Module -1

9.1Base-Biased Amplifier
Coupling Capacitor

(a) Coupling capacitor; (b) capacitor is an ac short; (c) dc open and ac short.

Figure (a) shows an ac voltage source connected to a capacitor and a resistor. Since the
impedance of the capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency, the capacitor effectively
blocks dc voltage and transmits ac voltage
When the frequency is high enough, the capacitive reactance is much smaller than the
resistance. almost all the ac source voltage appears across the resistor. the capacitor is called
a coupling capacitor because it couples or transmits the ac signal to the resistor.
For a coupling capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much smaller than the
resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source
Good coupling: XC < 0.1R
The reactance should be at least 10 times smaller than the resistance at the lowest
frequency of operation.
The magnitude of impedance is given by:

Substituting XC = 0.1R in above equation

Since any well-designed circuit satisfies the 10:1 rule, we can approximate all coupling
capacitors as an ac short as shown in Figure (b)
Since dc voltage has a frequency of zero, the reactance of a coupling capacitor is infinite at
zero frequency. the capacitor is open. As shown in figure (c)
For dc analysis, the capacitor is open.
For ac analysis, the capacitor is shorted.
Base-biased Amplifying Circuit
(A)Base bias (B) Base-biased amplifier with waveforms.

A coupling capacitor is used between an ac source and the base, Similarly, a coupling
capacitor is used between the collector and the load resistor. The key idea is that the coupling
capacitors prevent the ac source and load resistance from changing the Q point.
Since the coupling capacitor is an ac short, all the ac source voltage appears between the base
and the ground. This ac voltage produces an ac base current that is added to the existing dc
base current. In other words, the total base current will have a dc component and an ac
component
The ac base current produces an amplified variation in collector current because of the
current gain. Since this amplified collector current flows through the collector resistor, it
produces a varying voltage across the collector resistor.
Again, an ac component is superimposed on a dc component. The collector voltage is
swinging sinusoidal above and below the dc level of +15 V. Also, the ac collector voltage is
inverted 180° out of phase with the input voltage. On the positive half-cycle of the ac base
current, the collector current increases, producing more voltage across the collector resistor.
This means that there is less voltage between the collector and ground. Similarly, on the
negative half-cycle, the collector current decreases. Since there is less voltage across the
collector resistor, the collector voltage increases.
Notice the action of the output coupling capacitor. Since it is open to direct current, it blocks
the dc component of collector voltage. Since it is shorted to alternating current, it couples the
ac collector voltage to the load resistor. This is why the load voltage is a pure ac signal with
an average value of zero.

The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as the ac output voltage divided by the ac input
voltage

For Calculating Output Voltage, We can multiply both sides by vin to get this
9.2 Emitter-Biased Amplifier
The base-biased amplifier has an unstable Q point. For this reason, it is not used
much as an amplifier. Instead, an emitter-biased amplifi er (either VDB or TSEB)
with its stable Q point is preferred.

Bypass Capacitor
A bypass capacitor is similar to a coupling capacitor because it appears open to direct
current and shorted to alternating current. But it is not used to couple a signal between two
points. Instead, it is used to create an ac ground.
(a) Bypass capacitor (b) point E is an ac ground.

an ac voltage source connected to a resistor and a capacitor. The resistance R represents the
Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor. When the frequency is high enough, the
capacitive reactance is much smaller than the resistance. In this case, almost all the ac source
voltage appears across the resistor. Stated another way, point E is effectively shorted to
ground. the capacitor is called a bypass capacitor because it bypasses or shorts point E to
ground.
For a bypass capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much smaller than the
resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source.
Good bypassing: XC <0.1R

Voltage Divider Bias (VDB) Amplifier

A
coupling capacitor is used between the source and base, another coupling capacitor between
the collector and the load resistance. We also need to use a bypass capacitor between the
emitter and ground. Without this capacitor, the ac base current would be much smaller. But
with the bypass capacitor, we get a much larger voltage gain.
the ac input voltage is 100 µV is coupled into the base. Because of the bypass capacitor, all of
this ac voltage appears across the base-emitter diode. The ac base current then produces an
amplified ac collector voltage.
The ac input voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage with an average value of zero. The base
voltage is an ac voltage superimposed on a dc voltage of +1.8 V. The collector voltage is an
amplified and inverted ac voltage superimposed on the dc collector voltage of +6.04 V. The
load voltage is the same as the collector voltage, except that it has an average value of zero.
Notice also the voltage on the emitter. It is a pure dc voltage of +1.1 V. There is no ac emitter
voltage because emitter is at ac ground, a direct result of using a bypass capacitor
Two-supply emitter bias (TSEB) amplifier

