indoor and outdoor activities
A successful and balanced schedule includes opportunities for learners to play inside and
outside the classroom. Outside play opportunities are often considered less important than
those in the classroom and the only time allocated is for “playtime” in the school roster.
Seefeldt (1984) indicated this mistake by saying “One myth of contemporary education
is most learning takes place in a classroom.”
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In the “An example of a programme for a reception year” the school day lasts approximately
5 hours 45 minutes and the time allocated for indoor activities varies between 4 hours and
5 hours. The time allotted for outdoor activities varies between 45 minutes and one hour.
Although the time allocated for outdoor activities is much less than for indoor activities, it
is vital. It must never be less than 15% of the total time available in the daily programme.
TAKE NOTE: Free-play activities outdoors are just as essential and have the same purpose as
free-play activities in the classroom.
Grade R outdoor can be regarded as an outdoor classroom, as it creates various learning experi-
ences that are not possible in the classroom.
Activity 10.10

(1) In the example of a daily programme, how many opportunities are for outdoor
activities?
(Keep in mind that physical education is preferably presented outside and music activities
inside. Therefore, you will have two different answers.)
The number of activities ............... OR .......................................
Time allocated ........................ hour(s) .............................................. minutes
OR ............................................... hour(s) .............................................. minutes
(2) In the example of a daily programme, how many opportunities are for indoor
(classroom) activities?
The number of activities ............... OR .......................................
Time allocated ........................ hour(s) .............................................. minutes
OR ................................................ hour(s) ............................................. minutes
(3) The principal of the primary school where you are a Grade R teacher has complained
that the children play for an hour outdoors every day and some days they even play
outdoors twice! Give him/her three reasons why outdoor play is part of a balanced
daily programme.
The balance between free-choice activities and adult-guided presentations
A successful day programme is planned so that free-choice and group activities alternate.
Free-choice activities enable learners to play and learn and make decisions independently.
Lessons under the teacher’s guidance are essential to teach new knowledge and skills.
These presentations will be re-directing their play to be meaningful activities.
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Activity 10.11

(1) Why is it crucial that a successful daily programme has a balance between free-choice
and adult-guided activities?
The balance between group and individual activities
In a successful daily programme, there is a balance between socialisation (being part of a

group) and individualisation (playing alone). In the programme opportunities for group
activities are alternated with periods where playing alone is possible.
No Grade R group can be considered homogeneous. Each learner is an individual, and

the daily schedule must meet individual needs. There should be opportunities in the
schedule for small and large group activities that help learners socialise and learn to
work in a group.
Activity 10.12
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) When can the teacher plan time for individual activities in the daily programme?
(2) What is the primary value of individual activities?
The balance between active and quiet activities
The successful daily schedule is planned to have a balance between activities when the
learners are passive (such as listening to a story), and activities of active participation (such
as music and physical education). Free-choice activities outdoors should be followed by
a less vigorous activity as it will assist the learners to calm down after the intense action.
Activity 10.13

(1) Why is a balance between active and quiet activities important in a well-planned
schedule?
(2) Give an example of how you can obtain a balance between active and quiet activities
in the daily schedule.
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10.3.4 Guideline 4
Consistency and Flexibility
As indicated before, flexibility is a core characteristic of a play-based daily schedule.

However, there must be a balance between consistency and flexibility. Knowing the
sequence of events gives the learners a sense of security, as they know what to expect
next. Consistency is achieved through routine activities; since such activities occur at
about the same time every day. However, there should be opportunities when this rule
does not apply.
Activity 10.14
COMPLETE THE EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

(1) Talk to a Grade R teacher and ask her/him how flexible their daily programme is.
Talk about examples where they will change the schedule to accommodate an
unforeseen event.
10.3.5 Guideline 5
Take the layout of the school and classroom into consideration
Although not a guideline to achieve balance in the daily programme, an essential factor
when planning a successful daily schedule is the design of the school and the classroom.
Ask yourself the following questions:
• Is the class big enough to present the planned activity(ies)?

• If the classroom is small, is there a bigger classroom available, and at what time?
• Are there times when the learners should be outdoors as they will disturb the other
classes?
Ask the above questions before you start to plan the daily programme. The answers will
help you to design a programme that will satisfy the needs of the Grade R class, as well
as the rest of the school.
We have reached the end of learning unit 10; before you start working on the next learning
unit, complete the following exercise.
10.4 CONCLUSION
In this section, we explained the differences between the daily programme for a Grade
R class and a timetable for Grade 1. We named and discussed the three main time blocks
(periods) in the daily schedule. We further named and reviewed the four main guidelines
to follow when planning a daily programme.
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We concluded by differentiating the balance between indoor and outdoor activities.
In a successful and balanced schedule, we included opportunities for learners to play
inside and outside the classroom. Outside play opportunities are often considered less
important than those in the classroom and the only time allocated is for “playtime” in
the school roster.
10SELF-ASSESSMENT
The following is the daily schedule of a Grade R class at a primary school in Soweto, Gauteng.
As a qualified Grade R teacher, you are asked by the principal to evaluate the roster and
change it, giving reasons where necessary. Evaluate the plan and write recommendations
for the principal. (Remember to change it to Daily Programme!)
Time Lesson
08h00 School starts
08h00–08h30 Religious instruction
08h30–09h00 Information discussion on the theme of the week
09h00–09h30 The art activity of the day – link to the theme
09h30–10h00 Toilet routine and refreshments
10h00–10h30 Work in their books (Pre-Mathematics and Science)
10h30–11h30 Play outside
11h30–12h00 Language activity/work in their books (not story)
l2h00–12h30 Story time
12h30–13h00 Rest and departure
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LEARNING UNIT 11
PLANNING THE CLASSROOM AND THE OUTDOOR
PLAY AREA
Outcomes

• Plan the different learning areas in the Grade R class
• Give guidelines for preparing various learning areas for Grade R
Key concepts
• Inclusion: inclusion means that all people, regardless of their abilities, disabilities, or
health care needs, have the right to be respected and appreciated as valuable members
of their communities
• Workbooks: workbooks are used for solving extra problems and concepts, which learn-
ers have already studied in the textbook. Workbooks also hold an advantage because
they are usually smaller and lighter than textbooks, which equates to less trouble when
the learner brings the book home to complete their homework
• Moral development: moral development is the process through which children de-
velop proper attitudes and behaviours toward other people in society, based on social
and cultural norms, rules, and laws
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11.1 PROPER PLANNING OF THE CLASSROOM IS IMPORTANT
Go back!
Can you remember in our discussion on a play-based approach, we established that one of the
most evident characteristics of a play-based approach is the way the classroom is planned? The
planning and setup of a class are very different from that of traditional teaching.
To provide the learners with a variety of activities during free-choice periods need careful
planning of the classroom. In addition to enough time, learners also need space and play
materials to play creatively.
The classroom is divided into various learning areas to create opportunities to make
choices and to make this possible.
A teacher who uses the excuse that the room is too small displays (unfortunately) a
negative attitude. Even a small, inconvenient room can be attractive, exciting, and provide
all the required play opportunities. A small classroom requires careful planning, original
ideas, and an attitude to make the best of circumstances that are not ideal. The general
atmosphere is an indication of whether the class plan is successful or not. A classroom
humming with activity and the laughter of happy learners is a successful classroom.
The best way to plan a variety of play activities is to divide the room into different areas.
The number of regions will depend on the space available.
The classroom for Grade R learners should provide the following learning areas:
• A theme table or display area

• A visual art area and writing area (space for at least three art activities – of which one
is drawing/writing, including painting)
• Tactile area (an area to play with clay or other tactile experiences.)
• Fantasy play area
• Large construction area (Block area)
• Perceptual skills area (education games and materials)
• An emergent reading area (Book corner)
• Emergent mathematics and science
Activity 11.1

