MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

SECONDARY ENGAGEMENT PROGRAMME

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
TERM 3
GRADE 10
Week Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3

1 Soil formation (weathering) Importance of the soil profile Soil components

2 Physical properties of the Chemical properties of the soil Chemical properties of the

soil. soil

3 soil fertility Soil fertility Maintaining soil fertility

4 Soil water conservation Types and functions of soil Soil erosion

water

5 Form’s water of erosion Wind erosion Plant nutrients

1
Week: 1

Lesson: 1

Topic: Soil formation

Sub-topic: Weathering

Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed from the weathering
of rocks, that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into soils. Rocks are broken into three
major groups: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.

Fig 1.1 Diagram of the rock cycle

2
 There are two major types of weathering, physical and chemical.
Physical Weathering

Physical weathering is the breaking of rocks into smaller pieces. Which is caused by the effects
of changing temperature on rocks, causing the rock to break apart. The process is sometimes
assisted by water This can happen through exfoliation, freeze-thaw cycles, abrasion, root
expansion, and wet-dry cycles.

Fig 1.2 Freeze and thaw Exfoliation Root expansion

Exfoliation: When temperature of rocks rapidly changes that can expand or crack rocks. This
especially happens with granitic rocks as they were cooling, like at Yosemite National Park.

Freeze-thaw: When water freezes, it expands. If moisture seeps into cracks before winter, it can
then freeze, driving the rocks apart.

Abrasion: When the wind blows, it can pick up sand and silt, and literally sandblast rocks into
pieces.

Root Expansion: Like freeze thaw, roots grow bigger every year. These roots can drive the roots
apart.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is weathering that alters the chemical nature of the rock. The main factors
that cause chemical weathering are water, oxygen and carbon dioxide. These chemicals react in
the environment all the time, and they cause chemical weathering. Major chemical reactions
include carbonation, dissolution, hydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation-reduction reaction. All of
these reactions have water involved with them.
3
 Fig1. 3 Limestone Dissolution carbonation

Carbonation: When water reacts with carbon dioxide, it creates carbonic acid, which can
dissolve softer rocks.

Dissolution: Limestone and rocks high in salt dissolve when exposed to water. The water carries
away the ions.

Hydrolysis: Minerals in the rock react with water and surrounding acids. The hydrogen atoms
replace other cations.

Oxidation-Reduction: Oxidation occurs when minerals in rock combine with atmospheric

oxygen or the oxygen dissolved in rainwater. The minerals are converted to oxides, which are
more likely to break down or undergo weathering. For example, when water combines with the
iron-containing rock, olivine, ferrous oxide is released. The ferrous oxide becomes oxidized by
oxygen in the atmosphere to ferric oxide, known as haematite. When carbon dioxide in air
dissolves in rainwater, carbonic acid is formed. This is a weak inorganic acid. As rainwater
filters through rock containing carbonate, such as limestone, the minerals in the rock dissolve
and the rock breaks up. If the area is hot and humid, chemical weathering is more prevalent. If it
is drier, physical weathering is more predominant.

4
 Fig1. 4 Picture showing oxidation and hydrolysis

Biological weathering

Biological weathering refers to the disintegration of rocks and the formation of soil through the
activities of living organisms. If there are cracks in a rock, some soil will gather. If a seed
germinates in this soil, its growing roots exert pressure and eventually the rock splits. Animals
that tunnel into the soil, such as worms, ants and moles, contribute to weathering by bringing
new material to the surface where it is exposed to rainwater and the atmosphere. Plants rot and
are decomposed by micro-organisms in the soil. In this process, organic acids called humic acids
are released into the soil and break down rock minerals. The plant roots also release carbon
dioxide into the soil and carbon dioxide breaks down carbonates.

Fig1. 5 Pictures of biological weathering

5
Lesson reviewing

1) Describe how physical weathering occurs?

2) Explain how biological weathering disintegrates rocks?
3) List four factors that affect soil formation?
4) Make a poster to show how certain soil types are associated with their parent material.
5) Make a collection of soils formed by different soil forming activities. Examine the soils,
noting their characteristics. Suggested types are volcanic soil, a good agricultural soil, a
soil that has been chemically weathered (a limestone soil) and a soil that still shows
evidence of physical weathering. alluvial soils.

References

I. www. Geolsoc.org.uk / resources rock cycle pages 4361

II. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering
III. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
IV. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

6
Week: 1

Lesson: 2

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: The soil profile

Soil Profile

A soil profile is a vertical section of soil. It allows you to examine the structure of soil and is
divided into layers called horizons. The main soil horizons are A, B, C and D.

Most important for plant growth, the A and B horizons are the top two layers of the soil. The A
horizon is where there is most soil life and is sometimes called topsoil. Depending on the soil,
the A horizon can be further divided into A1, A2 or Ao (organic). The B horizon is where clays
and materials washed down from the A horizon accumulate. This is sometimes called subsoil.

The C Horizon consists of weathering rock.

The D horizon is bedrock. This is rock which has weathered to produce the soil you see above it
(unless the soil has been deposited from elsewhere e.g. floodplains contain soil that has been
carried downstream in water and then deposited as the flood recedes).

Fig 1.6 Diagram of a typical soil profile.

