Ethics Reviewer

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G-SOSC004 – ETHICS REVIEWER


goodluck !! >:3

MODULE I. ETHICS AND MORAL STANDARDS


PHILOSOPHY – attain wisdom and clarity Branches of Philosophy
rational inquiry into fundamental questions: a. Metaphysics
b. Epistemology
a. Existence c. Ethics
b. Knowledge
c. Values
ETHICS vs MORALITY
Ethics – Greek “ethos” meaning customs, habits Morality – Latin “mos, moris” = “ethos”
and mores of people introduced by Cicero
- The philosophical reflection of rules and - if morality is defined in terms of moral
ways of living together oughts, it seems to be a circular or empty
- Encompasses human action including description(Martin 2007).
personal pre-conditions - Customs, dos and don’ts, usually social
Systematic understanding of morality (communities, society)

Ancient Greek Philosophy – how to act well and rightly; what personal / individual qualities necessary
EUDAIMONIA – Aristotle ethics focus; meaning “good life”; What is a good life?

SUB BRANCHES OF ETHICS


Descriptive Ethics - empirically mapping existing moralities within communities, without normative
prescriptions.
Metaethics - logical, semantic, and pragmatic structures of moral and ethical argumentation, questioning
the origin and meaning of morality.
Normative Ethics - reflection on morality, setting up or critiquing norms and standards for conduct.
e.g Applied ethics, such as bioethics or business ethics, falls under normative ethics, addressing specific
moral issues.
Main Normative Ethical Theories
Deontological Theories - base morality on specific, foundational principles of duty and obligation,
regardless of consequences.
e.g Kantian ethics, where lying is considered universally wrong, regardless of the outcome.
Keywords: regardless of consequences, principles of duty and obligations
Consequentialist Theories: judge actions based on the balance of their consequences, with morally proper
actions leading to the greatest overall good.
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e.g Utilitarianism, where an action is deemed moral if it maximizes happiness or minimizes suffering.
Keywords: greatest overall good, balance
Virtue Theories: Emphasize the development of good character traits and habits, focusing on personal
virtues rather than strict adherence to rules.
e.g Aristotelian virtue ethics, which promotes cultivating virtues like courage and honesty.
Keywords: development, good character traits and habits, personal virtues

What are “codes of ethics/conduct” or what is Looking at the definitions of ethics and
“ethical research”? Shouldn‘t that be called morality − what is moral philosophy?
moral?
A: It is mostly used as a synonym for ethics.
A: By calling research or a code “ethical”, the Some, like the French philosopher Jean-Pierre
authors want to point out that the moral rules Dupuy use it differently. For him ‘ethics’ stands
they set up are based on rational deliberation for the effort to force everything into universal
and can be subject to critique. harmonized principles while ‘moral
philosophy’ endures colliding or incompatible
values or concepts in the discourse.
HISTORY OF ETHICS
Aristotelian Ethics; Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Keyphrases: cultivating moral virtues, rationality integral to goodness, good life, eudaimonia
- Focuses on cultivating moral virtues in individuals.
- He argues that the good and excellence for humans lie in their functions or activities.
- Human function involves rational activity, making rationality integral to goodness.
- Virtues like courage, moderation, self-respect, and generosity are cultivated to guide
appropriate actions.
- Aristotle's ethics emphasizes practical wisdom in choosing the middle course between excess and
deficiency in moral actions.
- Does not prescribe universal moral rules but describes the good life as marked by virtuous
dispositions and activities.
- Allows for variations in moral judgment based on different moral situations.
Stoic Ethics / Stoicism
Keywords: moderation, acceptance, wisdom, logos
- Influenced by Heraclitus
- Stoics believe in a universal principle (or logos) governing the world.
- Advocates aligning one's life with this principle.
- Virtues promoted include acceptance of one's role, moderation of desire, wisdom, self-control,
justice, and brotherly love.
Epicurean Ethics
Keywords: atoms, avoid pain, against fearing death or divine retribution, dissolution
- Rooted in atomist philosophy, Epicureans assert that everything, including humans, souls, and
gods, is composed of atoms.
- Advocates pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain as the path to a good and happy life.
- Argues against fearing death or divine retribution, viewing death as the dissolution of
atoms.
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Descartes
Keywords: passion, soul, emotions
- Descartes's moral philosophy centers around understanding the passions of the soul.
- He defines passions as perceptions or thoughts received by the soul, affecting it but distinct from
clear and distinct ideas.
- Emotions - the thoughts with the most impact on the soul.
- Passions are seen as inherently good but can be misapplied or exaggerated, requiring
regulation.
- Regulation of passions involves indirectly influencing them by focusing on representations of
things associated with desired passions and opposing those associated with unwanted passions.
- to cultivate courage and dispel fear, one must not simply will it but also focus on reasons, objects,
or examples that diminish the perceived danger.
"the representation of things which are usually joined with the passions which we wish to have and
opposed to those which we wish to reject" (Copleston (1961).
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Keywords: role of reason, duty ethics
- Rejects Aristotelian virtue ethics and Epicurean hedonism.
- Emphasizes the role of reason in morality, proposing duty ethics.
- Introduces the categorical imperative: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at
the same time will that it should become a universal law."
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
Keywords: utilitarianism, general happiness, happiness to more people, beneficial outcomes
- Revives Epicurean theory of pleasure.
- Propounds utilitarianism in his work "Utilitarianism" (1861).
- Defines a good action as one that promotes general happiness or pleasure, focusing on utility or
beneficial outcomes.

MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS


Fundamental Characteristics of Morality (Martin, 2007)
- Morality acknowledges the inherent value of individuals, including oneself and others, which
cannot be reduced to mere utility.
- Morality encompasses moral reasons guiding actions, personal development, relationships, and
the promotion of communities and institutions.
Characteristics of a Moral Code (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
- Moral code norms that dictate feelings of guilt and anger, with violations warranting social
sanctions like praise or blame.
- Endorsed by rational individuals, accepted, and intended to be followed by relevant agents;
comprises the most fundamental norms used to justify actions to others.
- Rational subjects not only advocate for the moral code but also accept it and intend to conform
their behavior accordingly.
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Characteristics of Moral Standards


1. Moral standards inform
a. Behavior
b. personal character
c. relationships
d. societal support
- while respecting the intrinsic worth of individual
2. Moral standards are distinguished from non-moral standards by specific criteria:
a. evoke feelings of guilt and anger when violated and are suitable for praise or blame.
b. endorsed by all rational agents
c. align with the categorical imperative or universalizability of maxims.
d. moral agents accept and intend to conform their behavior to moral standards, considering
them essential.
Moral standards are used to justify actions, reflecting a vision of a good life, unlike non-moral
standards which may not carry the same authority.

MODULE II. UNDERSTANDING MORAL EXPERIENCE


Moral Dilemma – requires a difficult decisions between two or more options; has negative consequences
- two or more moral reasons suggesting different courses of actions (choice of reason to follow is
not clear)
- involve situations where moral agents face conflicting moral principles or choices where any
action results in moral failure.
- can arise from conflicting moral principles, such as saving lives versus not killing innocents, and
from uncertainties about the consequences of actions.
Examples: (actually important since it appears in quizzes)
Socrates' dilemma of returning a weapon versus protecting others and the trolley problem involving
sacrificing one person to save a larger number.
In the trolley problem, one version involves the trolley driver choosing to divert the trolley to save five at
the expense of one, which is generally deemed acceptable.
Another version involves an onlooker having the option to push a heavy man off a bridge to stop the
trolley and save the five workers, a choice most people find objectionable.
Crucial Features of Moral Dilemma – no matter what you do, you will do something wrong
1. agent is required to do each of two (or more) actiobs
2. the agent can do each of the actions
3. but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions
Engaging with moral dilemmas helps clarify how moral principles are applied and how moral arguments
can develop.
TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMAS
a. Epistemic dilemmas involve conflicting moral requirements where the moral agent struggles
to determine which requirement takes precedence.
b. Ontological dilemmas involve conflicting moral requirements where neither requirement
overrides the other.
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c. Self-imposed dilemmas stem from the moral agent's own actions or decisions, such as
promises made.
d. World-imposed dilemmas arise from external events or circumstances, like historical
atrocities or natural disasters.
e. Obligation dilemmas present situations where multiple feasible actions are morally
required.
f. Prohibition dilemmas involve cases where all feasible actions are morally forbidden.
g. Single agent dilemmas, the moral agent is compelled to choose between equally compelling
moral options but cannot do both.
h. Multi-person dilemmas involve several individuals or groups who must reach a consensus
on a moral issue, making the decision-making process more complex.
a. requires not only choosing what is right but also ensuring the decision maintains the
integrity of the group while preventing potential division.
(important stuff, shows up in quizzes—also important for Module 5, more details written there)
Baby Theresa – she will die since she has no brain