(1) Why is proper classroom planning necessary for successful Grade R teaching?
(2) Explain briefly the best way to plan for a variety of play and learning opportunities
in the Grade R classroom.
(3) Name the most important characteristic of a successful and well-planned Grade R
classroom.
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11.2 PLANNING THE DIFFERENT AREAS IN THE CLASSROOM
There is no strict rule when planning the different areas in a classroom for Grade R. The
number of areas in the class will depend on the size of the room, the number of learners,
and their needs and interests.
If the classroom is too small to accommodate all the areas mentioned above, change the
areas weekly or bi-weekly to give the learners opportunities to learn from all the different
activities. Schools with limited budgets will have fewer areas, but resourcefulness and
creative use of waste materials can resolve financial constraints.
The example of a Grade R classroom plan below is very idealistic, and only a handful of
schools might be able offer all the learning areas and play opportunities daily.
We use the example to explain the placement and size of the various learning areas. The
Grade R teacher’s task is to meet the “ideal” considering the constraints.
Plan of an idealistic Grade R classroom
FIGURE 4.1: A diagram of the learning areas in an ideal Grade R classroom
Source: Davin (Ed), 2019
Activity 11.2

(1) How many areas are there in the example of the ideal classroom?
(2) What information do you need to be able to decide on the number and type of
areas in your Grade R classroom?
126
(3) If your Grade R classroom is too small to accommodate all the areas, discuss briefly
a strategy to expose the learners to all the different areas.
Before you can start to plan for a variety of areas in your Grade R classroom, you need to
know about the nature and content of each area.
11.2.1 Large construction area (Block corner)

A vital learning opportunity for young children is playing with blocks or building large
construction. The corner of the classroom is the best place for block play, away from the
walkway. If large wooden blocks are not available, use any other suitable waste materials
such as ice cream containers with lids and boxes of various sizes.
Ensure the following:
• Blocks or other building materials must be neatly stacked, and the different types
packed together on low shelves with outlines of the block shapes, for learners to take
out and use without any adult assistance
• There must be enough blocks for a couple of learners to build on a reasonably large
construction
• There must be enough space for the children to construct undisturbed
• Add accessories, such as small figurines, small motor cars, trees, and other suitable
accessories (Use waste materials to make accessories.)
• Make sure the floor surface is firm. If there is a rug, it must have a sturdy pole for the
structures to stand firm
Activity 11.3

(1) Why should the large construction (block play) area be in the corner of the classroom?
(2) Why should you store blocks on low shelves with the drawn outlines of the
block shapes on the back?
(3) Make a list of five ideas on how to furnish a block area with homemade and
waste materials.
11.2.2 Emergent literacy area (Book and writing corner)

The inclusion of an area for emergent literacy, writing, and reading is essential. This area
will have a place where learners can “write” and page through books on their own. You can
place emergency literacy workbooks for the learners to complete (especially during the
first semester when workbooks must not be used, as they are developmentally unsuitable).
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Keep the following in mind when planning the emergent, literacy reading corner:
• The reading area should be in a quiet part of the room – not near the visual art area
• Make sure that the books are placed so that the children can immediately see what
is available
• The shelves must be low for the learners to handle the books themselves
• Ensure that the book area is enticing – use a few colourful cushions to make the area
attractive
• All books must be in good order – not torn or full of scribbles (Teaching learners how
to handle and respect books is a life skill.)
• The bookshelf does not have to be very large, as there need not be more than ten
books per week
• Circulate the books at least weekly (or as often as the theme changes)
• The area does not have to be big with seating for not more than three or four learners
• The book and writing areas should be a quiet areas for learners who need a break
from the hustle and bustle of the classroom
• Place the writing area near the book area
• Add a holder with different kinds of pens and pencils with paper for experimentation
with letters
• Place a frieze with suitable pictures of the ABC in this area
Activity 11.4

(1) Give a reason why the literacy area should be in a quiet part of the classroom.
(2) Make a list of five inexpensive and homemade ideas for materials and seating for
the literacy area.
(3) Briefly explain, with examples, how you will plan a writing area as part of the literacy
area.
11.2.3 Science and Mathematics area

This area consists of a table with samples of objects from nature that the learners can
manipulate and observe. The following is essential in the science and mathematics area:
• The area should be large enough for two or three children to explore things together
• If possible, add a magnifying glass or simple microscope for learners to use to look
at everyday objects
• Place the science experiments and other science-related activities in this area for the
learners to repeat and manipulate
• There should be a display or notice board for posters about science themes
• Add a frieze with numbers up to ten
• Add pencils and paper for experimenting with writing numbers
• Ensure a place where you can stick graphs, as a mathematics activity
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Activity 11.5

(1) Make a list of all the materials and apparatus that you can include in the science
and mathematics area.
(2) Collect and/or make from waste materials two of the materials/apparatus for your
science and mathematics area.
11.2.4 Perceptual skills learning area

A strategy to enhance perceptual skills is to provide a variety of educational games.
Commercial games, such as memory games, dominos, and suitable puzzles are available
at all toy shops but can be rather expensive.
Preferably, make games using waste materials such as children’s clothes and toy catalogues.
Visit a toy shop for ideas!
Keep the following in mind when planning a perceptual learning area:
• As this is also a quiet area, the best place is near the book area
• The area need not be big – have space for four learners
• Do not place more than four games or activities out per day and change it at least
every second day
• Place the week’s games and activities on a low shelf where the learners can easily take
it out and return it after play
• Add puzzles to this area. Photo calendars provide excellent pictures for jigsaw puzzles.
Stick it onto cardboard and cut it into easy shapes. Supply puzzles that link to the theme
Activity 11.6

(1) What is the value of educational games for the Grade R learner?
(2) For a class of 40 learners, how many educational games should you provide daily?
(3) Describe briefly a homemade educational game that will improve the learners’
• Number concept
• Colour discrimination
• Visual memory
(4) (TIP: Go back to Section A: Perceptual development.)
11.2.5 Small constructions and fine muscle area

This area includes activities such as small building blocks, beads, and threading activities.
The following considerations are essential when setting up this area:
• Activities should take place at a table, as small pieces can be lost easily on a carpet
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• Do not put all available small blocks or threading activities out at the same time, grade
them according to difficulty. Place them out according to their difficulty levels – more
difficult later in the year
• Count the blocks every day. Search for missing pieces immediately
• In the second semester, if the learners are ready, include activities of building structures
or threading beads according to a plan or design
• Building with small blocks and beading develop the learners’ sense of position in
space as well as their visual discrimination, analysis and synthesis
Activity 11.7

(1) Give two guidelines for a new Grade R teacher when adding small blocks in the
fine muscle area.
(2) Describe when and how you will provide your group with a beading activity where
they have to follow a pattern.
11.2.6 Visual art area

The visual art area is essential in the Grade R classroom as we present at least three art
activities during free-choice activities.
Keep the following in mind when planning the visual art area:
• The area should have good lighting; natural sunlight or good electric light
• There must be enough space for the children to work comfortably. For the more
advanced art activity where the teacher gives more guidance, not more than eight
learners can work together
• Some visual art activities are presented on the floor, such as painting and drawing
• All work surfaces should be easily cleaned, and preferably no carpets on the floor
• Water to wash hands should be readily available, even in a bucket, as most art activities
can be very messy
• Plan for room to place finished artworks to dry – for this reason place the art area
near the door
• Also, have an exhibition space on a wall for art – this is also the best classroom wall
decorations
• The educator should be able to supervise the art area efficiently, and it must be visible
from all angles in the classroom
Activity 11.8

(1) Why should the Grade R teacher plan the art area with care?
(2) Excluding a place for the learners to work, the teacher need to plan for a place to ...
and, a place where the learners can …
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11.2.7 Fantasy area
Although many Grade R classrooms do not have a fantasy area, it is an essential play
opportunity. To plan a functional fantasy play area, the teacher needs imagination and
appreciation of the importance of fantasy play.
The following basic guidelines can be useful:
• Place the area in a corner to prevent learners from walking through the area
• Surround the area with low shelves or curtains to demarcate it and to create an illusion
of privacy
• Provide a variety of fantasy play props to enable learners to play different themes
and roles
• Do not let this area become a house corner or dolls corner; ensure play materials
representing both sexes and a variety of jobs
• Change the theme of the fantasy corner to link to the topic of the week (Change the
area regularly.)
• Make sure there is enough space for the learners to put away all play materials when
they have done
• The area must be large enough to accommodate at least six learners to play together
Activity 11.9

(1) Talk to at least two Grade R teachers from different schools.
• Do the teachers have a fantasy area in their classroom?
• If not, how do they provide opportunities for fantasy play for their learners?
(2) Make a list of three themes suitable for a fantasy area. (Start to collect appropriate
materials to set up these areas.)
11.2.8 Maintaining discipline in the classroom

