FOREST SOIL

Paper - 1 | Section - B

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 SYLLABUS

• FORESTS SOILS : Classification, factors affecting soil formation; physical, chemical and biological
properties.
• SOIL CONSERVATION : definition, causes for erosion; types –wind and water erosion;
conservation and management of eroded soils/areas, wind breaks, shelter belts; sand dunes;
reclamation of saline and alkaline soils, water logged and other waste lands. Role of forests in
conserving soils. Maintenance and build up of soil organic matter, provision of loppings for
green leaf manuring; forest leaf litter and composting; Role of micro-organisms in ameliorating
soils; N and C cycles, VAM.

MARKS DISTRIBUTION

Subjects Average 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012

Forest soil & its
≈ 15 m 10 18 16 28 5 20 23
conservation

CONTENTS

SN Topic Page No

1. Rocks, minerals & soil 4-7

2. Soil classification 8

3. Soil property 9 - 11

4. Soil conservation 12 to end

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 Topic 1 ROCKS, MINERALS & SOIL

▪ WHAT IS ROCKS ?

Rocks are the materials that form the essential part of the Earth’s solid crust. “Rocks
are hard mass of mineral matter comprising one or more rock forming minerals”. Rocks are
formed from the molten material known as magma. The study of rocks is called Petrology (in
Greek, petra means rock, logos means science).petrogenesis is the study of the origin of rocks.

▪ FORMATION OF ROCKS :

1) Cooling and consolidation of molten

magma within or on the surface of earth
= Igneous or Primary rocks
2) Transportation and cementation of
primary rocks = Sedimentary or
Secondary rocks

3) Alteration of the existing primary and

secondary rocks = Metamorphic rocks

▪ MINERALS : Minerals are naturally occurring solids with a definite chemical composition and
crystal structure. “Solid substances composed of atoms having an orderly and regular
arrangement” When molten magma solidifies, different elements present in them freely arrange
in accordance with the attractive forces and geometric form. Silica tetrahedron is the
fundamental building blocks for the formation of different minerals. (SiO2). Minerals that are
formed from changes in primary minerals and rocks are called secondary minerals (clay
minerals). Those minerals that are chief constituents of rocks are called as essential minerals
(Feldspars, pyroxenes
micas etc) and those
which are present in
small quantities, whose
presence or absence will
not alter the properties
of rocks are called
accessory minerals (i.e.
magnetite).

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▪ WEATHERING : A process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals that are
brought about by physical agents and chemical processes, leading to the formation of Regolith
(unconsolidated residues of the weathering rock on the earth’s surface or above the solid rocks).

➢ PARENT MATERIAL : the unconsolidated, less weathered mineral material from which
soil are developed.

➢ TYPES :

₋ PHYSICAL WEATHERING : by action of Temperature, water, wind, glaciers, Winds etc.

₋ CHEMICAL WEATHERING : Decomposition of rocks and minerals by various chemical
processes like Hydration, Carbonation, Oxidation, Reduction etc.
₋ BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING : biological or living agents are responsible for both
decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals. Largely the prevailing
environment mainly controls the biological life.
▪ SOIL FORMATION : evolution of true soil from regolith takes place by the combined action of
soil forming factors and processes.
SOIL FORMING FACTORS : (Crorpati)
1) Climate : Impact of rainfall, heat and cold, wind etc over rocks.
2) Organism : by Trees, microorganisms
3) Relief or Topography
4) Parent material (Types of rocks)
5) Time

All these acting simultaneously on the surface of the earth to produce soil.

SOIL FORMING PROCESS :

(General)
1) Humification : the process of transformation of raw organic matter into humus. It is
extremely a complex process involving various organisms.
2) Eluviation : the mobilization and translocation of certain constituent’s like minerals, organic
matter from upper layer of the soil to the lower layer.
3) Illuviation : The process of deposition of soil materials (removed from the eluvial horizon)
into the lower layer.

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 4) Horizonation : It is the process of differentiation of soil in different horizons along the
depth of the soil. The differentiation is due to the processes of humification, eluviation and
illuviation.

