Compressibility and

Consolidation

Lecture Notes
Soil Mechanics

Francis Wantono
Leaning Tower of Pisa
• The height of the tower is 55.86 m from the ground on the low side and 56.67 m
on the high side.
• Foundation sitting on weak unstable soil
Leaning Tower of Pisa

Lessons Learnt
• Soil deforms in response to the applied load
• Differential settlement more detrimental
• Deformation in fine grained soils can take a very long time, especially
in fine grained soils.
→Theory of compressibility
Types of Settlement
Course Outline

Part 1:
• Introduction: soil settlement and consolidation
• 1D laboratory consolidation test
• Preconsolidation pressure, normally and over consolidated clays
• Consolidation calculation: How much settlement due to primary
consolidation
Part 2:
• Time rate of consolidation: How fast will the settlement occur
Total settlement in soil due to loading

• Structures are built on soils.

• They transfer loads to the subsoil through the foundations.
• The effect of the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of
about two to three times the width of the foundation.
• The soil within this depth gets compressed due to the imposed
stresses.
• The compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the volume
of the mass which results in the settlement of the structure
Total settlement in soil due to loading

The compression is caused by;

o deformation of soil particles,
o relocations of soil particles, and
o expulsion of water or air from the void
spaces.
In general, the soil settlement caused by
loads may be divided into three broad
categories:
Total settlement in soil due to loading
1. Elastic (immediate) settlement
• Caused by the elastic deformation of dry, moist and saturated soils without
any change in the moisture content.
• Calculations based the theory of elasticity.
2. Primary consolidation settlement
• Expulsion of water that occupies the void spaces leading to a volume change
in saturated cohesive soils
• Rate largely depends on the permeability of soil and drainage distance
3. Secondary consolidation settlement
• Result of plastic adjustment of soil fabrics under constant effective stress.
Total settlement in soil due to loading

• The total settlement of a foundation can then be given as;

𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒
Where
𝑆𝑇 = total settlement
𝑆𝑐 = primary consolidation settlement
𝑆𝑠 = secondary consolidation settlement
𝑆𝑒 = elastic settlement
• When foundations are constructed on very compressible clays, the
consolidation settlement can be several times greater than the elastic
settlement.
Elastic Settlement

• Elastic, or immediate, settlement of foundations (Se) occurs directly

after the application of a load without a change in the moisture
content of the soil.
• The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend on the flexibility
of the foundation and the type of material on which it is resting.
Elastic Settlement

• Flexible footing
𝐵𝑞𝑛
𝑆𝑒 = 1 − 𝜇𝑠2 𝐼𝑓 → center of footing
𝐸𝑠
where 𝑆𝑒 = elastic settlement
B = width of foundation,
𝐸𝑠 = modulus of elasticity of soil,
𝜇 = Poisson's ratio,
𝑞𝑛 = net foundation pressure,
𝐼𝑓 = influence factor.
Elastic Settlement
Consolidation

• When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase, the pore

water pressure is increased suddenly.
• In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the drainage caused by the
increase in the pore water pressure is completed immediately.
• Pore water drainage is accompanied by a reduction in the volume of
the soil mass, which results in settlement.
• Because of rapid drainage of the pore water in sandy soils, elastic
settlement and consolidation occur simultaneously.
Consolidation

• When a saturated compressible clay layer is subjected to a stress

increase, elastic settlement occurs immediately.
• Because the hydraulic conductivity of clay is significantly smaller than
that of sand, the excess pore water pressure generated by loading
gradually dissipates over a long period.
• Thus, the associated volume change (that is, the consolidation) in the
clay may continue long after the elastic settlement.
• The settlement caused by consolidation in Clay may be several times
greater than the elastic settlement.
Conceptual model for consolidation: Spring cylinder model

• The time-dependent deformation of saturated clayey soil best can be

understood by considering a simple model that consists of a cylinder
with a spring at its center.
• Let the inside area of the cross-section of the cylinder be equal to A.
• The cylinder is filled with water and has a frictionless watertight
piston and valve.
• At this time, if we place a load P on the piston (case b) and keep the
valve closed, the entire load will be taken by the water because water
is incompressible.
Conceptual model for consolidation: Spring cylinder model
• The spring will not go through any deformation.
𝑃
∆𝑢 = 𝐴 → excess hydrostatic pressure

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑤 → 𝑃𝑠 = 0
where 𝑃𝑠 load carried by the spring and 𝑃𝑤 load
carried by the water

• Now, if the valve is opened, the water will flow

outward (case c).