Discipline in a Grade R classroom can be problematic. A functional Grade R classroom
has various areas with different activities happening at the same time. However, effective
discipline will enhance the learners’ social and moral development. (Davin, 2019)
Keep the following guidelines in mind to address any possible discipline issues:
• Always start with praise and encouragement

• Decide in advance on the rules required for your class and inform all learners about
the rules
• Classroom rules must be few, clear, short, and positive with phrases and pictures next
to it
• All rules must be necessary and meaningful for the learners
• Be realistic when setting up rules
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For example, do not expect the learners to be quiet during free-choice activities, although
it is not unreasonable to expect them not to run in the class.
• Rules must be applied consistently. Make a poster with not more than five class rules;
illustrate each rule with a suitable illustration. Place it where it is easily visible to all
learners
• The learners should know the reason for every rule
• All corrections must be positive and backed up with an explanation
For example, do not shout, “Stop running!” Instead, say “We walk in the class because the
class is small, and we may knock the paint over.”
Activity 11.10
(1) Give five guidelines for new Grade R teachers to assist them in maintaining appropriate
discipline in the class.
(2) Talk to experienced Grade R teachers.
• Identify five crucial class rules for a Grade R class.

• Makes posters to illustrate each rule that you use in the Grade R-classroom.
11.3 PLANNING THE OUTDOOR PLAY AREA

Outside play is part of free-choice activities, but unfortunately, also the section of the
daily schedule that is most neglected. Teachers assume that learners can play on their
own and do not need adult interference. Learners indeed play freer outdoors – just for
the simple reason that there is usually more space.
It remains essential to plan the outdoor free-choice period with as much thoughtfulness
as in the classroom. If it is not well planned, learners will not use and enjoy the outdoor
play opportunities and apparatus optimally. The teachers are just as essential as with any
other activity or period in the daily schedule. Well-planned outdoor play opportunities
are valuable and a necessary part of the programme. When planning the outdoor play
area, the most critical factor to keep in mind is the learners’ safety. That does not mean
that this area should be dull and not challenging.
11.3.1 Provide a variety of outside play opportunities every day

The outdoor play area should offer different possibilities to learners that are not possible
in the classroom. It is the teacher’s task to ensure that the following play opportunities
are available.
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Plan the following types of play opportunities:
• Activities to use the whole body (gross motor activities)
It is vital to plan activities where the learners need to use their entire body. They must
have enough space to run, climb, and balance. A spacious area for running and climbing
equipment (even a large tree with thick branches) is essential for successful outdoor play.
• Science activities
Outside play makes it possible for learners to make various discoveries in nature, such
as the changes in seasons. Also, plan a gardening area where learners can discover how
plants grow and experience how the seasons change. Also, prepare a garden area where
the kids can plant and enjoy working in the ground.
• Group games
Make sure there are large open spaces where the whole class can play games together.
Grade R learners also start to form informal groups that play together.
• Large constructions
There must be an area where children can build massive structures, for example, using big
cardboard boxes and blankets. This is important for developing their creativity, problem-
solving skills, and real-life experiences of "positioning in space" (the learner experiences
that she is in the house, on top of the house, etc).
• Quiet areas
Some learners also need time to play on their own or keep themselves busy with a calming
activity. A quiet outside corner or a place under a tree is ideal for this.
11.3.2 The teacher during outdoor play

As already indicated, a teacher’s first task is safety. Teachers must always oversee every
corner of the outdoor area. It is not the time for teachers to relax and have a cup of tea.
Teachers have to be actively involved with the learners during free-choice activities outside.
If the play area is too small for the learners to run around freely, divide activities. For
example, on Mondays and Thursdays the outdoor area will be open for running and
catching games, Tuesday for bicycles, Wednesday and Friday less vigorous activities, and
a picnic outside on Fridays.
Ensure that there is a variety of activities available. Add water in summer and art materials
under a shaded area. Provide learners with a variety of materials for big constructions –
such as black bags and old sheets.
Present a story for learners in the quiet corner at least twice a week.
Encourage the learners to discover nature around them.
Let them look at the ants in the grass, how a flower is blooming, and changes according
to the various seasons. Also, encourage learners to try new ways of performing popular
activities – keeping safety in mind.
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11.4 CONCLUSION
After having studied this section, we can conclude that planning of the different learning
areas in the Grade R class is important. We also discovered that there is no strict rule
when planning the different areas in a Grade R classroom. The number of areas in the
class will depend on the size of the room, the number of learners, as well as their needs
and interests.
We concluded by highlighting the visual art area as essential in the Grade R classroom.
Although many Grade R classrooms might not have a fantasy area, it is an essential play
opportunity. To plan a functional fantasy play area, the teacher needs imagination and
appreciation of the importance of fantasy play.
11SELF-ASSESSMENT
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

(1) Why is it very important to allocate time for outdoor play in the daily Grade R programme?
(2) Write an article of two pages for the weekly parent newsletter in which you discuss the
value of outdoor play and the planning for this important part of the daily programme.
(3) Why do we include the following materials or apparatus in the outdoor play area?
Type of apparatus/material Reason why it is important

Jungle gym .....................................................................................
Trees .....................................................................................
7Sturdy ladders .....................................................................................
Grass .....................................................................................
Flowers .....................................................................................
Vegetable gardens .....................................................................................
A traffic area .....................................................................................
We have reached the end of Learning unit 11; before you start working on the next learning
unit, complete the following exercise.
Visit a school with Grade R or use your own Grade R classroom
• Draw up a floor plan for the classroom.
• Plan and indicate on the floor plan where you will place different learning areas in the
classroom.
• Briefly discuss how you will furnish each area, using waste and homemade materials.
Visit the outdoor play area for the above school.
• Draw a ground plan of the outdoor play area and indicate all current play and learning
opportunities.
• Using the theory, discuss successful outdoor play opportunities.
• Briefly explain the play and learning areas you can add to the outdoor play area.
• Indicate the areas of the outdoor play area on the ground plan.
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LEARNING UNIT 12
CHOOSING LEARNING CONTENT FOR THE GRADE R
CLASS
Outcomes

• After completing this learning unit, you should be able to explain why choosing learn-
ing content for Grade R is a challenging task for the teacher
• Give the four main principles to consider when planning content for the Grade R
classroom
• Discuss how the outcomes of Grade R influence suitable content for Grade R
• Explain how you would choose developmentally appropriate content for Grade R
• Apply the principles for selecting applicable content to choose a theme for Grade R
Key concepts
• Anti-biased: an anti-bias curriculum is an approach to early childhood education that

sets forth values-based principles and methodology in support of respecting and
embracing differences and acting against bias and unfairness
• Inclusive education: inclusive education means all children in the same classrooms,
in the same schools
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• Learning content: the topics, themes, beliefs, behaviours, concepts and facts, often
grouped within each subject or learning area under knowledge, skills, values and atti-
tudes that are expected to be learnt and which form the basis of teaching and learning
• Social development: social development is about improving the well-being of every
individual in society so that they can reach their full potential
12.1 IMPORTANCE OF SUITABLE CONTENT (THEMES AND

ACTIVITIES)
Without something to teach, there can be no education. Teachers must have “something”
(information or learning matter) that the learners need to know, feel, or do. In the Grade
R class, our learning content consists of suitable themes and not separate subjects as
for a traditional school grade.
Although CAPS give guidelines for suitable teaching content, the teacher has the
responsibility to choose, plan and prepare learning content (themes) and linked activities.
Grade R is included in all the CAPS documents, but the learning content is not as fixed
for Grade R as for the rest of the school phases. The Grade R teacher is responsible for
choosing suitable learning content. The teacher has to select and plan the content (themes)
that she/he will teach to the class. This has certain advantages as well as disadvantages
for the teacher and the teaching effort in the Grade R class.
Table of advantages and disadvantages of having set themes
Advantages Disadvantages
You know exactly where to start, and what to Prescribed themes do not necessarily meet
do. the unique needs of a specific group.
It is easier to have consistency in the quality of The themes cannot be changed if they
education, as you have all the information you prove to be unsuitable (i.e. topics are
need to teach. fixed).
It makes your task more manageable as you Teachers are not seen as trained profession-
do not have to plan and work out relevant als, capable of developing suitable learning
themes yourself. materials for their classes.
Source: Davin (Ed.), 2019
Activity 12.1

(1) According to your viewpoint, do you think having prescribed learning content for
Grade R is advisable or not? Substantiate your viewpoint.
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12.2 PRINCIPLES FOR CHOOSING SUITABLE CONTENT
Learning content (themes and activities) for Grade R must cover the following five main
principles:
(1) Content is linked to the learning outcomes

(2) Content is developmentally appropriate
(3) Content is relevant and meaningful to the class
(4) Content is multicultural and anti-biased
(5) Content is fun and enjoyable
Any theme you use in your Grade R class must comply with all the above principles. To
assist in selecting suitable topics, we discuss each principle in detail.
12.2.1 Themes and activities must link up with the goals of teaching
When you decide on a suitable topic and activities for your class, your two questions
must be:
(1) What do I want to achieve with my teaching effort?