- Save as many as we can– parents want to donate her parts
- Not to use someone as means to save someone else – donation would kill her
Jodie and Marie – conjoined twins
- Parents don’t want operation, hospital disagrees, court decides to separate the twins
- Sanctity of Human Life and save as many as we can; arguments
Tracy Latimer – cerebral palsy, dad kills her since she was barely living
- Local court and jury charged him for 1 year, Supreme Court charged 25 years
- Arguments:- wrongness of discriminating against handicapped, slippery slope of deciding who
lives and/or dies
MODULE III. CULTURE AND MORALITY
Moral agent – has the natural ability to reason, has the ability to discern right from wrong
- Responsibility to not cause harm
- Traditionally adults with full mental capacity
Reasoning enables a human person to act freely and be held accountable
Morality of human action depends on the human person themselves.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Overview
Cultural relativism posits that what is perspective, making no system
considered "right" and "wrong" depends on a inherently "better" or "worse," and no
society's specific moral guidelines, which vary moral position definitively "right" or
across different cultures and time periods "wrong."
➢ Holds that all moral or ethical systems
are equally valid, as there is no ultimate
standard of good or evil.
➢ Each society's judgments about morality
and ethics are shaped by its cultural
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Cultural Differences Argument ➢ There are no universally applicable


moral truths; moral codes vary across
➢ Different societies have diverse moral cultures and time periods.
codes. ➢ Within a society, what its moral code
➢ No objective standard exists to judge dictates as right is considered right
one society's moral code as superior to within that society.
another's. ➢ It's considered arrogant to judge the
➢ The moral code of any society holds no behavior of other cultures, and tolerance
inherent superiority; it's merely one toward diverse cultural practices is
among many. advocated.

Filipino Values and Value-Orientation


Filipino ethics are based on values, particularly Filipino Character Traits
personalism, familialism, and particularism.
Personalism - emphasizes interpersonal relations
- strongly influence behavior, decision- and face-to-face encounters.
making, personal beliefs, and cultural
practices in Filipino society. e.g Successful leadership and effective problem-
- serve as the foundation for determining solving require a personal touch and good
acceptable behavior within the Filipino personal relations.
community.
Flaws of Filipino Morality Short-term and imperfect consequentialism
limits the Filipino's ability to recognize
Exclusivist tribal undertones hinder the authentically good actions that prevent both
effectiveness of Filipino morality when applied immediate and future harm to themselves and
beyond kin-based communities. their community.
Path to Moral Progress
➢ Overcoming exclusivism and fostering inclusivist, meta-tribal harmony.
➢ Developing a more rigorous consequential morality.
➢ Reconstruction of objective criteria for morality is essential for addressing these shortcomings
and advancing moral progress in Filipino society.
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MODULE IV. MORAL CHARACTER AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT


Character – “charakter” Greek ; referred to te mark impressed upon a coin
- Evolved into any distinctive feature
- Set of qualities ; characteristics that can be used to differentiate between persons.
Aristotle's View on Moral Character Traits – understanding and addressing moral weakness is crucial
in cultivating virtuous character traits.
Moral Strength
➢ involves resisting excessive desires and aligning actions with what is good.
➢ requires self-control and mastering desires in accordance with the good.
Moral Weakness
➢ involves succumbing to excessive desires despite knowing what is good.
➢ actions are contrary to one's better judgment due to weakness.
Causes of Moral Weakness
➢ Lack of habituation to virtue, especially among the youth.
➢ Effeminacy or softness, which weakens resolve.
➢ theoretical thinking or philosophy can also lead to moral weakness.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development ➢ Considers intentions and relationships