• This flow will be accompanied by a reduction of

the excess hydrostatic pressure and an increase
in the compression of the spring.

𝑃𝑠 > 0 and 𝑃𝑤 < 𝑃 (∆𝑢 < 𝑃Τ𝐴)

Conceptual model for consolidation: Spring cylinder model
• After some time, the excess hydrostatic
pressure will become zero and the system
will reach a state of equilibrium, as shown in
(case d).

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃 and 𝑃𝑤 = 0
Conceptual model for consolidation: Spring cylinder model
• The above process models what happens
when we load a clay layer.
o Small outlet: small voids in clay

o Spring: soil skeleton (clay particles)

o Settlement 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 directly relates to 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 and ∆𝑢

o When ∆𝑢 = 0, 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 stops
 Consolidation Summary
• Process that starts with a change in total stress
• For a saturated soil with finite hydraulic conductivity, stress change initially carried by
excess pore pressure.
• Over time, excess pore pressure pushes water out of soil
o Pore pressure decreases
o Soil compresses
o Skeleton picks up stress
o Effective stress increases

• Eventually, all the change in stress is transferred to effective stress.

• The rate of consolidation will depend upon the soil compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity.
Consolidation Summary

Primary consolidation 𝑺𝒄
• Drainage of water from voids leading to a volume change in the cohesive soil.
• Rate of consolidation depends on the rate at which water flows out of soil →
depends on permeability and drainage distance
1D Consolidation test
• Device: consolidometer (sometimes
referred to as an oedometer)
• Objective:
• To simulate the compression of soil under
given external loads
• To obtain the modulus and indices for
consolidation calculation.
𝐶𝑐 , 𝐶𝑠 , 𝐶𝑣 , 𝜎𝑐′
1D Consolidation test
• Load applied incrementally
• For each load increment:
o Specimen is allowed to consolidate and come
to equilibrium.
o Excess pore water pressure approximately
equal to zero 𝜎 = 𝜎 ′
o Load increment typically kept for 24 hours
(shorter time t used in our lab, t close to the
end of primary consolidation)
• Each load increment doubles the previous
one.
• Data: deformation vs stress (applied
load/area), and time
1D Consolidation test
• Stage I:
o Initial compression: caused mostly by
preloading
• Stage II:
o Primary consolidation: excess pore water
pressure gradually is transferred into
effective stress because of the expulsion of
pore water
• Stage III:
o Secondary consolidation: deformation of
the specimen takes place because of the
plastic readjustment of soil fabric
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
• After the time–deformation plots for various loadings are obtained in
the laboratory, it is necessary to study the change in the void ratio of
the specimen with pressure.
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
• Step 1. Calculate the height of solids, 𝐻𝑠 , in the soil specimen using
the equation
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
• Step 2. Calculate the initial height of voids as

𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠

H = is initial height of
specimen
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
• Step 3. Calculate the initial void ratio, 𝑒0 , of the specimen, using the
equation

𝑉𝑣 𝐻𝑣 𝐴 𝐻𝑣
𝑒𝑜 = = =
𝑉𝑠 𝐻𝑠 𝐴 𝐻𝑠
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
• Step 4. Calculate the change in the void ratio for the first incremental
loading, 𝜎1 , which causes a deformation ∆𝐻1 :