7
The soil profile is an important tool in nutrient management. By examining a soil profile, we can
gain valuable insight into soil fertility. As the soil weathers and/or organic matter decomposes,
the profile of the soil changes. For instance, a highly weathered, infertile soil usually contains a
light-colored layer in the subsurface soil from which nutrients have leached away. On the other
hand, a highly fertile soil often has a deep surface layer that contains high amounts of organic
matter. With clues provided by soil profile, we can begin to predict how a soil will perform

For the farmer, the soil profile is relevant so that he or she can decide what land preparation is
needed before planting crops. During ploughing, the furrow slice or topsoil is cut and inverted by
the ploughshare. Depending on the thickness of horizons O, A and B, this slice may include
horizon O and part of horizon A, or horizon O, horizon A and part of horizon B. The area
beneath the furrow slice is referred to as the subsoil. If there is a hardpan or impervious layer,
resulting from the accumulation and compaction of leached deposits, then the subsoil may need
to be broken up with a subsoiler.

Fig 1.6 Illustrate differences in soil profiles. The soil profile at the left is an old soil with distinct profile
development. The soil profile at the right is an arid soil, which also shows two horizons in the soil profile.

8
Lesson review

1. Which soil horizons are affected when the land ploughed?

2. Examine a soil profile and measure the depth of the different horizons. Draw a diagram
showing the different soil horizons.
3. Use a soil auger to determine the characteristics of a soil profile
4. Which soil layer contains the most humus?
5. Where in the soil profile are worms and insects breaking down organic matter into soil?
6. What is the name of the process by which water carries material from the upper horizons
down to the lower levels?
7. What factors in an area help determine the type of soil, thickness of the layers and their
composition?
8. Choose a factor you listed in question 7 and explain (in a paragraph) how it can affect the
soil in an area?

References

1. https://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/farm-and-facilities/tocal-farms/soils-of-tocal/soil-profiles
2. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
3. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

9
Week: 1

Lesson:3

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: Components of the soil

Soil components

Fig 1.7 Components of soil:

The four major components of soil are shown: inorganic minerals, organic matter, water, and air.
 inorganic mineral matter, about 40 to 45 percent of the soil volume
 organic matter, about 5 percent of the soil volume
 water, about 25 percent of the soil volume
 air, about 25 percent of the soil volume

The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the quantity of vegetation,
soil compaction, and water present in the soil. A good, healthy soil has sufficient air, water,
minerals, and organic material to promote and sustain plant life.

10
The organic material of soil, called humus, is made up of microorganisms (dead and alive), and
dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay. Humus improves soil structure, providing
plants with water and minerals. The inorganic material of soil is composed of rock, slowly
broken down into smaller particles that vary in size. Soil particles that are 0.1 to 2 mm in
diameter are sand. Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are called silt, and even smaller
particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils have no dominant particle
size, containing a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils are called loams.

Organic matter

Organic matter consists of fresh or decaying plant and animal residues and humus. Humus is
the end product of the decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms. It is black or dark
brown. In the tropics and sub-tropics, organic matter is broken down rapidly to humus by soil
micro-organisms. Although the organic content of soils is small (3% to 5%), it improves the soil,
which aids crop growth and production in the following ways:

 it loosens clay particles, serving as a ‘granulator’

 it binds mineral particles, especially sand, into aggregates
 it reduces the cohesion (sticking together) of clay and silt particles
 it increases the water-holding capacity of sandy soils
 it supplies mineral ions, such as nitrates, sulphates and phosphates
 it is the source of energy for the soil micro-organisms
 it increases the productive capacity of soils. mineral matter organic matter air
water

Soil micro-organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, break down organic matter into humus.
Vermiculture is the cultivation of earthworms. It contributes to soil formation and soil fertility in
the following ways.

1. Earthworms make tunnels that allow air down into the soil and also help the soil drain.
2. Earthworms make their tunnels by swallowing soil, so that the organic matter is digested
and the mineral particles pass out of the gut back into the soil. In some species, egested
(excreted) soil is deposited on the surface as a ‘worm cast’ and consists of finely ground
particles. This process mixes up layers of soil.

11
3. Earthworms pull leaves into their tunnels for food. This increases the organic content of the
soil and contributes to mixing. Other burrowing organisms, such as insects, insect larvae,
slugs, spiders and woodlice, keep soil loose and aerated. Their faeces contribute to the
organic matter and provide food for micro-organisms. Plant roots bind soil particles together
and also create channels for the cycling of nutrients within the soil.

Soil Air

Soil aeration influences the availability of many nutrients. Particularly, soil air is needed by
many of the microorganisms that release plant nutrients to the soil. An appropriate balance
between soil air and soil water must be maintained since soil air is displaced by soil water.

Air can fill soil pores as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root
absorption. The network of pores within the soil aerates, or ventilates, the soil. This aeration
network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores. Not only are both soil air and soil water
very dynamic parts of soil, but both are often inversely related:

1. An increase in soil water content often causes a reduction in soil aeration.

2. Likewise, reducing soil water content may mean an increase in soil aeration.
3. Since plant roots require water and oxygen (from the air in pore spaces), maintaining the
balance between root and aeration and soil water availability is a critical aspect of
managing crop plants.

Soil water

Soil water is particularly important in nutrient management. In addition to sustaining all life on
Earth, soil water provides a pool of dissolved nutrients that are readily available for plant
uptake. Therefore, it is important to maintain proper levels of soil moisture.