important.
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment ➢ Begins to understand others'
Keywords: rules = absolute, avoiding perspectives.
punishment, obey authority figures
Stage 4 - Law and Social Order
➢ Motivated by avoiding punishment and Keywords: law and order, following rules,
obeying authority figures. respecting authority, majority > minority rights
➢ Views rules as fixed and absolute.
➢ Responsive to rules that impact ➢ Focuses on maintaining law and order,
physical well-being. following rules, and respecting
authority.
Stage 2 - Naively Egotistical ➢ Believes in rigid rules and supports
Keywords: individual needs, personal gain, majority rights over minority rights.
equal sharing, non-selfish = rewards ➢ Represents a significant portion of the
➢ Acts based on individual needs and population.
desires.
➢ Believes in reciprocity but primarily for
personal gain. Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract
➢ Values equal sharing but expects Keywords: values consensus, changing the law
rewards for non-selfish deeds. thru system,
Stage 3 - "Good Boy-Good Girl" Orientation ➢ Considers differing values and opinions
Keywords: peer approval, relationships, others’ of others.
perspectives ➢ Values consensus over majority rule and
respects minority rights.
➢ Seeks peer approval and aims to fulfill ➢ Believes in the possibility of changing
social expectations. laws through the system.
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Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principles ➢ Believes in higher moral principles


Keywords: justice > law, beyond social rules, beyond social rules and customs.
dignity and worth ➢ Values the dignity and worth of all
humanity.
➢ Follows internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws.

MODULE V. MORAL REASONING AND COURAGE


Ethical deliberation = rationality and Moral judgments - based on good reasons
impartiality. rather than subjective feelings ; which may be
influenced by prejudice or cultural conditioning.
- Rationality entails moral judgments
supported by sound arguments rather Decisions should be guided by reason,
than solely relying on feelings. separating factual issues from conceptual and
- Impartiality mandates considering the value-based issues.
interests and rights of all individuals
involved in decision-making. e.g Abortion - factual issues about fetal
o discourages arbitrary gestation, conceptual issues about personhood,
discrimination in the absence of and value issues about the morality of killing
valid reasons. innocent persons must be distinguished.

Cornerstone thought: The minimum conception of morality involves guiding conduct by reason and
giving equal weight to the interests of all affected individuals.
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
Minimum conception – by Rachels, morally reasonable acts that every moral theory should accept.
- aims to establish a common ground for moral deliberation despite differing ethical theories and
perspectives.
Baby Theresa - born with anencephaly, her parents want to donate her organs to help other children, but
they must act before her heart stops beating to preserve the organs. Should her life be sacrificed to save
others?
Jodie and Mary - conjoined twins with one heart and one pair of lungs between them. Separating them
would save one twin but result in the other's death. Parents refuse intervention due to religious beliefs, but
hospitals advocate for separation to save one twin's life. Should they be separated?
Tracy Latimer - 12-year-old with severe cerebral palsy killed by her father with exhaust fumes in an act of
euthanasia. Her father claimed it was an act of mercy. Was his action morally wrong, or was it an act of
compassion?
Scott Rae's Seven-Step Approach to Moral Reasoning
a. Gather the facts:
o Clarify the ethical dilemma by ensuring clear understanding of the facts.
o Determine if the issue is truly ethical or related to communication or strategy.

b. Determine the ethical issues:


o Identify competing interests or goods underlying the dilemma.
o Moral values and virtues must support the competing interests for an ethical dilemma to
exist.
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c. Determine relevant virtues/principles:


➢ Identify central values and principles pertinent to the competing positions.
➢ Determine the source of these principles (e.g., constitution, culture, religious tradition).

d. List the alternatives:


➢ Creatively brainstorm possible courses of action for addressing the dilemma.
➢ Consider a broad range of ideas to increase the likelihood of finding a satisfactory solution.

e. Compare alternatives with virtues/principles:


➢ Weigh alternatives against relevant moral principles to eliminate less viable options.
➢ Ensure that all relevant virtues and values are satisfied in the selected alternative(s).

f. Consider the consequences:


➢ If principles do not yield a clear decision, evaluate the positive and negative consequences of
each alternative.
➢ Estimate the weight of each consequence to make an informed decision.

g. Make a decision:
➢ Choose the solution with the least problematic or painful consequences, recognizing that ethical
decisions may not always be pain-free.
➢ Accept that even a "good" decision may still cause discomfort or uncertainty.

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