∆𝐻1
∆𝑒1 =
𝐻𝑠

∆𝐻1 is obtained from the initial

and the final dial readings for
the loading.
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
• Step 5. Calculate the new void ratio after
consolidation caused by the pressure
increment as
𝑒1 = 𝑒𝑜 − ∆𝑒1
For the next loading, 𝜎2 which causes additional
deformation ∆𝐻2
∆𝐻2
𝑒2 = 𝑒1 −
𝐻𝑠
Note: 𝜎2 equals the cumulative load per unit
area of specimen)
Repeat the process for subsequent load
increments:
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖−1 − ∆𝑒𝑖
Plot 𝑒 - log 𝜎 ′ curve
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
Example:
Following are the results of a laboratory
consolidation test on a soil specimen
obtained from the field: dry mass of
specimen = 128g, height of specimen at
the beginning of the test = 2.54 cm, Gs =
2.75, and area of the Specimen = 30.68
cm2.
Make necessary calculations and draw an
𝑒 versus log 𝜎 ′ curve.
Test Results
Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
Example:
Preconsolidation Pressure
• Clay has a memory of it’s stress history
• A soil in the field at some depth has been
subjected to a certain maximum effective past
pressure in its geologic history.
• This maximum effective past pressure may be
equal to or less than the existing effective
overburden pressure at the time of sampling.
• The reduction of effective pressure in the field
may be caused by natural geologic processes
or human processes.
• This maximum effective past pressure is called
Preconsolidation pressure
 Preconsolidation Pressure
• Slope of the loading (virgin compression)
portion:
o 𝐶𝑐 : Compression index
• Slope of the unloading (rebounding) and
reloading portion:
o 𝐶𝑠 (𝐶𝑟 ): Swelling (recompression) index
 Preconsolidation Pressure
• Slope of the loading (virgin compression)
portion:
• 𝐶𝑐 : Compression index
• Slope of the unloading (rebounding) and
reloading portion:
• 𝐶𝑠 (𝐶𝑟 ): Swelling (recompression) index
Preconsolidation Pressure
Casagrande’s procedure
• A graphic procedure for determining the pre
consolidation pressure 𝜎𝑐′
• Step 1. By visual observation, establish point
a, at which the e-log 𝜎 ′ plot has a minimum
radius of curvature.
• Step 2. Draw a horizontal line ab.
• Step 3. Draw the line ac tangent at a.
• Step 4. Draw the line ad, which is the
bisector of the angle bac.
Preconsolidation Pressure
Casagrande’s procedure
• Step 5. Project the straight-line portion gh of
the e-log 𝜎 ′ plot back to intersect line ad at f.
• The intersection of extension of the virgin line
and the bisector line is the preconsolidation
pressure, 𝜎𝑐′
Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

• Normally consolidated clay: whose present effective overburden

pressure is the maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in
the past.
𝜎 ′ = 𝜎𝑐′
• Overconsolidated clay: whose present effective overburden pressure
is less than that which the soil experienced in the past.
𝜎 ′ < 𝜎𝑐′
𝜎𝑐′ 𝑖𝑓 𝑂𝐶𝑅 = 1, 𝑁𝐶 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦
• Overconsolidation ratio 𝑂𝐶𝑅 = ′ ቊ
𝜎 𝑂𝐶𝑅 > 1, 𝑂𝐶 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦
Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

• Load NC clay → the stress path will follow

the initial loading portion (virgin curve)
• Load OC clay → the stress path will follow
the reloading portion (flat slope).
Unloading follows the flat slope.
• In general, NC clays are weaker and more
compressible compared to OC clays.
Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

Reasons soil is overconsolidated

• Previous structures
• Glacier
• Water table was lower in the past
• Desiccation (drying) of water body
• Weathering of top soil layer
Consolidation Settlement Calculations

𝑆𝑐 ∆𝑒
=
𝐻 1+𝑒𝑜

𝐻
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒
1+𝑒𝑜
∆𝑒 = change of void ratio
𝑒𝑜 = initial void ratio at volume 𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝑐 = primary settlement
H = thickness of the entire
consolidating layer
Consolidation Settlement Calculations
Case 1: 𝜎𝑜′ = 𝜎𝑐′ (normally consolidated
clay, compression)

𝜎𝑓′ 𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log ′ → 𝐶𝑐 =
𝜎𝑜 log 𝜎𝑓′ − log 𝜎𝑜′

∆𝑒 = 𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓

𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′
Consolidation Settlement Calculations
Case 2: 𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑐′ < 𝜎𝑓′ (recompression +
compression)
𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑐′ 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log + 𝐶𝑐 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′ 𝜎𝑐′
Consolidation Settlement Calculations
Case 3: 𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑓′ < 𝜎𝑐′ (recompression +
compression)

𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′

Note:
For unloading, the same equation for 𝑆𝑐
can be used.
However for unloading 𝜎𝑓′ < 𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑐′
𝑆𝑐 will be negative for unloading, meaning
the soil is rebounding
Consolidation Settlement Calculations
Case 1: 𝜎𝑜′ = 𝜎𝑐′ →(NC)
𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝑐 𝜎𝑜′

Case 2: 𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑐′ < 𝜎𝑓′ →(OC)

𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑐′ 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log + 𝐶𝑐 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′ 𝜎𝑐′

Case 3: 𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑓′ < 𝜎𝑐′ →(OC)

𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′
Note: 𝜎𝑓′ = 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 ,
Time Rate of Consolidation

Terzaghi’s 1-D consolidation theory

Assumptions
• The clay–water system is homogeneous.
• Saturation is complete.
• Compressibility of water is negligible (water is incompressible).
• Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
• The flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of
compression).
• Darcy’s law is valid.
Time Rate of Consolidation

Case I: One way drainage

𝐻𝑑𝑟 → length of maximum drainage

path

Consolidation 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 is not complete until enough water flows out of

the soil such that ∆𝑢 = 0 throughout the system
Time Rate of Consolidation
Case I: One way drainage
Since 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 ∝ 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∝ ∆𝑢, if we know the
distribution of ∆𝑢 vs. depth at some
time, 𝑡1 , we can predict how much of
𝑆𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 has occurred.
Time Rate of Consolidation

Case II: Two way drainage

𝐻𝑑𝑟 → length of maximum drainage

path

Consolidation 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 is not complete until enough water flows out of

the soil such that ∆𝑢 = 0 throughout the system
Time Rate of Consolidation
Case II: Two way drainage
Pore water profiles over time
Basic differential equation for 1D consolidation
The basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s consolidation theory is given below;

𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 𝑐𝑣 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
𝑐𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation

𝑘 𝑎𝑣
𝑐𝑣 = → 𝑚𝑣 =
𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣 1+𝑒𝑜

𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume compressibility

𝑎𝑣 = coefficient of compressibility (𝑎𝑣 can be considered constant for a

∆𝑒
narrow range of pressure increase) =
∆𝜎′
Terzaghi’s solution
• The solution giving the excess pore water pressure, u, as a function of
time and depth z is.
𝑚=∞ 2𝑢𝑜 𝑀𝑧 −𝑀 2𝑇
𝑢= σ𝑚=0 sin 𝑒 𝑣
𝑀 𝐻𝑑𝑟
u = excess pore water pressure
where m = an integer
𝑀 = 𝜋Τ2 2𝑚 + 1
𝑢𝑜 = initial excess pore water pressure
𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2 = time factor → non dimensional number
𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑐𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation
Terzaghi’s solution
• Because consolidation progresses by
the dissipation of excess pore water
pressure, the degree of consolidation
at a distance z at any time t is;
𝑢𝑜 − 𝑢𝑧
𝑈𝑧 =
𝑢𝑜
𝑢𝑧 = excess pore water pressure at time t

𝑢𝑜 = excess pore water pressure at time t = 0

Terzaghi’s solution
• The average degree of consolidation
for the entire depth of the clay layer at
any time t can be written as;
1 2𝐻
𝑆𝑐 𝑡 2𝐻𝑑𝑟
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑟 𝑢𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑈= =1−
𝑆𝑐 𝑢𝑜
U = average degree of consolidation
Sc(t) = settlement of the layer at time t
Sc = ultimate settlement of the layer
from primary consolidation
Terzaghi’s solution
• The average degree of consolidation for the
entire depth of the clay layer at any time t can
be written as;

𝑚=∞ 2 −𝑀2 𝑇
𝑈 =1− σ𝑚=0 2 𝑒 𝑣
𝑀

𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2 = time factor → non dimensional
𝐻𝑑𝑟

number
𝑐𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation

𝑘
𝑐𝑣 =
𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
From 1D consolidation solution
𝑢 𝑧, 𝑡 → 𝑈𝑧 𝑧, 𝑡 → 𝑈
Terzaghi’s solution
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
Two commonly used methods
• Logarithm-of-time method
• Square-root-of-time method
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
• For the Logarithm-of-time method

𝑐𝑣 𝑡50
𝑇50 = 0.197 = 2
𝐻𝑑𝑟

2
0.197𝐻𝑑𝑟
→ 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑡50

𝐻𝑑𝑟 = average longest drainage path

during consolidation.
𝑡50 is the time it takes to reach 50%
consolidation
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
• Square-root-of-time method

𝑐𝑣 𝑡90
𝑇90 = 0.848 = 2
𝐻𝑑𝑟

2
0.848𝐻𝑑𝑟
→ 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑡90

𝐻𝑑𝑟 = average longest drainage path

during consolidation.
𝑡90 is the time it takes to reach 90%
consolidation
Rate of consolidation calculation