12
Lesson review

1. Shake up 100 g of soil in 500 cm3 of water in a large jam jar or measuring cylinder.
Allow the contents to settle. Describe and identify the different components. Organic
matter will float and different-sized particles will settle in layers according to their sizes.
2. Why is organic matter (humus) an important part of soil?
a) It helps to improve water infiltration
b) It can break down organic pollutants
c) It converts nitrogen in the air into nitrates used by plants
d) It is rich in nutrients, which is important for fertility
3. Earthworms are regarded as beneficial soil organism because they

I improve soil aeration and drainage

II help to form humus

III destroy soil pest

Which of the above statements are true?

A) I and II only B) I and III only C) II and III only D) I. II and III

4. Which of these statements is not true of humus?

A) It absorbs water and thus improves moisture retention
B) It can flocculate clay particles
C) Its continual breakdown releases essential nutrients for plant growth
D) None of the above

References

1. https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/mauisoil/a_comp.aspx -
2. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
3. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

13
Week: 2

Lesson: 1

Topic: Soil

Sub-topic: Physical properties of the soil

Physical Properties of Soil

Soil Texture

The particles that make up soil are categorized into three groups by size – sand, silt, and clay.
Sand particles are the largest and clay particles the smallest. Most soils are a combination of the
three. The relative percentages of sand, silt, and clay are what give soil its texture. A clay loam
texture soil, for example, has nearly equal parts of sand, slit, and clay. These textural separates
result from the weathering process.

Fig 1.8 This is an image comparing the sizes of sand, silt, and clay together. Sand is the largest. Clay is the
smallest.

14
 Fig 1.9 Determine the textural class of soil using the feel method

Fig 1.10 Illustrate the formation of ribbons

There are 12 soil textural classes represented on the soil texture triangle. This triangle is used so
that terms like “clay” or “loam” always have the same meaning. Each texture corresponds to
specific percentages of sand, silt, or clay. Knowing the texture helps us manage the soil .

15
Fig 1.11 Diagram of the textural triangle
Soil texture is important to the farmer because it affects the:

 holding capacity of air and water in the soil

 ease and rapidity of drainage
 total surface area of mineral particles available for chemical reactions to
take place
 workability of the soil (whether it is ‘light’ or ‘heavy’)
 ease with which roots can penetrate • way in which crops respond to fertilizers

Soil Structure

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into small clumps, called peds or aggregates.
Soil particles (sand, silt, clay and even organic matter) bind together to form peds. Depending on
the composition and on the conditions in which the peds formed (getting wet and drying out, or
freezing and thawing, foot traffic, farming, etc.), the ped has a specific shape. They could be
granular (like gardening soil), blocky, columnar, platy, massive (like modeling clay) or single-
grained (like beach sand). Structure correlates to the pore space in the soil which influences root
growth and air and water movement.

16
 Fig1.12 Diagram of soil structure

Soil Color

fig 1.13 The color of soil is measured by its hue (actual color), value (how light
and dark it is), and chroma (intensity).

17
Soil color is influenced primarily by soil mineralogy – telling us what is in a specific soil. Soils
high in iron are deep orange-brown to yellowish-brown. Those soils that are high in organic
matter are dark brown or black. Color can also tell us how a soil “behaves” – a soil that drains
well is brightly colored and one that is often wet and soggy will have a mottled pattern of grays,
reds, and yellows

Soil temperature and soil organisms

In the Caribbean, temperature on the soil surface ranges from 23 °C to 30 °C. Within the top 15
cm of soil (the furrow slice), temperatures between 28 °C and 30 °C are the most favorable for
the soil organisms, biochemical processes and soil formation.

Soil temperature is influenced by sunlight, vegetative cover, soil cover (both natural and
artificial), soil moisture and organic matter content. All these factors, with the exception of direct
sunlight, lower the soil temperature. Soils that lack vegetative cover and that have little organic
matter, lose moisture rapidly when exposed to direct sunlight. Consequently, the soil temperature
will rise.

Soil temperature affects:

 soil macro-organisms, such as earthworms, which burrow more actively when it is

warm
 soil microbial activity, which increases in warm conditions and decreases in cold
conditions
 seedling roots, which are destroyed by high soil temperatures as plant cells
dehydrate through evapotranspiration
 seed germination, which is more rapid in warm temperatures
 soil caking and crusting, which occurs as a result of high soil temperatures, direct
sunlight and rapid loss of moisture. Farmers can lower the soil temperature by
mulching, cover cropping, intercropping, irrigating, improving soil cover and
incorporating organic matter into the soil.

18
Lesson review

1. Using a sandy soil, a clay soil and a loam soil, set up an experiment to find out which soil
drains the quickest and which soil holds the most water. Make your experiment
quantitative by using measured volumes of soil and water, and by allowing a specified
time for the water to drain through.
2. Describe how soil texture can be determined by the farmer in the field.
3. Soil texture refers to
a) The ratio of humus to inorganic particles
b) The way in which soil particles are held together
c) The colour of the soil
d) The relative proportion of different size particles.