(2) Why am I choosing these specific themes and activities?
Very often, instead of starting with the goals that they want to achieve with their class
the next day or week, teachers ask themselves at the end of a day or week, “What will
my class do tomorrow or next week?”
When you start with your goal, and what you want to achieve with your teaching, it will
result in education that is goal-directed and not directionless. As the development of
the total learner is our purpose for Grade R teaching, the topics and activities we choose
must reflect this.
Activity 12.2

(1) Which of the following themes will enhance the development of the whole learner?
Substantiate your answer.
• The theme of the week: The development of small muscles
• The theme of the week: I see with my eyes (visual perception)
• The theme of the week: My family
• The theme of the week: My school
(2) Why is it essential to have goal-directed themes and activities?
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12.2.2 Themes and activities must be developmentally appropriate
The learning content must be compatible with the level of development of the learners. The
teaching must be in line with the learners’ intellectual, linguistic and social development.
In other words, educators should help young learners to learn and develop in ways that
are compatible with their age and individuality. To be able to do so, the teacher must
know how young children learn and develop.
Often teachers decide on learning content to meet with what will be taught to learners
in later school years, instead of considering the young child’s current learning needs.
The teacher has to ensure that the themes and activities are within the learners’ ability
for easy mastering. It is useless and harmful to force children to try to learn content for
which they are physically and psychologically not ready.
Learners learn best when learning content is slightly below or above their current
development level. If the content is too advanced, learners will not understand and
master it. If it is too familiar, they will get bored.
Guidelines for present developmentally appropriate topics:
Learners must be able to link new information to what they already know.
• The learning content must be useful, exciting, and meaningful

• Not all children learn in the same way or have the same needs. The teacher needs to
individualise, as much as possible. The learning content must be individually appropriate
for each learner
• Learning must be an active process; learners must always be actively involved in the
teaching and learning
• The emphasis should be on real-life experiences instead of on workbooks
• The young learner needs real-life examples that they can manipulate and interact with
all their senses, to learn optimally
• Learning content must be inclusive ad culturally sensitive to meet the educational
needs of all the learners in the group
Activity 12.3

(1) Using your own words, describe the term “developmentally appropriate”.
(2) Do you agree with the following statement? Give reasons for your answer.
“When choosing suitable themes and activities for Grade R, the teacher must know
what the learners must be able to do and know in Grade 1. This information will
determine suitable themes and activities in Grade R.”
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12.2.3 The themes must be relevant and meaningful
Linked to the principle of developmental appropriateness is the principle of relevance and
meaningfulness. Topics and activities must be useful and it must make sense. Learners
must be able to relate to the topic so that they can identify with and be involved in such
topic. As already indicated, relevant and meaningful learning topics is a characteristic of
a play-based teaching approach.
Teachers will be able to keep topics relevant by observing and listening to the learners’
spontaneous play and conversation. The idea is not that learners decide what they need
to know but to keep the theme relevant and useful.
The learning content must help learners understand their environment better. It should
help them become more independent and function better in the world. Relevant and
useful learning content will help learners to perform everyday tasks, become more
independent, and assist them in adapting to society.
See the comic below. Do you think the height of Table Mountain is relevant and meaningful?
When using “traditional” themes such as the weather, seasons, and farming ensure that
they are relevant and meaningful to city learners. Always link a topic to the learners’
immediate needs and environment to ensure it is appropriate and useful.
Fundamental facts to remember:

• You do not know what you do not know!
• You cannot ask questions about a topic that you know nothing about. Therefore do not expect
the learners in your group to know of things you do not know about.
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Activity 12.4

(1) Name four strategies you can use to ensure that themes will be relevant and
meaningful to your group.
(2) Using a topic from your class’s fantasy play is one way to identify relevant themes.
(3) Do you think that this could be the primary source of themes? Give a reason for
your answer.
(4) Give an example of a topic that will assist your class to function better in their
environment.
(5) In the comic strip, why can the boy not convince his friend of the importance of
going to school?
12.2.4 Themes must be fun

One of the most important principles when choosing a suitable theme is to ensure that
the topic is fun. If the learners do not enjoy what you want to teach them, they will not
learn from it. Be creative when you choose a theme. Avoid themes such as “Healthy Food”,
change it to “Food I love”. You can still include a discussion on healthy food, but the topic
is far more fun for the learner.
12.2.5 Themes must be inclusive and anti-biased

One of the essential learning outcomes in early childhood education is that learners need
to accept that there is a wide variety of people in the world. We all have similarities but
are also different. All individuals and groups should know and feel that other people
appreciate them and that they are a legitimate and essential part of the rainbow nation.
In the class will be learners with different abilities and even learning and development
barriers. Learners must learn to accept and befriend all children – also if they are different.
Themes must include opportunities to learn necessary facts, skills, and attitudes to work
together and live in harmony with each other. Therefore, learning content must be selected
that counter prejudiced attitudes.
For inclusive education to be successful, it must be a part of every school day. Learners
will learn from your attitude and behaviour, and it is therefore vital that you respect all
groups.
Themes must be inclusive and invite all learners to take part in the learning and teaching
events. Adapt activities to accommodate learners with special educational needs.
12.3 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we explained why choosing learning content for Grade R is often
a challenging task for the teacher. We looked at four main principles to consider when
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planning content for the Grade R classroom. We discussed how the outcomes for
Grade R influence suitable content for Grade R. We explained how you would choose
developmentally appropriate content for Grade R. We also applied the principles for
selecting applicable content to choose a theme for Grade R.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
12
Answer the following questions

(1) Why must topics be inclusive?
(2) Indicate how you can use the following themes to introduce the class to different cultures
and to be anti-biased:
y Special clothes for special days
................................................................................................................................................................
y Food (that I enjoy most)
................................................................................................................................................................
y Traditional holidays
................................................................................................................................................................
(3) Give two strategies you can use to make sure that the teaching materials are suitable
for all learners.
We are at the end of Learning unit 12; complete the following exercise before you start
with the next learning unit.
Considering all the above principles, choose a theme suitable for a Grade R class at the
beginning of the year. Give reasons why this theme is ideal by referring to the guidelines
for appropriate topics. Also, use the guidelines to assess whether it is a suitable theme.
(Remember the “Must be fun” guideline!)
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LEARNING UNIT 13
ORGANISATION OF LEARNING CONTENT USING AN
INTEGRATED APPROACH IN GRADE R
Outcomes

• Describe in your own words what the “integrated approach” is
• Give reasons why we use an integrated approach in Grade R
• Plan an integrated approach to teach a suitable theme to a Grade R class
Key concepts
• Complex: composed of many interconnected parts; compound; composite

• Interconnected: a connection (physical or logical) between multiple things
• Observation: an act or instance of noticing or perceiving; an act or instance of watch-
ing attentively
• Schematically: showing the main form and features of something, usually in the form
of a drawing
13.1 ORGANISING LEARNING CONTENT IN GRADE R

Content should never be presented to children in a disorganised manner. Children
who are constantly confronted with chaotic, disordered material will later develop an
illogical approach to things. Systematising the learning content assumes a logical point
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of departure from which educators can decide how to organise the learning content. An
essential aspect to remember is that children need the opportunity to hear, see, feel, and
even taste content various times for learning to be successful.
13.2 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH

The best way to organise learning content for early childhood education is to present it in
an integrated way. This approach is also known as the project method or theme approach.
According to this organising method, learning content is offered not as separate school
subjects, but in the same manner in which a child experiences it in everyday life – as a
totality. The method is very suitable for young learners as it depicts on how they experience
life. The integrated presentation method is ideal for young learners because it prevents
learners from experiencing different lessons or activities as separate learning units. All
activities are planned so that the children can experience all learning as a coherent whole.
Learning content should not consist of separate learning units (subjects) but be organised
into themes that are relevant to the learners. This organisational method is of great
value to children because it helps them to conceptualise. Young learners should be able
to bring the world around them into the classroom. Still, they need help to organise it
in a conceptual framework. The teacher explains the daily activities, and the learners
start to understand the world around them. They learn the concepts, and by doing so,
they begin to know the various aspects of the world around them. By using a central
theme, teachers expand the learning content in different directions and ultimately into
an integrated coherent whole.
Another fundamental characteristic of the integrated approach is that the learners actively
use the new information. They understand where the new knowledge fits in and can use
it as part of their learning through play.
The teacher plans activities by using the three subjects of Grade R as a starting point,
namely, Home Language and First Additional Language, Mathematics, and Life Skills. The
different subjects are not dealt with separately but in an integrated way. By organising
the learning content in an integrated approach, we achieve all the above, and the learner
also experiences the school day (or week) as an integrated learning unit.
Activity 13.1

(1) Describe in your own words what you understand by the term, integrated approach.
(2) In an integrated approach, does every activity and presentation link to the chosen
theme? Give a reason for your answer.
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13.3 USING AN INTEGRATED METHOD TO ORGANISE
LEARNING CONTENT
Many teachers accept the idea of teaching learners under five in an integrated way. Still,
they often feel that five to eight-year-olds need to learn isolated skills in well-defined
school subjects. This is due to a misconception about how the learner in Grade R learns.
The Grade R learner still needs to:
• learn through real-life experiences

• use new knowledge in everyday situations, as “book knowledge” is difficult for the
Grade R learner to retain
• acquire new knowledge by exploring it in different ways, for example, singing, talking
about it, and doing it
• experiment and become involved with the new information
• be interested in what he or she learns
Using themes to organise learning content may be an unfamiliar approach to new Grade
R teachers. As indicated, we use a central theme that connects (most) of the activities and
lessons. There are various reasons for utilising this organisation method:
• A central theme combines daily or weekly presentations and the learners experience
a sense of uniformity during the school day or week
• It also offers the opportunity to provide in the various interests, abilities, and needs
of the learners
• Themes motivate learners as they actively become involved in a topic in which they
are interested
• A central theme developed in different directions and offers learners opportunities
to develop learning skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Activity 13.2
Complete the following table to explain why we use an integrated approach in Grade R:
The Grade R learner

469 Teaching strategy
470
1. Learn by building on real-life Use the learners’ experiences when

experiences. teaching.
2. ...................................................................................... Plan an activity where your class play
..................................................................................... “cafe-cafe” in the fantasy corner.
3. Learn new knowledge by using all their ...................................................................................
senses in a variety of activities. ....................................................................................
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13.4 PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING FOR AN INTEGRATED
METHOD OF CONTENT ORGANISATION
The teacher has to apply certain principles to ensure that the content is organised in a
responsible and orderly manner.
Principle 1
• The learning content must be systematised in such a way that the purpose and
outcomes of Grade R are researched. A theme or topic is not an outcome in itself, but
only the instrument through which teaching becomes meaningful to the learner. Do
not let the theme’s factual content become the outcome
• There should be activities that do not link to the theme, as it may not be able to link
every presentation to the topic of the day/week. No topic can meet the needs and
interests of all learners – add activities to meet the needs of all learners
• The theme should be linked to the learner’s development level and interests. The topic
should relate to their everyday world and experiences
Example
A theme about Eskimos may be too unknown and irrelevant for Grade R learners in
KwaZulu-Natal. If you linked it to children around the world, starting with their interest
and then comparing it to that of Eskimo children, it becomes relevant and exciting.
Another suitable theme can be “Homes in which people live”, and that could include
the Eskimos’ igloo.
• Themes should not be planned too far in advance, except for topics dealing with the
seasons and holidays, which occur at set times of the year. Schools and centres have
their requirements regarding how far in advance themes must be planned. Themes
are expected to be prepared in advance to ensure proper preparation. As we try to
provide a topic that will interest the learners, the theme cannot be planned too long
in advance as we need to include the learners’ own experiences into our planning
• The learning content should always be presented from the simplest to the most complex.
A theme should start with the most straightforward material, and then move to the
more complex. Present the easiest topic early in the year and then progress to more
advanced themes towards the end of the year
• The teacher must ensure that learners’ exposure to the topic is organised in such a
way that it develops throughout the year in complexity (more difficult) and scope
(more detailed)
• It is difficult to determine how long a particular theme should last. A rule of thumb is
it should not be shorter than a week and not longer than two weeks. However, this
rule is not fixed, and the period will depend on the children’s interest. It is better to
quit earlier than to stay too long on the same theme, as learners become bored. It is
best when following topics are interconnected and flow from one another.
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Activity 13.3
DO THE FOLLOWING TASK

You are the Grade R teacher linked to a primary school. The Departmental Head of the
Foundation Phase asks you to write short notes on the basic principles of an integrated
approach as an orientation for teachers that are unfamiliar with this method of organis-
ing learning content.
13.5 PLANNING STEPS FOR AN INTEGRATED APPROACH

(This section is based on Davin (Ed), 2019)
Step 1: Identify the purpose of your teaching and the learning that must take place
Identify the learning outcomes you want to achieve with the theme. Remember, the topic
itself is very seldom the outcome – you use the theme as a vehicle to reach specific goals
that you want to achieve.
Step 2: Decide on a suitable theme for your class
Choose a relevant and meaningful theme that will help the learners to achieve the purpose
of the teaching and learning effort.
Step 3: Do research about the theme
Learn as much as possible about the topic.
• Explore the learners’ environment so that you can link the theme to their world and
experiences
• Visit places related to the theme
• Read as much as you can about the topic
• Make sure that you know enough about the theme to explain it in simple terms and
answer learners’ questions about it
At this stage, it is useful to draw a theme map, also referred to as a spider web. This diagram
represents all the related information you have identified in your research on the theme.
Start with the topic in the centre and then expand on all the relevant information.
Step 4: Consider questions your class may ask
When you plan a theme, try to identify possible questions your group may ask. This is
a crucial step to ensure that you have sufficient knowledge to give correct information.
There is nothing worse than teaching your learners incorrect information! Identifying
possible questions will help you identify the fundamental concepts of the theme, as well
as prepare for the next step – selecting activities.
146
Step 5: Select appropriate activities
From the questions and key concepts you have identified, you can start to plan suitable
activities. Select activities that will answer the questions you have designated.
To ensure that activities are balanced, use the daily schedule to check that you have
included activities for each of the presentations (as far as possible).
Step 6: Gather all the necessary teaching and learning resources
The learners must actively participate in learning about the topic.
Go back to:
Self-activity and self-discovery as teaching methods in a play-based approach
For the learners to be actively involved, they need a variety of teaching and learning
resources to encourage questions and discussions.
Collect and plan the following resources:
• Appropriate trips and visits – if relevant (Ask a person from the community to come
and talk to the Grade Rs.)
• Props for play in the fantasy area
• Accessories to add to the block play area
• Suitable books to add to the emergent reading area (book area) and science area
• Appropriate activities and presentations for the mathematics and science areas, as
well as for the mathematics group presentations
• Posters for the science area or table as well as for science group presentations
• Pictures and real-life objects to use in group discussions (use images from magazines)
• Suitable stories, poems and rhymes to read and teach to your class
It is essential to ensure that the resources represent all cultural groups, not stereotyping
age, gender or culture.
Step 7: Plan a concluding activity that brings all the learning together
It is an excellent teaching strategy to end a theme with an activity where the whole group
takes part. The reason is that it helps to develop young learners’ ability to work in a group
and enhances their social development.
Examples of a group activity to conclude a theme are:
• painting or drawing a mural