SPECIFIC : present only in specific condition or environment

5) Calcification : the process of precipitation and accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

in some part of the profile. The accumulation of CaCO3 may result in the development of a
calcic horizon.
6) Decalcification : the reverse of calcification that is the process of removal of CaCO3 or
calcium ions from the soil by leaching.
7) Laterization : later meaning brick or tile and was originally applied to a group of soils found
in western ghat. Under this process, organic matter and silicate minerals eluviated toward
lower layer and the upper layer remain iron rich sesquioxides.
8) Gleization : The term glei is of Russian origin means blue, grey or green clay. The Gleization
is a process of soil formation resulting in the development of a glei (or gley horizon) in the
lower part of the soil profile above the parent material due to poor drainage condition (lack
of oxygen) and where waterlogged conditions prevail.
9) Salinization : accumulation of salts, remember Haryana and Punjabs issue of soil
salinization due to canal irrigation.
10) Desalinization :
11) Pedoturbation : mixing of the soil by various microorganism i.e. Earthworm.

▪ SOIL PROFILE : The vertical section of the soil showing the various layers from the surface to the
unaffected parent material is known as a soil profile. It divided into various layers called -
horizons.
➢ O Horizon : called as organic horizon, the topmost superficial layer especially in forest soil.
O Horizon is absent in arable soil. it may be further divided into O1 & O2.
➢ A Horizon : the top most layer below O Horizon, Sometimes we further divided Horizon A
into A1 (upper half) & A2 (Lower half) and this A2 horizon also known as eluviations
zone/horizon.
➢ B Horizon : The intermediate layer b/w horizon A and Horizon C.
➢ C Horizon : The partially weathered parent material or we can say relatively less affected by
soil forming processes.
➢ R Horizon : the base un-weathered rocks.

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Paper 1 | Section (B) : Forest soil & its Conservation
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 Topic 2 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

▪ Before the beginning of modern scientific exploration and classification of soil, we used
traditional method that not only easy to understand to a common man, but also explain their
features physical features for some extent like – Red soil (red in colour), Usar (unfertile), Black
(kali) soil, alluvial (jalod) soil etc.

ISSUE WITH THIS SYSTEM :

1) It is based on soil physical features or we can say external appearance, but when our
knowledge about soil further broaden with globalization it creates challenges that how can
we differentiate one types of soil with another types.
2) Same types of soil have different names in different region (Counties) that forced to adopt
some kinds of unification and standardization of soil names
3) Traditional system didn’t explain how a particular type of soil present in a particular type of
environment, its origination and developed.
▪ Dokuchaiv –1st time genetical system of soil classification based on zonalion given by
Dokuchaiv. Later, Boldwin further extend and improve this concept. Accordind to this system of
classification soils are –
➢ ZONAL SOIl : types of soil that distributed in the particular types of climate and having well
developed soil profile i.e. Laterite soil, Tundra soil, Chernozen soil etc.
➢ INTERZONAL SOIL : the types of soil that is present in area b/w of two zones and more
influenced by local condition rather than climatic zone i.e. Saline soil (Halomorphic soil),
Bog soil (Hydromorphic soil), and Rendzina soil (Calcimorphic soil) etc.
➢ AZONAL SOIL : Young soil that is neither shows any effect of climatic zone nor have well
developed soil profile i.e. Alluvial soil.

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 Topic 3 SOIL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

▪ SOIL TEXTURE : Concerned with the size of mineral particles means relative proportions of sand
, silt and clay. The size of particles in mineral soil is not subject to ready change ( i.e. by cultural
practices). Thus, it is considered as a permanent feature and a basic property of a soil.
Mechanical analysis of soil separates i.e. the percentage of sand, silt and clay is done by
Hydrometric method.

▪ STRUCTURE : the arrangement of soil particles into groups or in an aggregates. There are four
types of soil structure viz., spheroid, platy, prismatic and blocky structure.

(a) Platy or laminar : arrangement of soil aggregates in thin horizontal plane like plates or
lamina i.e. Alluvial soil.
(b) Prism or columnar : vertically oriented aggregation or pillars. Occurs in B hrizon of clay soil
in arid and semi arid regions.
(c) Block like : aggregation shape like a block of irregular face. Found in Humid zone.
(d) Spheroid structure has well development along its all sides. This may be granular (non
porous) or crumb structure (porous). Crumb structure is considered as better for arable
farming practices.