4. Moisture retention in sandy soils is improved by

(A) establishing a cover crop (B) the incorporation of organic matter

(C) irrigating at periodic intervals (D) constructing proper irrigation channels

5. Which of the following is NOT a physical property of soil?

(A) pH (B) Texture (C) Structure (D) Capillarity

References

1. https://www.soils4teachers.org/physical-properties
2. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
3. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

19
Week: 2

Lesson: 2

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: Chemical properties of the soil

Chemical properties of soils include the following aspects: inorganic matters of soil, organic matters
in soil, colloidal properties of soil particles and soil reactions and buffering action in acidic soils and
basic soils. The chemical side of a soil is extremely important of course and is about the correct
balance of the available nutrients in the soil. This is largely determined by the organic-matter
content and its humus percentage; this is the ‘storehouse’ of nutrients on any farm. The extent to
which minerals have a dominant presence or not, affects the release of specific nutrients.
Supplementing shortages is important, but the right balance is even more important. The soil
only produces nutrients if you have the right balance. Chemical and physical properties impact
biological properties. Optimal chemical and physical properties will lead to optimal biological
properties and soil functions i.e, nutrient and water cycling.

Soil pH

Soil pH is perhaps the single most important aspect of soil chemistry, because it affects the
availability of nutrients to plants and the activity of microorganisms in the soil. Soil pH is a
measure of the number of hydrogen ions (H+) present in a solution. In more common terms, it is
a measure of alkalinity and acidity. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. Seven is neutral, 0 is the
most acidic value possible, and 14 is the most alkaline, or basic, value.

While many plants can tolerate pH ranges between 5.2 and 7.8, most plants grow best in mineral
soils (soils with less than 20 percent organic content) when soil pH is between 6.0 and 7.0
(slightly acid to neutral) (Rosen, 2014).

20
 Fig 1.14 pH Scale.

The parent material of soils initially influences soil ph. For example, granitic soils are acidic, and
limestone-based soils are alkaline. However, soil pH can change over time. Soils become acidic
through natural processes as well as human activities. Rainfall and climatic conditions influence
the pH of most soils. In humid climates, heavy rainfall percolates through the soil. When it does,
it leaches basic ions, such as calcium and magnesium, and replaces them with acidic ions, such
as hydrogen and aluminum. In arid regions of the country (with less than 20 inches of rain per
year), soils tend to become alkaline, because salts accumulate at the surface during evaporation
and rainfall is not heavy enough to leach basic ions from soils in these areas.

Human activities that increase soil acidity include fertilization with ammonium or sulfur
containing fertilizers and production of industrial by-products, such as sulfur dioxide and nitric
acid, which ultimately enter the soil via rainfall. Irrigating with water high in bicarbonates
gradually increases soil pH and can lead to alkaline conditions.

In most cases, changes in soil pH, whether influenced by natural processes or human activities,
occur slowly. This is due to the tremendous buffering capacity (resistance to change in pH) of
most mineral soils. An exception to this is high-sand-content soils, where buffering tends to be
low.

Nutrient availability varies markedly according to pH. This is the main reason pH is so critical
for plant growth and reproduction. The optimal pH for overall nutrient availability is around 6.5 (

21
Fig 1.15. Nutrient availability and microbial activity as affected by soil ph. The wider the
band, the greater the availability of nutrients or activity of microbes.

Cation-Exchange Capacity

As previously mentioned, soil chemistry is the interaction of various chemical constituents that
takes place among soil particles and in the soil solution (the water retained by soil). Soils hold
onto nutritional elements similar to the way they retain water. Positively charged nutrient
molecules, called cations, are attracted to the negative charges on soil particles. This is called
adsorption. The sites where cations attach to particles are cation exchange sites.

The ability to hold cation nutrients is called the cation-exchange capacity (CEC). It is the ability
of the soil’s negatively charged colloids to hold onto nutrients and prevent them from leaching
beyond plant roots. The greater cation-exchange capacity a soil has, the more likely the soil will
have a higher fertility level. When combined with other measures of soil fertility, CEC is a good
indicator of soil quality and productivity

Clay soils retain more nutrients than coarser/sandier soils, just as clay soils hold more water,
because of the greater surface area (greater number of cation-exchange sites) to which nutrients
can adsorb. Organic matter also has negatively charged sites that attract and hold positively
charged particles. Thus, sandy soils rely on organic matter content to increase cation-exchange
capacity.

22
 Fig 1.16 . Representation of exchange capacity

Thus, CEC is important for maintaining adequate quantities of plant-available calcium (Ca2+),
magnesium (Mg2+) and potassium (K+), among other cations found in the soil .

23
Lesson review

4. Which of the following may be used to reduce soil acidity?

A) Sulphate of ammonium B) Gypsum C) Pen manure D) Compose
5. From a chemical analysis of the soil, it is possible to determine all the following
EXCEPT the
(A) nitrogen content (B) pH value (C) available phosphorus (D) soil texture

References

i) Brady, N. and R. Weil. 2002. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 13th Edition.
Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 960 p.
ii) Chapman, H.D.1965. Cation-exchange capacity. Methods of soil analysis - Chemical
and microbiological properties. Agronomy 9: 891-901
iii) R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers

24
Week: 2

Lesson: 3

Topic: Soil

Sub-topic: chemical properties of the soil (Continue)

Salt-Affected Soils

The presence and concentration of salts in soil can have adverse effects on soil function and
management. Salt-affected soils are most common in areas where vegetation or irrigation
changes have caused salts to leach and accumulate in low-lying places (saline seeps). The three
main types of salt-affected soils are saline, sodic and saline-sodic.

Saline soils contain a high level of soluble salts in the soil-water solution. Most common salts are
sulfates of sodium, calcium, magnesium and potassium (depending on the soil region). The
primary effect of excessive soluble salts on plants is to limit the ability of plant roots to absorb
soil water, even under wet soil conditions. Soil water flows from higher osmotic potential (low-
salt concentration) to lower osmotic potential (high-salt concentration). A soil solution with low
osmotic potential due to the higher concentration of soluble salts compared to plant cells, will not
allow plant roots to extract water from soil, causing drought-like symptoms in the plants as the
word “soluble” indicates, these salts can easily be leached out of the upper 2 to 3 feet of surface
soil under good soil moisture and drainage conditions.