1. Given U, find time t (e.g., how long to reach 50% consolidation)

2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑈 → 𝑇𝑣 → 𝑡 =
𝑐𝑣

Need 𝐻𝑑𝑟 and 𝑐𝑣

2. Given t, find U (and 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 ) (e.g., how much settlement after 5 years)

𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑡 → 𝑇𝑣 = 2 → 𝑈 → 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑈 × 𝑆𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐻𝑑𝑟
Rate of consolidation calculation

3. Determine coefficients: coefficient of permeability (hydraulic

conductivity) k, coefficient of consolidation 𝑐𝑣
𝑘
𝑐𝑣 = → 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑣 𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
𝑎𝑣
𝑚𝑣 =
1+𝑒𝑜
∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = ′
∆𝜎

𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume compressibility

𝑎𝑣 = coefficient of compressibility
Rate of consolidation calculation
3. Determine coefficients: coefficient of
permeability (hydraulic conductivity) k, • To determine 𝑐𝑣
coefficient of consolidation 𝑐𝑣
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻𝑑𝑟
= 𝑐𝑣
𝑡
• To determine k
𝑘
𝑐𝑣 = → 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑣 𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
𝑎
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑣
1+𝑒𝑜
∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝜎′

𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume compressibility

𝑎𝑣 = coefficient of compressibility
Consolidation Settlement

Example 11.10
• A soil profile is shown in Figure 11.26a. Laboratory consolidation tests
were conducted on a specimen collected from the middle of the clay
layer. The field consolidation curve interpolated from the laboratory
test results is shown in Figure 11.26b. Calculate the settlement in the
field caused by primary consolidation for a surcharge of 60kN/m2
applied at the ground surface.
Consolidation Settlement

Example 11.10
Consolidation Settlement

Example 11.10
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 2
A 10 ft. sandy fill is to be added to the saturated clay site shown below. The moist unit
weight of the sandy fill is 120 pcf. A consolidation specimen was taken from the middle of
the clay layer (10 ft. depth) and a consolidation test was performed. The data from the test
is shown below. Estimate the ultimate consolidation settlement that would occur after the
sandy fill is placed.
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 2: Solution
At the middle of the clay layer
𝜎𝑜′ = 10 100 − 62.4 = 376 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝜎𝑓′ = 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 ′ = 376 + 10 × 120 = 1576 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝜎𝑜′ = 𝜎𝑐′ → 𝑁𝐶
𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′

H = 20 ft (thickness of the consolidating layer)

𝑆𝑐 = 2.83 ft
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 3
A similar site as example 2 but with different consolidation test data. Estimate the
ultimate consolidation settlement that would occur after the 10 ft. sandy fill is
placed.
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 3: Solution
At the middle of the clay layer
𝜎𝑜′ = 10 100 − 62.4 = 376 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝜎𝑓′ = 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 ′ = 376 + 10 × 120 = 1576 𝑝𝑠𝑓

𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑓′ < 𝜎𝑐′ → 𝑂𝐶 (case 3)

𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′

H = 20 ft (thickness of the consolidating layer)

𝑆𝑐 = 0.178 ft
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 4
A 12 ft. sandy fill is to be added to the saturated clay site shown below. The moist unit
weight of the sandy fill is 115 pcf. A consolidation specimen was taken from the middle of
the clay layer (10 ft. depth) and a consolidation test was performed. The data from the test
is shown below.
a) Estimate the ultimate consolidation settlement that would occur after the sandy fill is
placed.
b) What is the void ratio change
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 4: Solution
At the middle of the clay layer
𝜎𝑜′ = 10 112.4 − 62.4 = 500 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝜎𝑓′ = 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 ′ = 500 + 12 × 115 = 1880 𝑝𝑠𝑓

𝜎𝑜′ < 𝜎𝑐′ < 𝜎𝑓′ → 𝑂𝐶 (case 2)

𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑐′ 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log + 𝐶𝑐 log
1+𝑒𝑜 1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′ 𝜎𝑐′