▪ COLOUR : the visual expression of soil due to the reflection of light. Soil colour is the result of its
mineral composition, Organic matter and moisture.

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 DETERMINATION OF SOIL COLOUR : Munsell colour chart is commonly used for this purpose in
which colour rotation is divided into three parts :
➢ Hue - it denotes the dominant spectral colour
(red, yellow, blue and green).
➢ Value - it denotes the lightness or darkness of a
colour (the amount of reflected light).
➢ Chroma - it represents the purity of the colour
(strength of the colour).

▪ DENSITY : Density is the ration of mass per unit

volume. Its 2 types – (1) Bulk density refers the unit
weight of soil which includes pore space whereas (2)
particle density refers the unit weight of solids in a soil which does not includes pore space.
Normally particle density is higher than the bulk density. in clay soil particles cover almost 50 %
space only so bulk density is less than any other type of soil.

▪ POROSITY : Soil porosity refers to that part of a soil volume that is not occupied by soil particles
or organic matter. This gives a general idea about the aeration of soil, permeability and
infiltration. Sandy soil has macro pores resultant poor water holding capacity.

▪ SOIL Water : Water can participate in a series of reactions occurring in soils and plants, only
because of its structural behaviour.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER :

1) Gravitational water : occupies the larger soil pores (macro pores) and moves down readily
under the force of gravity.
2) Capillary water : Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores). Capillary water
is retained on the soil particles by surface forces. It is held so strongly that gravity cannot
remove it from the soil particles. The molecules of capillary water are free and mobile and
are present in a liquid state. Due to this reason, it evaporates easily at ordinary
temperature though it is held firmly by the soil particle; plant roots are able to absorb it.
Capillary water is, therefore, known as available water.
3) Hygroscopic water : The water that held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal particle is
known as hygroscopic water. It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in the vapour
form.
4) Chemically bound water : that bound through chemical reaction with soil minerals.

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL :-

▪ Soil pH : Soil reaction designates the acidity or alkalinity of the soil condition. Soil acidity is
caused by the excess hydrogen ion concentration whereas soil alkalinity is produced by hydroxyl
ion concentration.
▪ Electrical conductivity : Electrical conductivity of the soil is a measure of soluble salts presence
in a soil. Soil showing high EC has higher soluble salts in it and vice versa.
▪ Cation exchange capacity : ion exchange refers the movement of ions between the
exchangeable site and soil solution. This is a reversible phenomenon which is most essential for
the supply of nutrients to plants. Cation exchange capacity is the amount of exchangeable
cations present in the unit weight of dry soil.
▪ Anion exchange capacity : Anion exchange capacity is the amount of exchangeable cations
present in the unit weight of dry soil.
▪ Base saturation : Base saturation designates the proportion of basic cation to the total cation
exchange capacity.

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL :-

Refers to the kinds of living organism in a soil. The soil living organism took parts in many of
the nutrient cycles in soil. Some microbes fixes atmospheric nitrogen (Rhizobium) and some helps in
mobilization of minerals (Mycorriza) and some helps in controlling pathogenic insect – pest that
create damages to forest nursery and trees like Virus and bacteria.

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 Topic 4 SOIL CONSERVATION

• SOIL CONSERVATION : definition, causes for erosion; types wind and water erosion;
conservation and management of eroded soils/areas, wind breaks, shelter belts; sand dunes;
reclamation of saline and alkaline soils, water logged and other waste lands. Role of forests in
conserving soils. Maintenance and build up of soil organic matter, provision of lopping for green
leaf maturing; forest leaf litter and composting; Role of micro-organisms in ameliorating soils; N
and C cycles, VAM.

NOTE : These underline part we already study in Silviculture chapter 4 Edaphic factors, some in
chapter 20 afforestation of difficult sites and in Agroforestry. For remaining part please
refer manikanandan or Any environmental science book/Notes that you have like
Shankar environment (in case you are preparing for IFoS 2020, you will get it updates
and more systematic notes in the end of this year probably after 20 December).

In addition if you require some more content also check attached file

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