Sodic soils have excessive levels of sodium adsorbed at the cation exchange sites. Soil sodicity
causes degradation of soil structure. That process is called soil dispersion. The forces that hold
clay particles together are greatly weakened when excessive sodium is adsorbed at the negative
charges of clay particles, forming sodium-clay particles.

Whereas, wet, sodium-clay particles get easily disintegrated or dispersed from the larger soil
aggregates, once dry, sodium clay particles clog the soil pores (especially macro-pores) and
settle down in dense layers. The resulting poor physical structure then results in soils difficult to
till, poor seed germination and restricted plant root growth.

25
Saline-sodic soils have both high soluble salt and sodium content. However, if existing soluble
salts are leached downward while exchangeable sodium in the soil profile remains constant, soil
properties are likely to closely resemble those of sodic soils .

Fig 1.17 Diagram of salt affected land and leaching

Leaching

Once nutrients have been released into the soil, they may be lost through leaching. In this
process, soluble substances are removed by water. The nature and size of the soil particles has an
effect on this loss of nutrients. For example, leaching is greater in soils made up of coarse sand
particles than in soils with finer particles, such as silt and clay. Potassium, a nutrient found in
most soils, is generally low in sandy soils because of leaching. Similarly, chemical reactions and
the exchange of soil nutrient elements are associated with the nature and size of clay and humus
particles. Clay and humus particles are very small but they possess large surface areas and
negative charges that attract positive nutrient ions and water. Each particle is referred to as a
micelle or micro-cell and has a great capacity for attracting positively charged nutrient ions. This
attraction of nutrient ions to the surfaces of the clay and humus particles enables nutrients to be
held in the soil so that they are not removed by leaching

26
Lesson review

1. Why are clay and humus particles important in soils

2. Name the type of soil that has the greatest amount of leaching and explain why?
3. Identify the main types of salt affected soils.
4. Explain how excess soluble salts affect plants?
5. Explain why the chemical properties of the soil are important to farmers?
6. What is the primary effect of excessive soluble salts?

References

i) Brady, N. and R. Weil. 2002. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 13th Edition.
Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 960 p.
ii) R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
iii) S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean
educational publishers

27
Week: 3

Lesson: 1

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: Soil fertility

Soil fertility may be defined as the inherent capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients in adequate
amount and suitable proportion and free from toxic substances. Soil productivity is the ability of
the soil to produce crop per unit area. Thus, a fertile soil may or may not be productive
depending upon crops, marketing condition and several other factors (i.e., excessive acidity or
alkalinity, the presence of toxic substances, poor physical properties or an excess or deficiency of
water. But every productive soil has to be fertile. Soil productivity mainly depends on soil
fertility to a great extent.

A fertile soil will contain all the major nutrients for basic plant nutrition (e.g., nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium), as well as other nutrients needed in smaller quantities (e.g.,
calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, nickel). Usually, a fertile
soil will also have some organic matter that improves soil structure, soil moisture retention, and
also nutrient retention, and a pH between 6 and 7.

Soil fertility is affected by climate, topography, soil factors such as the physical and chemical
conditions of the soil and the nature of the parent material, as well as fertilizers and soil
management

I. Parent Materials:
The property of soil depends on the property of parent rock. If the parent rock contains more
nutrients, the soil developed from rocks contains more nutrient. The soil developed from
calcareous rock contains more phosphorus than the soil which is developed from granite rock.
The soil developed from acid igneous rock (i.e., quartz) and basic igneous rock (i.e., norite and
dolerite etc.) become sandy and clayey in nature respectively.
ii. Climate and Vegetation:
Plant kingdom is closely related with climate. Rainfall and temperature have an effect on soil
fertility. In heavy rainfall areas, the nutrients are lost by leaching. As a result of which the

28
fertility of that soil becomes low. Besides these, the upper layer is eroded which decreases the
soil fertility. Organic matter is oxidized at high temperatures. For this, the fertility of soil in
temperate regions becomes low.
iii. Topography:
The fertility of soil is also dependent on the topography of soil. Leaching and erosion is most
common in sloppy land. As a result of which, the fertility of that soil becomes low. On the other
hand, the fertility level and becomes more, because the nutrients of high land in soluble form are
deposited in the level land, especially in low land.
iv. Inherent Capacity of Soil to Supply Plant Nutrients:
The nutrient contents of a soil vary according to the nature of soil. The soil which contains a
quantity of nutrients becomes more fertile.
v. Physical Condition of Soil:
Aeration and movement of water is good in the soil containing an adequate amount of organic
matter and this type of suitable condition of soil is beneficial for the growth of plants. The
physical condition of soil should be suitable for the growth and development of plants. It is
essential for proper supply of oxygen in the soil. Improper supply of oxygen is unsuitable for the
growth of plants as well as for the proper function of soil organisms.
As a result of which, organic matter does not decompose properly and the nutrients of organic
matter does not transform in available form of the plants. Suitable physical condition of the soil
increases the water holding capacity of soil which is favorable for the growth of plant. The
fertility of soil depends mostly on the texture and structure of soil.
vi. Soil Age:
The soil developed earlier loses its fertility gradually. Because the fertility of the soil decreases
by the process of leaching and weathering in course of time. Besides this, cultivation of crops
without manuring decreases the fertility of soil.
vii. Micro-Organism and Soil Fertility:
Various types of organisms live in the soil. The soil organism brings the unavailable nutrients
into the available form. Different types of bacteria, fungi and algae live in the soil. The nitrifying
bacteria fix nitrogen from air.
viii. Availability of Plant Nutrients:

29
The nutrients of the soil must be in the available form of plant. The plant does not absorb
nutrients if it is not soluble in water. Super phosphate applied in acid soil is converted into iron
or aluminum phosphate which is not soluble in water. As a result, phosphate remains in the soil
in unavailable form to plant.