In this circuit it has two coupling capacitors and an emitter bypass capacitor. The ac operation
of the circuit is similar to that of a VDB amplifier. We couple a signal into the base. The
signal is amplified to get the collector voltage. The amplified signal is then coupled to the
load.
Notice the waveforms. The ac input voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage. The base voltage
has a small ac component riding on a dc component of approximately 0 V. The total collector
voltage is an inverted sine wave riding on the dc collector voltage of +5.32 V. The load
voltage vout is the same amplified signal with no dc component .
Again, notice the pure dc voltage on the emitter, a direct result of using the bypass capacitor.
If the bypass capacitor were to open, an ac voltage would appear at the emitter. This would
greatly reduce the voltage gain.
9.3 Small-Signal Operation

Figure shows the graph of current versus voltage for the base-emitter diode. When an ac
voltage is coupled into the base of a transistor, an ac voltage appears across the base-emitter
diode. This produces the sinusoidal variation in VBE shown in Fig
When the voltage increases to its positive peak, the instantaneous operating point moves from
Q to the upper point shown in Fig. On the other hand, when the sine wave decreases to its
negative peak, the instantaneous operating point moves from Q to the lower point.
The total base-emitter voltage in Fig. is an ac voltage centered on a dc voltage. The size of
the ac voltage determines how far the instantaneous point moves away from the Q point.
Large ac base voltages produce large variations, whereas small ac base voltages produce
small variations.

The ac voltage on the base produces the ac emitter current shown in Fig.. This ac emitter
current has the same frequency as the ac base voltage. The ac emitter current also has
approximately the same shape as the ac base voltage. If the ac base voltage is sinusoidal, the
ac emitter current is approximately sinusoidal. The ac emitter current is not a perfect replica
of the ac base voltage because of the curvature of the graph. Since the graph is curved
upward, the positive half-cycle of the ac emitter current is elongated (stretched) and the
negative half-cycle is compressed. This stretching and compressing of alternate half-cycles is
called distortion. It is undesirable in high-fidelity amplifiers because it changes the sound of
voice and music.

Reducing Distortion
One way to reduce distortion in Fig. 8-10 is by keeping the ac base voltage small. When you
reduce the peak value of the base voltage, you reduce the movement of the instantaneous
operating point. The smaller this swing or variation, the less the curvature in the graph. If the
signal is small enough, the graph appears to be linear. there is negligible distortion for a small
signal. When the signal is small, the changes in ac emitter current are almost directly
proportional to the changes in ac base voltage because the graph is almost linear
The 10 Percent Rule
The total emitter current consists of a dc component and an ac component, which can be
written as:
IE = IEQ + ie
where IE = the total emitter current
IEQ = the dc emitter current
ie = the ac emitter current
definition of small-signal operation is:
Small signal: ie( p-p) < 0.1 IEQ
This says that the ac signal is small when the peak-to-peak ac emitter current is less than 10
percent of the dc emitter current
amplifiers that satisfy the 10 percent rule are called as small-signal amplifiers.

9.4 AC Beta
dc current gain is defined as:

The ac current gain or AC Beta is defined as:

the ac current gain equals the ac collector current divided by the ac base current. the value
of the ac current gain is different from the dc current gain
Notice that capital subscripts are used with dc current gain, and lowercase subscripts with ac
current gain.