• making a class picture book on the topic
• a model that links to the topic (inside or outside the classroom using waste materials)
• making props for the fantasy area to be a hospital, shop, hairdresser, or restaurant
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Step 8: Assess the success of the theme
Assessment is always the final step of any teaching effort. The teacher has to assess
• whether the group achieved the purpose of the teaching and learning effort
• whether the theme was developmentally appropriate, multicultural, relevant,
meaningful, and enjoyable for learners
The primary method of assessing the success of a theme is by observation. By listening

to the learners’ conversations, you can determine what they understood about the topic.
This is information will be useful for improving the theme when you repeat it later.
Activity 13.4

(1) Why is it important for the teacher to explore the environment of the children in
her/his class when planning integrated learning activities?
(2) Why do you think identifying possible questions that your class can ask will help
you to identify and select activities that link up with the theme?
(3) Why do you think is it important to plan for spontaneous play opportunities as well?
(4) Briefly discuss the importance of an “end activity” when presenting a theme.
(5) Name five possible end activities.
13.6 WRITTEN PLANNING OF TEACHING IN GRADE R

After the teacher has planned a theme as discussed, writing down the planning is a
vital step. Written planning is an essential part of any educator’s preparation, no matter
how much experience he or she has. There are usually two types of written preparation
expected from Grade R teachers
• Weekly planning (or as long as a theme is going to last)

• Daily planning for each presentation of the day
13.7 THE WEEKLY WRITTEN PLAN

The written plan for a week can be done. The weekly plan is an overview of all scheduled
activities/lessons/presentations/discussions for the week, using the daily schedule as a
guideline.
The weekly planning will include the following:
(1) Preparation of the news and theme discussion of the week

(2) Free-choice activities indoors linked to the theme
(3) Free-choice activities outdoors, related to the theme of the week
148
(4) Planning of group presentations:
• Music (including new songs)

• Physical education
• Emergent mathematics
• Emergent language (including new rhymes, verses and stories for the week)
• Beginning Knowledge (not included in theme discussion, usually science
experiments)
(5) Additional activities, such as a birthday or other school-related celebrations or events
An example of a weekly plan:
Weekly plan for Grade R Date: ……………… until ………………..

Group: Teacher:
Theme:
The theme of fantasy area:
Assessment:
Day Group Free choice Free choice Group Additional

discussion in class outside presentation activities
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Why is a written plan for the week essential?
(a) It leads to thoughtful planning
A brief outline of all activities forces educators to reflect on the presentations. The activities
will not happen randomly but will be well chosen and planned.
(b) Better teaching
A weekly plan leads to better teaching. Because teachers know what is scheduled for the
week, they can change presentations beforehand and improve their teaching.
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(c) Better progression
Through weekly planning, teachers can ensure that the theme “progresses” systematically.
The most straightforward material is presented first and is expanded during the week.
The theme progresses from the
• familiar to the unknown;

• concrete to the abstract; and
• most accessible to the more difficult.
The whole week’s teaching activities show gradual growth and development.
(d) Balance
One of the dangers of the integrated approach is one-sided learning content. By doing
complete weekly planning, teachers have the whole week schematically, and they can
ensure for
• Enough activities for boys and girls (without stereotyping)

• A variety of free-play activities (indoor and outdoor), including three art activities daily
• Theme discussions follow a logical order
• Exciting mathematical, Beginning Knowledge and language activities
• The twice-weekly inclusion of music and physical education
• A story every day
• Activities that are not linked to the theme but is included to meet individual learners’
needs
(e) Teaching and learning goals can be achieved
As indicated, themes should be relevant to the outcomes we want to achieve. A weekly

plan helps the teacher to choose activities that will gradually lead to the realisation of
the outcomes.
(f) Greater freedom
Although this may sound contradictory, weekly planning leads to greater freedom. Because
educators have done their preparation and know what they want to achieve, they can
utilise and incorporate unexpected learning opportunities into the week’s teaching.
Activity 13.5
(1) Why does a written plan for a week improve teaching?

(2) How can written planning lead to greater freedom in teaching?
(3) Is weekly planning a detailed plan of the week’s teaching? True or False?
(4) Do you agree that the teacher must plan for separate activities for boys and
girls? Give a reason for your answer.
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13.7.1 Daily lesson planning in Grade R
After you have completed the weekly planning, you should plan every presentation in
more detail. As every school has its written planning format, the following is an example
of the information needed in the daily lesson or activity plan. The teacher has to plan
every presentation or lesson in writing. This serves as record of what was done in the
class but also assists in the teaching reflection of her/his teaching effort.
Information needed Tips for completion
General information Include information about:
• The group for which you plan to present the activity
• The type of presentation (i.e. not merely ‘art’, but the specific kind
of art activity)
• The theme of the activity. This will usually, but not always, link with
the theme of the week.
• The length of the presentation. You should ensure that the pres-
entation is neither too long nor too short. Group activities should
never be longer than 30 minutes from the beginning until the end
(all aspects of the activity included).
The purpose of the From the start, you should be clear on what purpose the lesson will
presentation serve. What knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes the learners
must acquire at the end of the experience.
Learning to read is not a purpose but a long-term outcome – the
goal of the story is learning new vocabulary: caterpillar, cocoon, and
butterfly.
Assessment Assessment is an integral part of every presentation, and this must
link to the goal of the lesson.
How are you going to assess that the learners’ vocabulary has ex-
panded with understanding?
Prior knowledge It is essential that you start with what the learners already know
about the theme or activity. Prior knowledge can be based on previ-
ous experiences, a story, or an outing.
Being aware of learners’ prior knowledge will help you to ensure that
the presentation is not too easy or too complicated and that it will
fall within the learners’ experience of the world.
Presentation A presentation will include the following:
• Introduction. You need to have an excellent introduction to capture
the learners’ interest in the theme. You should introduce the new
topic and/or information by linking it to what the learners already
know. This activity should attract the learners’ attention and keep
them focused on the rest of the presentation.
• Core. This will depend on the type of presentation. A music and
dance presentation will differ from mathematics or storytelling,
and so on.
This is the heart of the presentation and must be planned well.
• Conclusion. As the teacher, you have to end a presentation
satisfactorily.
• A very active activity, such as for performing arts or physical
education needs a calming conclusion.
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Resources The teaching and learning resources you plan to use in the presenta-
tion must add to the value of the lesson and should be well made
and well used. They serve an essential purpose.
• Teaching resources are used to help present new information to
the learners successfully. They are usually handled by the teacher
and include pictures, video clips and the whiteboard or chalkboard.
• Learners use learning resources to help them understand and learn
new information more easily. This may be any apparatus the learners
manipulate themselves, such as concrete materials for emerging
mathematics or art materials.
• The choice of resources depends on the type of presentation and
developmental level and interests of the group.
Source: Based on Davin (Ed), 2019
The lesson plan above is comprehensive, and some schools may have a shorter version.
The most crucial aspect is that written planning remains essential for successful teaching.
A well-planned day will result in less disciplinary issues in the class, as bored learners are
“naughty” learners.
13.8 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we learnt what the term “integrated approach” means. We looked at
reasons why we use an integrated approach in Grade R. Planning of an integrated approach
to teach a suitable theme to a Grade R class was discussed.
We learnt that after the teacher has planned a theme as discussed, writing down the
planning is a vital step. Written planning is an essential part of any educator’s preparation,
no matter how much experience he or she has.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
13
We have come to the end of Learning unit 13. Before you start with Learning unit 14,
complete the following exercise.
• Visit any Grade R class and ask the teacher what kind of written planning is expected
from them.
• Compare it to the theory you have just learnt. What aspects are the same and what are
different? According to your view, what are the reasons for the differences?
152
LEARNING UNIT 14
MULTICULTURAL AND ANTI-BIASED EDUCATION IN
GRADE R
(Written in cooperation with Dr H v R van der Horst)
The purpose of this learning unit is to orient you, as Grade R teacher, to the realities of
Grade R classes in South Africa. We are a rainbow nation, and learners from various cultures
will be in your class. You need to be able to understand their needs and be able to use
the multicultural nature of your class to teach the learners to understand and respect
each other.
To be able to meet this opportunity, you need to have knowledge, skills and the correct
attitude toward multicultural and anti-biased education.
Outcomes