Lesson review

1. Describe how good land management practices can improve soil fertility
2. How does topographic features affect soil fertility in the Caribbean?
3. How does the parent material determine soil fertility?
4. Explain how the physical condition of the soil affects soil fertility?
5. A soil sample was collected from a school farm and found to be very high in H + ions.
This indicated the soil is most likely?
A) Has a high calcium content B) is alkaline C) acidic D) neutral?
6. Soil fertility is likely to be restored by rotating a crop of pak-choi with
(A) cassava (C) corn (B) legumes (D) cabbage

References

I. https://www.soilmanagementindia.com/soil-fertility/soil-fertility-definition-types-and-
factors-soil-science
II. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
III. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

30
Week: 3

Lesson: 2

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: Soil fertility (Continue)

How plant loses nutrients from the soil:

Soil is the storehouse of plant nutrients. Losses of plant nutrients from the soil are the main cause
of decreasing the fertility of soil.
Plant nutrients are lost from the soil by the following ways:

(i) Removal of Plant Nutrients by Harvest Crops:

Plant absorbs nutrients from the soil and stores them in their different parts. The crops remove
large quantities of nitrogen and potassium and relatively small quantities of phosphorus. Four to
five per cent of total nitrogen is lost from soil per acre annually through the harvested crops. The
loss can be reduced by adding farm waste materials to the soil.
(ii) Removal of Plant Nutrients by Weeds:
Weeds compete with crops for mineral nutrients. Competition begins when the supply of plant
nutrients falls below the requirements of both weeds and crops. Weeds by nature of them grow
fast and remove the plant nutrients from the soil. This will be acute if weeding is not done as
soon as weeds emerge or germinate.
(iii) Losses of Nutrient by Soil Erosion:
Erosion is the physical removal of top soil by water and wind. Plant nutrients, particularly
nitrogen, remains on the upper layer of soil. When erosion is severe, the nutrient is lost along
with soil and the fertility of soil decreases accordingly.
(Iv) Losses of Nutrients by Leaching:
Fertilizers, both straight and mixed, are soluble in water and as such they are liable to loss by
leaching in rain water or irrigation water. Leaching loss is more acute in sandy soil and bare
soils. Nitrogen is mainly lost from soil by leaching.

31
How can we sustain soil fertility?
Soil fertility can be improved by incorporating cover crops that add organic matter to the soil,
which leads to improved soil structure and promotes a healthy, fertile soil; by using green
manure or growing legumes to fix nitrogen from the air through the process of biological
nitrogen fixation.
What are three ways soil can be sustained?
Increasing soil protection by crop residues and plants; adding organic matter to the soil through
crop rotations, manures, or crop residues; and careful management of fertilizers, pesticides,
tillage equipment, and other elements of the farming system can improve soil quality.
Which plant increases soil fertility?
legume vegetables

Scientists feel that growing the legume vegetables at least once in a year will help in increasing
soil fertility as they have the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen through their root nodules. This
reduces the use of chemical fertilisers like urea and ammonium nitrate

Lesson review

1. How does weeds reduce soil fertility

2. Explain how soil erosion can affect soil fertility?
3. Why is the bacteria population critical to the soil’s fertility?
4. Why is knowledge of soil fertility important to farmers?
5. What are three ways soil fertility can be sustained?
6. How can harvested crops reduce soil nutrients?

References

(i) R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan

publishers

(ii) S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational

publishers

32
Week: 3
Lesson: 3
Topic: Soils
Sub-topic: Maintaining soil fertility

Soil amendments include any materials that supply ingredients and nutrient elements, which
collectively improve soil structure and maintain soil fertility. They vary in type, but their main
functions are to improve soil structure, to increase water-holding capacity and permeability, to
supply nutrient elements, to ensure adequate drainage and aeration, and to neutralize soil acidity

. Soil amendments include:

 manures
 inorganic fertilizers
 organic matter
 liming materials.

Manures

Manures are also known as organic fertilisers. There are five groups:

1. Pen manures are the partially decomposed solid materials derived from livestock pens.
They consist of dung / droppings, bedding or litter, and slurry from washing the pens of
dairy cattle and other farm animals.

33
2. Compost manure is derived from leaf litter and crop residues.
3. Green manure refers to a green crop, preferably a legume, which is ploughed into the soil
at its flowering stage. This manure adds nitrogen to the soil
4. Guano is made from bird droppings and contains large amounts of nitrogen and potash
5. Bonemeal is made by grinding bones from meat-processing companies. It contains some
nitrogen but has large amounts of phosphate.

Manures, such as pen, guano and compost, are spread evenly over ploughed land and rotovated
into the soil. If the manure is liquid, as in the case of slurry, it is spread mechanically over
ploughed land and pasture using a slurry spreader.