9.5 AC Resistance of theEmitter Diode

When a small ac voltage is across the emitter diode, it produces the ac emitter current shown.
The size of this ac emitter current depends on the location of the Q point. Because of the
curvature, we get more peak-to-peak ac emitter current when the Q point is higher up the
graph. the total emitter current has a dc component and an ac component. In symbols:
IE = IEQ + ie
where IEQ is the dc emitter current and ie is the ac emitter current.
In a similar way, the total base-emitter voltage has a dc component and an ac component. Its
equation can be written as:
VBE = VBEQ + vbe
where VBEQ is the dc base-emitter voltage and vbe is the ac base-emitter voltage.
the sinusoidal variation in VBE produces a sinusoidal variation in IE. The peak-to-peak value
of ie depends on the location of the Q point.
Because of the curvature in the graph, a fixed vbe produces more ie as the Q point is biased
higher up the curve. Stated another way, the ac resistance of the emitter diode decreases when
the dc emitter current increases.
The ac emitter resistance of the emitter diode is defined as:

This says that the ac resistance of the emitter diode equals the ac base-emitter voltage divided
by the ac emitter current. The prime ( )’ in r’e is a standard way to indicate that the resistance
is inside the transistor. The ac emitter resistance always decreases when the dc emitter current
increases because vbe is essentially a constant value.

Formula for AC Emitter Resistance

This says that the ac resistance of the emitter diode equals 25 mV divided by the dc emitter
current. it applies to all transistor types. It is widely used in the electronics industry to
calculate a preliminary value for the ac resistance of the emitter diode. The reason r’e is
important is because it determines the voltage gain. The smaller it is, the higher the voltage
gain.

9.6 Two Transistor Models

To analyze the ac operation of a transistor amplifier, we need an ac-equivalent circuit for a
transistor. In other words, we need a model for the transistor that simulates how it behaves
when an ac signal is present
T model
One of the earliest ac models was the Ebers-Moll model shown in Fig.. As far as a small ac
signal is concerned, the emitter diode of a transistor acts like an ac resistance r’e and the
collector diode acts like a current source ic. Since the Ebers-Moll model looks like a T on its
side, the equivalent circuit is also called the T model.

When analyzing a transistor amplifier, we can replace each transistor by a T model. Then, we
can calculate the value of r’e and other ac quantities like voltage gain.
When an ac input signal drives a transistor amplifier, an ac base-emitter voltage vbe is across
the emitter diode, This produces an ac base current ib. The ac voltage source has to supply
this ac base current so that the transistor amplifier will work properly At low frequencies, this
impedance is purely resistive and defined as:
Applying Ohm’s law to the emitter diode we can write

Substitute this equation

Since ie =ic

The π Model
The π model is easier to use than the T model because the input impedance is not obvious
when you look at the T model. On the other hand, the π model clearly shows that an input
impedance of r’e will load the ac voltage source driving the base.

Since the π and T models are ac-equivalent circuits for a transistor, we can use either one
when analyzing an amplifier. Most of the time, we will use the π model. With some circuits,
the T model gives a better insight into the circuit action. Both models are widely used in
industry.

9.7 Analyzing an Amplifier

Amplifier analysis is complicated because both dc and ac sources are in the same circuit. To
analyze amplifiers, we can calculate the effect of the dc sources and then the effect of the ac
sources The simplest way to analyze an amplifier is to split the analysis into two parts:
A dc analysis and an ac analysis
The DC-Equivalent Circuit
In the dc analysis, we calculate the dc voltages and currents. We open all capacitors. The
circuit that remains is the dc-equivalent circuit.
With the dc-equivalent circuit, you can calculate the transistor currents and voltages as
needed. The most important current in the dc analysis is the dc emitter current. This is needed
to calculate r’e for the ac analysis.
AC Effect of a DC Voltage Source

as the ac current is concerned, the dc voltage source acts like an ac short, Because a dc
voltage source has a constant voltage across it. Therefore, any ac current flowing through it
cannot produce an ac voltage across it. If no ac voltage can exist, the dc voltage source is
equivalent to an ac short.
AC-Equivalent Circuit
After analyzing the dc-equivalent circuit, the next step is to analyze the ac equivalent
circuit. This is the circuit that remains after you have mentally shorted all capacitors and dc
voltage sources. The transistor can be replaced by either the π model or the T model.
Base-Biased Amplifier
After opening all capacitors and analyzing the dc-equivalent circuit, we are ready for the ac
analysis. To get the ac-equivalent circuit, we short all capacitors and dc voltage sources.
Then, the point labelled +VCC is an ac ground.
Figure b shows the ac-equivalent circuit. the transistor has been replaced by its π model. In
the base circuit, the ac input voltage appears across RB in parallel with βr’e In the collector
circuit, the current source pumps an ac current of ic through RC in parallel with RL.
VDB Amplifier
all capacitors have been shorted, the dc supply point has become an ac ground, and the
transistor has been replaced by its π model. In the base circuit, the ac input voltage appears
across R1 in parallel with R2 in parallel with βre’. In the collector circuit, the current source
pumps an ac current of ic through RC in parallel with RL.