• Discuss the goals of multicultural education in the Grade R class
• Assess and work out your attitude towards being unbiased
• Select anti-biased and multicultural resources for your group
• Include multicultural experiences in every theme that you present to your class
• Assess the success of an anti-biased and multicultural approach in your class
153 PRGRT01/501
Key concepts
• Multicultural education: multicultural education is an idea, an educational reform

movement, and a process. As an idea, multicultural education seeks to create equal edu-
cational opportunities for all learners, including those from different racial, ethnic, and
social-class groups
• Similarities: a similarity is a sameness or likeness, often used when comparing two
things – physical objects, ideas, or experiences
• Non-traditional: not conforming to tradition, not adhering to certain practices or
ways of life
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The essential purpose of multicultural and anti-biased education is to teach your class
to accept differences and similarities so that all people in a multicultural society (such
as our own rainbow country, South Africa) can work together in a spirit of acceptance,
tolerance, and respect. All individuals and groups need to know and feel that they are
valued by others and have a rightful and essential place in the society in which they live.
Learners need to be taught the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to live and work
together in harmony.
14.2 SETTING UP AN ANTI-BIASED AND MULTICULTURAL

APPROACH
As a teacher, working towards an anti-biased approach in teaching, you should:
• examine your attitudes

• concentrate on creating a classroom environment that is free of any biased learning
materials
• expand your knowledge of previously ignored individuals and groups
14.3 EXAMINE YOUR ATTITUDE

It is often stated that it is not our differences that are the problem but rather our response
to variations. We all have individual beliefs and biases. These attitudes are sometimes
so much part of us that we may be unaware that not all people share the same points
of view. Our own life experiences (e.g. the history of separation in this country and thus
separate schooling) may have been significant in forming our attitudes. Anti-biased
education requires ongoing thoughtfulness and self-examination on the part of teachers.
14.3.1 Answer the following questions

(1) how has the social policy of apartheid influenced my attitudes to and perceptions
of people of different cultures?
154
(2) How do I identify myself racially, ethnically, or linguistically?
(3) When growing up, what prejudices did I learn?
(4) What prejudices are prevalent among my family, work community, neighbourhood
and friends?
(5) Am I working on being more thoughtful and sensitive about my attitudes to a
particular group?
(6) How do I respond to stereotypical or prejudicial remarks and actions?
(7) Are there groups of learners with whom I find it easy or difficult to work?
(8) Are there types of parents with whom I find it easy or difficult to work?
It is necessary to answer these questions as honestly as possible. Acknowledge any
feelings of bias or prejudice and analyse them. Are your opinions based on facts or just
because “I think so?” If you acknowledge that you are biased, you can start to overcome
it by working towards achieving an open, accepting and accommodating teaching style.
14.4 SETTING UP A CLASSROOM THAT IS FREE OF ANY BIASED

LEARNING MATERIALS
When setting up a class with an anti-biased approach, teachers should look beyond the
usual resources. When selecting anti-biased materials, look for active learning and hands-
on materials. Avoid materials that are stereotypical and biased.
14.4.1 What is stereotyping?

Stereotyping is seeing people belonging to a specific group, culture, gender or age as
being the same.
Activity 14.1

Give examples of stereotyping the following:
(1) Culture
(2) Gender
(3) Age
(4) Disability
(5) Economically disadvantaged people
14.4.2 When is one biased?

To be biased refers to preference or a way of seeing things in a partial manner. A biased
person has a rational choice that inhibits fair judgement.
155 PRGRT01/501
14.5 COLLECTING MULTICULTURAL AND ANTI-BIASED
RESOURCES
As you start your collection of multicultural learning materials, be careful that the resources
do not represent images of the past rather than a contemporary view. Initially, the emphasis
should be on having learners view people (who have different skin colour, traditions
or clothing) with identifiable feelings and in activities similar to theirs. As the learners
develop, they may begin to compare and contrast pictures of people who lived long
ago with those from recent times. They might, in this way, be exposed to discriminatory
practices of the past and contrast them to practices in the present.
Activity 14.2

(1) Do you agree that a good starting point for multicultural learning content for children
living in a big city would be stories about the traditional lifestyles of different cultures?
For example, stories about the Zulu King, Dingaan. Give a reason for your answer.
• Photographs and posters

Photographs and posters in the classroom should represent the diversity of people in
the world. Learners and adults should be depicted in a variety of play and work settings.
Photographs allow learners to notice differences between people in realistic settings.
Include family photographs in your display materials.
Teachers can make their posters or collages by using old calendars or pictures on a
particular theme, such as families or learners at play. A typical classroom activity, such
as having learners name what they see in an image, can become an anti-biased activity
simply by selecting pictures with diversity in mind.
Activity 14.3

(1) Describe, using an example, how you could use a poster or picture to help your
group realise that there is diversity in people.
• Manipulative materials and games

Games and manipulative materials should be selected to include non-stereotypical
characters, scenes, and pieces. While there are still improvements to be made in
commercially available materials, products that are more appropriate are becoming
available. If you are unable to purchase materials that reflect an anti-biased approach,
create your own.
156
Homogeneous materials could also be used to teach a lesson on diversity by for instance
asking, "What do you notice about these toys?" The class could then brainstorm ways to
modify the figures in a building block set, for example, so that the characters would not
all represent males.
Activity 14.4

(1) Give three guidelines a Grade R teacher can follow to ensure that manipulative
games and materials are unbiased and non-stereotypical.
Dramatic (Fantasy) play
In the past, dramatic play areas have been known to suffer from stereotypes (too many
handbags and high heels and too few briefcases). Fantasy play areas offer learners the
opportunity to try out both traditional and non-traditional roles. In this way, learners may
become more comfortable with differences. Dressing up, caring for learners and others,
fixing meals, and working in different occupations all offer opportunities for both sexes
to practise different roles. Also, place dolls, clothes, and accessories in the fantasy corner
that represent all cultural groups.
Be sure to broaden the scope of the dramatic play area by avoiding calling it by a specific
name such as the “housekeeping area”. Instead, call it the “fantasy area”, thereby extending
its possibilities.
Activity 14.5

(1) Give at least three ideas to ensure that the fantasy area is more than a mere
“housekeeping area” and is multicultural.
• Books
Books offer a rich source of anti-biased material. Before purchasing new books, think
about what you want to achieve with the books. Books about specific themes, such as
non-traditional families, are often lacking. Non-fiction books on different cultures, habits,
and languages should also be included in the book area. The emphasis should be on the
diversity of people, practices, and occupations throughout the world, while focusing on
the sameness of needs in terms of love, belonging, security, and respect.
Activity 14.6

(1) Do you agree with the following statement? Give a reason for your answer.
157 PRGRT01/501
When choosing books, it is important to select books about diversity in people, but
also books that focus on the sameness of people.
(2) Find any storybook suitable for Grade R readers that portray the diversity in children
but also the similarities.
• Music
Music offers a variety of opportunities to focus on diversity in unique and enjoyable ways.
Singing, listening to, and creating music offer learners the opportunity to experience
diversity without too many specifics. The emphasis should be on experiencing variety in
music. Songs and instruments from different cultural traditions can be most enriching.
Example
The African tradition of singing rhythmically whilst completing routine and other tasks
could be included to great effect.
Activity 14.7

(1) How can you use music to help your group experience diversity in a unique and
enjoyable way?
• Guest speakers
Guest speakers from different ethnic groups, sexes, ages, and occupational groups make
a valuable contribution to the learners’ experiences of diversity. Any guest speaker who
has a non-traditional role or who can share specific information about a particular culture
or an experience of prejudice or discrimination may form a valuable part of an anti-biased
curriculum.
Example
While busy with a health-related theme, invite a female doctor to talk about her work.
Activity 14.8

(1) Give an example of a person you could use as a guest speaker for a multicultural
learning experience.
158
14.6 PLANNING ACTIVITIES FOR A MULTICULTURAL AND
ANTI-BIASED APPROACH
There is no right or wrong way to start with a multicultural and inclusive approach.
Remember: It is essential to realise that the ideals of multicultural education cannot be

achieved by merely including a theme on difference, a book containing a non-traditional
character, or information about a cultural festival. You need to plan to have a multicultural
approach throughout the day’s lessons, presentations, and activities.
When embarking on a multicultural approach, a teacher should examine his/her attitude

to racial, ethnic, linguistic, and other culture-based differences. The teacher should then
formulate outcomes, which include multicultural educational experiences in every theme
she/he teaches.
14.7 IDEAS FOR MULTICULTURAL ACTIVITIES