Inorganic fertilisers

Inorganic fertilisers may be simple inorganic fertilisers, supplying one of the major nutrients, or
compound inorganic fertilisers, supplying two or more nutrients. Some examples of simple
fertilisers and the nutrients they supply are urea (nitrogen), potassium chloride (potassium), triple
superphosphate (phosphorus) and ammonium sulphate (nitrogen; also lowers the soil pH).
Compound fertilisers usually contain the three major nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, and are referred to as NPK fertilisers. The ratios and percentages of these three
nutrients vary in different grades of NPK fertilizers.

There are several ways to apply fertilisers. The method used will depend on the type of fertiliser,
the area to be covered and the crop to which it is being applied. For large-scale applications, the
fertiliser is usually spread by machinery, but on small farms it is done by hand. Farmers need to
determine the fertiliser requirements of their crops. To do this, they need to consider several
factors

Methods of application depend on the:

 type, age and stage of development of the crop

 system of planting – distance apart of rows; distance apart of plants
 machinery and equipment available
 availability of labour
 weather conditions

34
Fig 1.18 Diagram of methods of broadcasting

Cropping systems

Cropping systems include crop rotation, cover crops, intercropping and multiple cropping. The
inclusion of deep-rooted, shallow-rooted, leguminous and cover crops in a cropping system
improves soil fertility by cycling nutrients between the upper and lower levels of the soil.
Leguminous crops encourage nitrogen fixation. Adequate vegetative cover reduces the loss of
soil and nutrients

Cultural practices

The physical condition of the soil can be improved and soil fertility maintained by tillage,
drainage and irrigation where needed. Tillage maintains soil structure and contributes to the
aeration and drainage. It also makes it easier for roots to grow and incorporates organic material
into the soil. Adequate drainage is important in the wet season. In the dry season, the soil must
retain enough water for crop growth and this may mean that some form of irrigation is necessary

35
Lesson review

1. What are soil amendments?

2. Explain the main function of soil amendments.
3. List three types of soil amendments and any two.
4. (a) State FIVE reasons why farmers should apply organic and inorganic fertilisers to their
crops and field plots.
(b) (i) List FOUR factors that should be considered in determining the fertiliser needs of
crops and soils
(ii) Discuss any TWO of the factors that you have listed
5. How does cropping systems and cultural practices help with crop rotation?

References

i) R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan

publishers

ii) S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational

publishers

36
Week: 4

Lesson: 1

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: Soil and water conservation

Soil conservation refers to protecting the soil from erosion and maintaining its fertility. It is of
great importance to agriculture in the Caribbean region.

Soil conservation techniques

Minimum tillage is where soil is only cultivated to provide the planting holes and rows for the
crops. It does not expose soil to rainwater and can therefore reduce erosion in hilly and
mountainous areas. Ridging is where ridges are built across a slope to prevent the rapid flow of
water downhill. This can reduce soil erosion and help to retain water in the soil.

Organic matter, such as mulches or weeds that have been uprooted and left lying on the soil,
will reduce the direct impact of raindrops and allow water to filter slowly down into the soil. A
mulch is a protective covering over the soil surface, usually of organic matter.

Fig 1.19 Diagram of water conservation using mulch and compost

Spreading manure or compost over the soil – this minimizes evapotranspiration and also
provides valuable nutrients to the soil through processes of decomposition

37
Mulching – mulch is a layer of organic (or inorganic) material that is placed on the root zone of
the plants. Examples of mulch materials include straw, wood chips, peat. Inorganic mulch in the
form of plastic sheeting is also used. Mulching is most suited for low to medium rainfall areas,
and less suited for areas with very wet conditions .

Rotational grazing helps to conserve pasture, because the animals are moved around and the
formation of bare patches is avoided

Environmental benefits of soil conservation techniques

The benefits of many soil conservation methods, depending on the material used, may also
include better control of weeds, provision of additional nutrients to the soil, soil temperature
control and protection of soil surface from the impacts of heavy rain and wind.

1. Active reuse of waste organic materials also reduces waste management needs, returning
the residue crops and plants to the soil through decomposition. Socioeconomic Benefits
2. Potential to reduce water irrigation needs, increase crop productivity and improve soil
quality
3. By extension, reduced irrigation needs may also reduce the costs and energy
requirements of water pumping for irrigation.

Water conservation

The Caribbean climate has a rainy season and a dry season, so water conservation is essential on
most Caribbean farms. Farmers depend on water-storage systems, drains and dry farming
techniques. Water-storage systems used by farmers may include tanks, ponds, pools and wells.

Ponds and pools are normally constructed in the dry season, so that they are ready for the onset
of the rainy season. Often, fish are reared in ponds providing another source of income for the
farmer. Wells can be dug out from 3 to 10 m in depth. The water comes from underground drain.
Tap or canals and the height to which it rises depends on the water table.

Drainage channels are dug around fields and plots. These channels drain away excess water in
the rainy season and the water can be used for irrigation in the dry season. Contour drains are

38
constructed across the hill slope, along the contour, to prevent the rapid flow of water downhill.
Dry farming techniques include any technique that conserves water or prevents the evaporation
of too much water from the soil surface in the dry season. These techniques include minimum
tillage, mulching, using manure and compost and growing cover crops. Controlled irrigation
(using manual systems, hoses or sprinklers) may be used to water crop plants in the dry season.