TSEB Amplifier
After analyzing the dc-equivalent circuit, we can draw the ac-equivalent Again, all
capacitors are shorted, the dc source voltage becomes an ac ground, and the transistor is
replaced by its π model. In the base circuit, the ac input voltage appears across RB in parallel
with βr’e. In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current of ic through RC in
parallel with RL.
CE Amplifiers
You can recognize a CE amplifier immediately because its emitter is at ac ground. With a CE
amplifier, the ac input signal is coupled into the base, and the amplified output signal appears
at the collector. The ac grounded emitter is common to both the input and output signals. Two
other basic transistor amplifiers are possible. The common-base (CB) amplifier and the
common-collector (CC) amplifier. The CB amplifier has its base at ac ground, and the CC
amplifier has its collector at ac ground. They are useful in some applications, but are not as
popular as the CE amplifier
Main Ideas
The foregoing method of analysis works for all amplifiers. You start with the dc-equivalent
circuit. After calculating the dc voltages and currents, you analyze the ac-equivalent circuit.
The crucial ideas in getting the ac-equivalent circuit are:
1. Short all coupling and bypass capacitors.
2. Visualize all dc supply voltages as ac grounds.
3. Replace the transistor by its π or T model.
4. Draw the ac-equivalent circuit.

10.1 Voltage Gain

Figure shows a voltage-divider-biased (VDB) amplifier. Voltage gain was defined as the ac
output voltage divided by the ac input voltage
Derived from the π Model

Figure b shows the ac-equivalent circuit using the π model of the transistor. The ac base
current ib flows through the input impedance of the base (βr’e)

In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current ic through the parallel
connection of RC and RL. Therefore, the ac output voltage equals:

we can divide vout by vin to get:

which simplifies to:

AC Collector Resistance
the total ac load resistance seen by the collector is the parallel combination of RC and RL.
This total resistance is called the ac collector resistance, symbolized rc. As a definition:

Substituting in Av equation

The voltage gain equals the ac collector resistance divided by the ac resistance of the
emitter diode.
Derived from the T Model

Figure shows the ac-equivalent circuit using the T model of the transistor. The input voltage
vin appears across r’e

In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current ic through the ac collector
resistance. Therefore, the ac output voltage equals:

Now, we can divide vout by vin to get:

Since ic = ie, we can simplify the equation to get :

10.3 Multistage Amplifiers

To get more voltage gain, we can create a multistage amplifier by cascading two
or more amplifier stages. This means using the output of the first stage as the input to a
second stage. In turn, the output of the second stage can be used as the input to the third
stage, and so on.
Voltage Gain of First Stage
the input impedance of the second stage loads down the first stage. In other words, the zin of
the second stage is in parallel with the RC of the first stage. The ac collector resistance of the
first stage is:

The voltage gain of the first stage is:

Voltage Gain of Second Stage

The ac collector resistance of the second stage is:

and the voltage gain is:

Total Voltage Gain

The total voltage gain of the amplifier is given by the product of the individual gains:

11.1 CC Amplifier
The emitter follower is also called a common-collector (CC) amplifier. The input signal is
coupled to the base, and the output signal is taken from the emitter.
Figure (a) shows an emitter follower. Because the collector is at ac ground, the circuit is a CC
amplifier. The input voltage is coupled to the base. This sets up an ac emitter current and
produces an ac voltage across the emitter resistor. This ac voltage is then coupled to the load
resistor

Figure (b) shows the total voltage between the base and ground. It has a dc component and an
ac component. As you can see, the ac input voltage rides on the quiescent base voltage VBQ.
Similarly, Fig. (c) shows the total voltage between the emitter and ground. This time, the ac
input voltage is centered on a quiescent emitter voltage VEQ.