With the essential outcomes for multicultural education in mind, you have to plan activities
that will link up with the theme and the results you want to achieve.
To get you started, below follows examples of two activities suitable for Grade R learners.
14.7.1 Activities focusing on the appreciation of being the “same” and

“different”
Activities that focus on the similarities and differences in people help learners to
• discover that the way they usually see things is not necessarily the only way to look
at them
• build a knowledge base about people. With knowledge about a variety of people in
a variety of roles, learners are less likely to see people as stereotypes
To achieve the above outcomes, include activities that emphasise non-traditional ways
of doing things.
Example
Princesses who are brave and passive boys (and men) who are sad mothers who drive
non-traditional vehicles, e.g. motorcycles or aeroplanes and fathers who are stay-at-
home dads.
Most of the activities that are used in this category should encourage learners to ask, “Are
all people in this particular group the same?’’
159 PRGRT01/501
Example
Our families
Teachable moment Suitable activity when the learners in your class are asking
questions about each other
Specific outcome Learners should recognise that families have differing and
similar traits
Suitable period Information in a discussion after a story about families
Method:
(1) Tell your group that each child will have an opportunity to share his or her answer
to the question: What would you like us to know that is special about your family?
To help your group, tell them what is unique about your own family.
Example
We prefer vinegar to tomato sauce on our chips. We never eat meat. My mother’s milk
tart is the best in the world.
(2) Give each child a turn to answer. Reinforce the concept of similarities and differences
by commenting.
Example
Nkopodi’s family likes to visit grandma and grandpa. Are there other families who
574
like to do it, too?
Extension: Create a bulletin board by having learners bring pictures of their families –
preferably doing a favourite activity.
14.7.2 Activities challenging prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination

Learners need to realise that prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination limit people –
not only economically and politically, but also by lessening their self-esteem. Ultimately,
learners should develop into people who will interrupt and stop prejudiced behaviour
should they meet such behaviour.
The following activity encourages learners to be aware of prejudging and to recognise that
appearance is not a reliable criterion to use when evaluating something or someone new.
Materials Pomegranate, kiwi fruit (or any other unfamiliar fruit)
160
Method:
(1) Place the fruit on the table with a sign: Do you like ...?
(2) Show the fruit to the class and ask the learners if they think the fruit will have a
pleasant taste?
(3) People often decide that they like or dislike food before even trying it. Ask the
learners why they have decided they like/dislike the fruit.
(4) Discuss why it is essential first to taste the fruit before deciding that you like/dislike
it. Prejudging is the same as prejudice. Ask the learners if they have ever heard the
word “prejudice” before. Prejudice is a judgement made without reason or experience.
(5) Ask the group if they have had an experience where someone told them that they
could not do something because of being a girl/boy. Make a point of letting learners
know that when people prejudge, they do not allow people to be themselves. People
are unique and so not every boy/girl/black/brown/white person has to be precisely
the same as every other boy/girl/black/brown/white person just because he or she
is a boy/girl/black/brown/white person.
(6) Give each child a piece of the fruit. Note how many learners do and do not like the
fruit. Discuss the change in opinion because now they have made a decision based
on experience and not on prejudgment. (Based on Thomson 1993:138)
14.8 ASSESSMENT IN AN ANTI-BIASED AND MULTICULTURAL

CURRICULUM
Assessment in anti-biased education is mostly a matter of assessing changing attitudes.
When determining whether you as the teacher are having any success with an anti-biased
approach, the following questions may be asked:
• Does the child recognise and accept individual differences?

• Does the child respond non-judgementally to situations and people?
• Does the child make decisions about people and situations based on appropriate
information rather than on stereotypes?
• Does the child understand that different people may have different opinions? Moreover,
that each person or group is entitled to their perspective?
14.9 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we explored and discussed the goals of multicultural education in
the Grade R class. We looked at assessing and working on our own attitude towards being
unbiased. We discussed what stereotyping is and selected anti-biased and multicultural
resources for a class.
We also concluded by assessing the success of an anti-biased and multicultural approach

in class.
161 PRGRT01/501
14SELF-ASSESSMENT
Answer the following question
Assessment of the outcomes of multicultural and anti-biased education is not easy be-
592
cause we have to assess the change of “attitudes and thinking’’ in the child. Do you agree?
Explain how you will attempt to assess a change in attitude towards children different
from them (being anti-biased).
162
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Children in a Divided Society in Cross-Cultural Studies of Personality, Attitudes and
Cognition, 1978:185–205.
Catron, CE & Allen, J. 2008. (4th ed). Early Childhood Curriculum: A Creative Play Model.
Pearson: New York.
Centre for Prevention of Disease Learner Development Basic/CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/
ncbddd/learnerdevelopment/facts.html.
Centre for Prevention of Disease Learner Development Basic/CDC. [online] Available
at: <https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/learnerdevelopment/facts.html> [Accessed
4 November 2020].
Crothers, A. 2013. The process of learning is more important than content. https://simon-
crothers.wordpress.com/2013/07/15/the-process-of-learning-is-more-important-than-
content/ [Visisted 31.05.2019].
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is-more-important-than-content/> (Visisted 31.05.2019) [Accessed 4 November 2020].
Davin, R. 2019. (Ed). The handbook for Grade R teaching. Cape Town: Pearson.
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littlecookhouse.com.sg/2016/09/03/importance-of-fine-motor-development.
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SECTION A: LEARNING IN GRADE R 1

LEARNING UNIT 7: LEARNER 59

SECTION B: TEACHING IN GRADE R 79

1 PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

2 THEMES COVERED IN PRGRT01

• Who is the Grade R learner?

In Section A, Learning in Grade R, we investigate the various developmental facets of

3 MODULE OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

RECOMMENDED/ESTIMATED NOTIONAL HOURS TO BE SPENT ON EACH LEARNING

Learning unit Reference Notional hours

An academic year is planned for around 30 weeks.

PRGRT01 also serves as an introduction to modules 2, 3 and 4. (The subject-directed

Aim at completing the PRGRT01 as early in your studies as possible.

7 HOW TO STUDY PRGRT01

8 ASK FOR HELP!

Handbook for Grade R teaching. [Reda J Davin] https://unisa.on.worldcat.org/oclc/829362333

Keep referring to these outcomes as you go through the work.

After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Growth – refers to the physical changes of a human

You are going to focus on six basic concepts, namely:

1.2 BASIC NEEDS OF THE YOUNG LEARNER

After years of research in learner development, Harley Rotbart, a paediatrician at Colorado

According to Rotbart, these basic needs are:

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

1.2.1 Basic physical needs of the young child

• Shelter, warmth, and cleanliness

1.2.3 Educational needs (Need to learn)

Adults as role models of behaviour should demonstrate the appropriate responses

1.2.4 The need for respect

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

1.3 THE CONCEPTS “GROWTH” AND “DEVELOPMENT”

TABLE 1: The differences between growth and development

Source: Based on an online article by Shiva

Knowledge of learner growth and development enables you to:

• Understand what you can expect from the learner

1.4 NORMAL OR TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT

• It is a process by which children change in orderly ways in terms of size, neurological

Remember: Age-level expectancies represent a range; it is not an exact point.

1.4.1 Development milestones

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

1.4.2 Sequence development

1.4.3 Age-level expectancies (Norms)

A toddler walks at 8½ months and is therefore ahead of the norm of 12 to 18 months. A

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING EXERCISE BEFORE YOU READ FURTHER

1.5 A HOLISTIC VIEW OF THE CHILD

• Physical/Motor development – this includes gross motor (whole-body movements),

1.6 LEARNERS ARE UNIQUE

1.6.1 Each child is exceptional

1.6.2 Learners with special needs

Located within the child (intrinsic factors)

Children with “disabilities” also referred to as “impairments”, refers to permanent

Located outside the child (external circumstances)

1.7 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

To consolidate your learning of basic concepts, you need to complete an assignment on