𝑆𝑐 = 0.949 ft

𝜎𝑐′ 𝜎𝑓′
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 log ′ + 𝐶𝑐 log ′ = 0.119
𝜎𝑜 𝜎𝑐
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 5
A 10 ft. sandy fill is to be added to the saturated clay site shown below. Consolidation test
data is given. Estimate;
i) how long (in days) will it take to reach 50% consolidation?
ii) the consolidation settlement at time t = 40 days
Primary Consolidation Settlement

Example 5: Solution Part ii)

For U = 50% → 𝑇𝑣 = 0.197 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 after 40 days
𝑐𝑣 = 1 ft 2 Τday
𝑡 → 𝑇𝑣 → 𝑈 → 𝑆𝑐 𝑡
𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2
𝐻𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2 = 0.1 → 𝑈 = 36%
One way drainage, → 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 20 ft 𝐻𝑑𝑟
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻𝑑𝑟 𝑆𝑐 ??
𝑡= = 78.8 days 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑣
Primary Consolidation Settlement

Final effective stress at the middle of the clay

layer 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑈 × 𝑆𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

At the middle of the clay layer 𝑆𝑐 = 36% × 2.83 = 1.02 ft

𝑡
𝜎𝑜′ = 10 100 − 62.4 = 376 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝜎𝑓′ = 𝜎𝑜′ + ∆𝜎 ′ = 376 + 10 × 120 = 1576 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝜎𝑜′ = 𝜎𝑐′ → 𝑁𝐶
𝐻 𝐻 𝜎𝑓′
𝑆𝑐 = ∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log ′
1 + 𝑒𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜
H = 20 ft (thickness of the consolidating layer)
𝑆𝑐 = 2.83 ft
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 6
The ultimate consolidation settlement from the added sandy fill is estimated to be 4 ft.
given the 𝑐𝑣 = 120 ft 2 Τyear, determine;
i) How long (in years) will it take to reach 90% consolidation?
ii) The consolidation settlement at time t = 5 years
Primary Consolidation Settlement

Example 6: Solution Part ii)

Part i) 𝑡 = 5 years

U → 𝑇𝑣 → 𝑡 𝑡 → 𝑇𝑣 → 𝑈 → 𝑆𝑐 𝑡

For U = 90% → 𝑇𝑣 = 0.848 𝑐𝑣 𝑡

𝑐𝑣 = 120 ft 2Τyear
𝑇𝑣 = 2 = 0.06 → 𝑈 ≈ 28%
𝐻𝑑𝑟
2
𝑐𝑣 𝑡 𝑇𝑣 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑇𝑣 = 2 → 𝑡 =
𝐻𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑣
= 70.6 ≈ 71 years 𝑆𝑐 𝑡
U= → 𝑆𝑐 𝑡 = 28% × 4
𝑆𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
One way drainage, → 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 100 ft
𝑆𝑐 𝑡 = 1.12 ft
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 7
A 3m thick layer (double drainage) of saturated clay under a surcharge loading underwent
90% primary consolidation in 75 days. Find the coefficient of consolidation of clay for the
pressure range in cm2 Τsec.
Solution
Given U = 90%, → 𝑡90 = 75 days
𝐻
Two way drainage 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = = 1.5 𝑚
2
For U = 90% → 𝑇𝑣 = 0.848
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑐𝑣 = = 0.00294 cm2 Τsec
𝑡
Primary Consolidation Settlement
Example 8

For normally consolidated clay,

σ′o = 200 kNΤm2
σ′f = σ′o + ∆σ = 400 kNΤm2
e = eo = 1.22
ef = 0.98

The hydraulic conductivity, k, of the clay for the loading range is 0.61 × 10−4 mΤday. How
long (in days) will it take for a 4m thick clay layer (drained on one side) in the field to reach
60% consolidation.
Primary Consolidation Settlement

Example 8: Solution
𝑘
av 𝑐𝑣 = = 0.0115 𝑚2 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦
mv = 𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
1 + eo
U → 𝑇𝑣 → 𝑡
∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝜎 ′
For U = 60% → 𝑇𝑣 = 0.286

∆𝑒 = eo − ef = 0.24 2
𝑐𝑣 𝑡 𝑇𝑣 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑇𝑣 = 2 → 𝑡 = ≈ 398 days
𝐻𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑣
∆𝜎 ′ = σ′f − σ′o = 200 kNΤm2

∆𝑒Τ∆𝜎 ′ One way drainage, → 𝐻𝑑𝑟 = 4 𝑚

mv = = 5.4 × 10−4 m2 ΤkN
1 + eo