Ethics Reviewer
Ethics Reviewer
Ethics Reviewer
Ancient Greek Philosophy – how to act well and rightly; what personal / individual qualities necessary
EUDAIMONIA – Aristotle ethics focus; meaning “good life”; What is a good life?
e.g Utilitarianism, where an action is deemed moral if it maximizes happiness or minimizes suffering.
Keywords: greatest overall good, balance
Virtue Theories: Emphasize the development of good character traits and habits, focusing on personal
virtues rather than strict adherence to rules.
e.g Aristotelian virtue ethics, which promotes cultivating virtues like courage and honesty.
Keywords: development, good character traits and habits, personal virtues
What are “codes of ethics/conduct” or what is Looking at the definitions of ethics and
“ethical research”? Shouldn‘t that be called morality − what is moral philosophy?
moral?
A: It is mostly used as a synonym for ethics.
A: By calling research or a code “ethical”, the Some, like the French philosopher Jean-Pierre
authors want to point out that the moral rules Dupuy use it differently. For him ‘ethics’ stands
they set up are based on rational deliberation for the effort to force everything into universal
and can be subject to critique. harmonized principles while ‘moral
philosophy’ endures colliding or incompatible
values or concepts in the discourse.
HISTORY OF ETHICS
Aristotelian Ethics; Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Keyphrases: cultivating moral virtues, rationality integral to goodness, good life, eudaimonia
- Focuses on cultivating moral virtues in individuals.
- He argues that the good and excellence for humans lie in their functions or activities.
- Human function involves rational activity, making rationality integral to goodness.
- Virtues like courage, moderation, self-respect, and generosity are cultivated to guide
appropriate actions.
- Aristotle's ethics emphasizes practical wisdom in choosing the middle course between excess and
deficiency in moral actions.
- Does not prescribe universal moral rules but describes the good life as marked by virtuous
dispositions and activities.
- Allows for variations in moral judgment based on different moral situations.
Stoic Ethics / Stoicism
Keywords: moderation, acceptance, wisdom, logos
- Influenced by Heraclitus
- Stoics believe in a universal principle (or logos) governing the world.
- Advocates aligning one's life with this principle.
- Virtues promoted include acceptance of one's role, moderation of desire, wisdom, self-control,
justice, and brotherly love.
Epicurean Ethics
Keywords: atoms, avoid pain, against fearing death or divine retribution, dissolution
- Rooted in atomist philosophy, Epicureans assert that everything, including humans, souls, and
gods, is composed of atoms.
- Advocates pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain as the path to a good and happy life.
- Argues against fearing death or divine retribution, viewing death as the dissolution of
atoms.
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Descartes
Keywords: passion, soul, emotions
- Descartes's moral philosophy centers around understanding the passions of the soul.
- He defines passions as perceptions or thoughts received by the soul, affecting it but distinct from
clear and distinct ideas.
- Emotions - the thoughts with the most impact on the soul.
- Passions are seen as inherently good but can be misapplied or exaggerated, requiring
regulation.
- Regulation of passions involves indirectly influencing them by focusing on representations of
things associated with desired passions and opposing those associated with unwanted passions.
- to cultivate courage and dispel fear, one must not simply will it but also focus on reasons, objects,
or examples that diminish the perceived danger.
"the representation of things which are usually joined with the passions which we wish to have and
opposed to those which we wish to reject" (Copleston (1961).
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Keywords: role of reason, duty ethics
- Rejects Aristotelian virtue ethics and Epicurean hedonism.
- Emphasizes the role of reason in morality, proposing duty ethics.
- Introduces the categorical imperative: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at
the same time will that it should become a universal law."
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
Keywords: utilitarianism, general happiness, happiness to more people, beneficial outcomes
- Revives Epicurean theory of pleasure.
- Propounds utilitarianism in his work "Utilitarianism" (1861).
- Defines a good action as one that promotes general happiness or pleasure, focusing on utility or
beneficial outcomes.
c. Self-imposed dilemmas stem from the moral agent's own actions or decisions, such as
promises made.
d. World-imposed dilemmas arise from external events or circumstances, like historical
atrocities or natural disasters.
e. Obligation dilemmas present situations where multiple feasible actions are morally
required.
f. Prohibition dilemmas involve cases where all feasible actions are morally forbidden.
g. Single agent dilemmas, the moral agent is compelled to choose between equally compelling
moral options but cannot do both.
h. Multi-person dilemmas involve several individuals or groups who must reach a consensus
on a moral issue, making the decision-making process more complex.
a. requires not only choosing what is right but also ensuring the decision maintains the
integrity of the group while preventing potential division.
(important stuff, shows up in quizzes—also important for Module 5, more details written there)
Baby Theresa – she will die since she has no brain
- Save as many as we can– parents want to donate her parts
- Not to use someone as means to save someone else – donation would kill her
Jodie and Marie – conjoined twins
- Parents don’t want operation, hospital disagrees, court decides to separate the twins
- Sanctity of Human Life and save as many as we can; arguments
Tracy Latimer – cerebral palsy, dad kills her since she was barely living
- Local court and jury charged him for 1 year, Supreme Court charged 25 years
- Arguments:- wrongness of discriminating against handicapped, slippery slope of deciding who
lives and/or dies
MODULE III. CULTURE AND MORALITY
Moral agent – has the natural ability to reason, has the ability to discern right from wrong
- Responsibility to not cause harm
- Traditionally adults with full mental capacity
Reasoning enables a human person to act freely and be held accountable
Morality of human action depends on the human person themselves.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Overview
Cultural relativism posits that what is perspective, making no system
considered "right" and "wrong" depends on a inherently "better" or "worse," and no
society's specific moral guidelines, which vary moral position definitively "right" or
across different cultures and time periods "wrong."
➢ Holds that all moral or ethical systems
are equally valid, as there is no ultimate
standard of good or evil.
➢ Each society's judgments about morality
and ethics are shaped by its cultural
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Cornerstone thought: The minimum conception of morality involves guiding conduct by reason and
giving equal weight to the interests of all affected individuals.
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
Minimum conception – by Rachels, morally reasonable acts that every moral theory should accept.
- aims to establish a common ground for moral deliberation despite differing ethical theories and
perspectives.
Baby Theresa - born with anencephaly, her parents want to donate her organs to help other children, but
they must act before her heart stops beating to preserve the organs. Should her life be sacrificed to save
others?
Jodie and Mary - conjoined twins with one heart and one pair of lungs between them. Separating them
would save one twin but result in the other's death. Parents refuse intervention due to religious beliefs, but
hospitals advocate for separation to save one twin's life. Should they be separated?
Tracy Latimer - 12-year-old with severe cerebral palsy killed by her father with exhaust fumes in an act of
euthanasia. Her father claimed it was an act of mercy. Was his action morally wrong, or was it an act of
compassion?
Scott Rae's Seven-Step Approach to Moral Reasoning
a. Gather the facts:
o Clarify the ethical dilemma by ensuring clear understanding of the facts.
o Determine if the issue is truly ethical or related to communication or strategy.
g. Make a decision:
➢ Choose the solution with the least problematic or painful consequences, recognizing that ethical
decisions may not always be pain-free.
➢ Accept that even a "good" decision may still cause discomfort or uncertainty.