The ac emitter voltage is coupled to the load resistor. This output voltage is shown in Fig. (d),
a pure ac voltage. This output voltage is in phase and is approximately equal to the input
voltage. The reason the circuit is called an emitter follower is because the output voltage
follows the input voltage Since there is no collector resistor, the total voltage between the
collector and ground equals the supply voltage
Negative Feedback
the emitter follower uses negative feedback. But with the emitter follower, the negative
feedback is massive because the feedback resistance equals all of the emitter resistance. As a
result, the voltage gain is ultrastable, the distortion is almost nonexistent, and the input
impedance of the base is very high. Because of these characteristics, the emitter follower is
often used as a preamplifier. the voltage gain, has a maximum value of 1.

AC Emitter Resistance
the ac signal coming out of the emitter sees RE in parallel with RL.
Let us define the ac emitter resistance as follows:

This is the external ac emitter resistance, which is different from the internal ac
emitter resistance re’.
Voltage Gain

Usually, a designer makes re much greater than r9e so that the voltage gain equals 1
Input Impedance of the Base
Figure b shows the ac-equivalent circuit with the π model of the transistor. As
far as the input impedance of the base is concerned
The current gain transforms the total emitter resistance up by a factor of β

Input Impedance of the Stage

When the ac source is not stiff, some of the ac signal will be lost across the internal
Resistance the input impedance of the stage, given by:

11.2 Output Impedance

The output impedance of an amplifier is the same as its Thevenin impedance. One of the
advantages of an emitter follower is its low output impedance

CE Amplifiers

Figure (a) shows the ac-equivalent circuit for the output side of a CE amplifier. When we
apply Thevenin’s theorem, we get Fig. (b).
the output. impedance facing the load resistance is RC. Since the voltage gain of a CE
amplifier depends on RC, a designer cannot make RC too small without losing voltage gain.
Stated another way, it is difficult to get a small output impedance with a CE amplifier.
Because of this, CE amplifiers are not suited to driving small load resistances.
Emitter Follower

Figure a shows the ac-equivalent circuit for an emitter follower. When we apply Thevenin’s
theorem to point A, we get Fig. b. The output impedance zout is much smaller than you can
get with a CE amplifier. It equals:

The impedance of the base circuit is RG || R1|| R2. The current gain of the transistor steps this
impedance down by a factor of β

Therefore, we get a reduction of impedance rather than an increase.

The stepped-down impedance of (RG || R1|| R2)/β is in series with re’

In some designs, the biasing resistances and the ac resistance of the emitter diode become
negligible. In this case, the output impedance of an emitter follower can be approximated by:

Instead of using a stiff ac source that maximizes the load voltage, a designer may prefer to
maximize the load power. In this case, instead of designing for:
zout <<RL (Stiff voltage source)
the designer will select values to get: zout = RL (Maximum power transfer)
11.3 Cascading CE and CC
To illustrate the buffering action of a CC amplifier, suppose we have a load resistance of 270
V. If we try to couple the output of a CE amplifier directly into this load resistance, we may
overload the amplifier. One way to avoid this overload is by using an emitter follower
between the CE amplifier and the load resistance.
The signal can be coupled capacitively (this means through coupling capacitors), or it may be
direct coupled the base of the second transistor is connected directly to the collector of the
first transistor. Because of this, the dc collector voltage of the first transistor is used to bias
the second transistor an emitter follower can act as a buffer between a high-output
impedance and a low-resistance load

11.4 Darlington Connections

A Darlington connection is a connection of two transistors whose overall current gain
equals the product of the individual current gains. Since its current gain is much higher, a
Darlington connection can have a very high input impedance and can produce very large
output currents. Darlington connections are often used with voltage regulators, power amplifi
ers, and high current switching applications
Darlington Pair

Since the emitter current of Q1 is the base current for Q2, the Darlington pair has an overall
current gain of:
β=β1+β2
Semiconductor manufacturers can put a Darlington pair inside a single case like that shown in
Fig. b. This device, known as a Darlington transistor, acts like a single transistor with a
very high current gain
The analysis of a circuit using a Darlington transistor is almost identical to the emitter
follower analysis. With the Darlington transistor, since there are two transistors, there are two
VBE drops. The base current of Q2 is the same as the emitter current of Q1 the input
impedance at the base of Q1 can be found by
zin(base= β1β2re or stated as:
zin(base) =βre

Complementary Darlington
Figure c shows another Darlington connection called a complementary Darlington, a
connection of npn and pnp transistors. The collector current of Q1 is the base current of Q2.
If the pnp transistor has a current gain of _1 and the npn output transistor has a current gain
of β2 the complementary Darlington acts like a single pnp transistor with a current gain of
β 1 β 2.

11.5 Voltage Regulation

Zener Follower
Figure a shows a zener follower, a circuit that combines a zener regulator and an emitter
follower The zener voltage is the input to the base of the emitter follower. The dc output
voltage of the emitter follower is

This output voltage is fixed so that it is equal to the zener voltage minus the VBE drop of the
transistor. If the supply voltage changes, the zener voltage remains approximately constant,
and so does the output voltage. In other words, the circuit acts like a voltage regulator
because the output voltage is always one VBE drop less than the zener voltage.
The zener follower has two advantages over an ordinary zener regulator:
First, the zener diode in Fig. a has to produce a load current of only:
if you are trying to supply several amperes to a load resistor, an ordinary zener regulator
requires a zener diode capable of handling several amperes. On the other hand, with the
improved regulator in Fig. a, the zener diode needs to handle only tens of milliamperes.
The second advantage of a zener follower is its low output impedance. In an ordinary zener
regulator, the load resistor sees an output impedance of approximately RZ, the zener
impedance. But in the zener follower, the output impedance is:

Figure b shows the equivalent output circuit. Because zout is usually very small compared to
RL, an emitter follower can hold the dc output voltage almost constant because the source
looks stiff.
The zener follower provides the regulation of a zener diode with the increased current-
handling capability of an emitter follower

Two-Transistor Regulator
The final output voltage Vout is almost constant in value, even though the input voltage and
load current may vary over a large range.
Suppose the output voltage increases. Then, the voltage appearing at the base of Q1 will
increase. Since Q1 and R2 form a CE amplifier, the collector voltage of Q1 will decrease
because of the voltage gain. Since the collector voltage of Q1 has decreased, the base voltage
of Q2 decreases. Because Q2 is an emitter follower, the output voltage will decrease
we have negative feedback. The original increase in output voltage produces an opposing
decrease in output voltage. The overall effect is that the output voltage will increase only
slightly,
Conversely, if the output voltage tries to decrease, less voltage appears at the Q1 base, more
voltage appears at the Q1 collector, and more voltage appears at the Q2 emitter. Again, we
have a returning voltage that opposes the original change in output voltage. Therefore, the
output voltage will decrease only a little,
Because of the zener diode, the Q1 emitter voltage equals VZ. The Q1
base voltage is one VBE drop higher. Therefore, the voltage across R4 is:

the current through R4 is:

Since this current fl ows through R3 in series with R4, the output voltage is:

11.6 The Common-Base Amplifier

Figure a shows a common-base (CB) amplifier using a dual polarity or split power supply.
Since the base is grounded, this circuit is also called a grounded-based amplifier. The Q point
is set by emitter bias, as shown by the dc-equivalent circuit shown in Fig. b. Therefore, the dc
emitter current is found by:
Figure c shows a voltage-divider bias CB amplifier using a single power supply source.
Notice the bypass capacitor across R2. This places the base at ac ground.
In either amplifier, the base is at ac ground. The input signal drives the emitter, and the output
signal is taken from the collector.

Figure shows the ac-equivalent circuit of a CB amplifier during the positive half-cycle of
input voltage.
In this circuit, the ac collector voltage, or vout, equals:

This is in phase with the ac input voltage ve. Since the input voltage equals:

The voltage gain is:

because ic > ie, the equation simplifies to:

the output voltage of the CB amplifier is in phase with the input signal.
the output impedance of a CB amplifier is:

One of the major differences between the CB amplifier and other amplifier configurations is
its low input impedance.

The input impedance of the circuit is:

Since RE is normally much larger than r9e, the circuit input impedance is approximately