Lesson review

1. Describe two ways water can be conserved on a farm?

2. Explain how minimum tillage helps in soil conservation?

3. Explain how mulching helps to conserve water and improve the fertility of the soil?

4. Why should water conservation be important to Caribbean farmers?

5. How can rice farmers conserve water in Guyana?

References

I. Agri info, 2015: Soil and Water Conservation Methods - Management

Practices, http://www.agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=1&topicid=436
II. FAO, 2003: Conservation Agriculture for Soil Moisture, Briefing Notes - Production
Systems Management, http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/doc/BN_soil_moisture_LR.pdf
III. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
IV. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

39
Week: 4

Lesson: 2

Topic: Soils

Sub-topic: Types and functions of soil water

Soil water, from rainfall or irrigation, is needed for plant growth and for the soil organisms. It
may be present as a soil solution in the pore spaces or held as a film around tiny mineral particles
(adsorbed water). Dissolved mineral salts in the soil solution supply essential nutrients to plants.

Hygroscopic water is absorbed into the soil from the atmosphere. The water is held so tightly
around the soil particles that the plants are unable to get enough of the water to survive.

Gravitational water is temporary soil water that results from prolonged infiltration from heavy
rainfall or flooding. The water moves downwards to the groundwater under the influence of
gravity.

Fig 1.20 Illustration of types of soil water

After rainfall, the soil may be saturated with water. But following drainage, the level will reach
field capacity, which is the optimum water level for plant growth. At field capacity, the larger
pore spaces are filled with a continuous stream of water that moves upwards by capillarity

40
(capillary water). This can be used by plants for photosynthesis. Excess water is lost from plants
by transpiration. hygroscopic water capillary water gravitational water remaining water adheres
to soil particles water held in micropores (available water; plant roots can absorb this) drains
right through wilting point field capacity

If soil water is lost and not replenished, crop plants begin to wilt during the day but regain their
turgidity at night. This is known as temporary wilting. It indicates that the soil water level has
decreased and that the plant roots cannot take up enough water to replace that being lost by
transpiration during the day. Turgidity is regained at night because the temperature drops and
less water is lost from plants by transpiration.

If soil water loss persists without replacement, the roots are unable to obtain any water, so
leaves and soft stems droop and do not recover at night. This state is referred to as permanent
wilting and can result in the death of the crop. Permanent wilting is an indication that the
capillary stream of water in the pore spaces is broken. Plant roots are unable to take up the
adsorbed water, which is held tightly around soil particles.

Fig 1.21 Diagram of soil water at different concentration in the soil

41
Fig 1.22 Diagram of soil water at different concentrations in the soil

Controlling water use

When soil is at field capacity, further rainfall cannot be stored in the soil profile so most of the
water runs off and can cause erosion.

When a soil profile is full, one option is to plant a crop to use the water. This opportunity
cropping reduces the stored water and makes room for more from further rainfall.

When managing soil water, the following should be considered:

1. Organic material increases the soils capacity to store water

2. Knowing the depth of rooting in plants is important—for example shallow rooted plants
are unlikely to get access to water in soils where there are large stores in the subsoil

Waterlogging

When the soil is at or near field capacity, micropores in the soil are full of water and the
macropores allow for the movement of oxygen.

When a soil is above field capacity, the macropores fill with water and the soil is depleted of
oxygen. When this happens, plant roots cannot get oxygen from the soil and microbial activity
slows. Over a prolonged period, plants eventually die.

42
Also, without oxygen in the soil, nitrogen breaks down and is lost as gas in a process
called denitrification. This can cause a decline in soil fertility.

Soil limitations to water entry

Water infiltration into the soil will be limited by the least permeable layer, so restrictions near
the surface may be more important than restrictions deep in the profile.

If water is unable to enter the soil profile due to surface sealing or hard-setting for example, the
ability of the soil to store water is reduced.

Surface seal

A surface seal or crust is a thin layer (1−10mm) formed on the soil surface by water drop impact.
It can have a porosity 90% lower than that of an unsealed soil. Permeability declines during rain
or irrigation when the surface aggregates break down and are compacted under drop impact.

Surface sealing is largely responsible for restricted initial infiltration under rainfall or irrigation.
Water that is unable to move into the soil profile will run off.

Soil air

Soil air and soil water share the pore space together, and interchangeably, in the soil. The volume
percentage of air present in the pore space is referred to as the soil aeration. Following heavy
rainfall, as water drains through the soil, air moves into the larger pore spaces that were formerly
occupied by water. As the soil water continues to drain away or is used, soil air enters the smaller
pores. The composition of the soil air varies, depending on soil-water relationships and the
biological activities in the soil. Generally, in soil air:

 the moisture content is higher than in atmospheric air

 the oxygen level is lower
 the carbon dioxide level is higher.

The differences in levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are due to the respiration of plant roots
and soil organisms. In practical farming, soil aeration occurs when the farmer carries out tillage
and drainage. Soil aeration encourages the growth of plant roots. It also ensures there is enough

43
oxygen for the respiration of micro-organisms that bring about decomposition. In addition,
aeration helps to remove toxic gases.

Lesson review

1. Explain the relationship between soil air and soil water

2. Explain the difference between hydroscopic, gravitational and capillary water?
3. Hygroscopic soil water refers to
4. (A) excess water in the soil (B) water available to plants
(C) water that is not available to plants (D) water associated with the water-table

5. Capillary soil water refers to water

(A) present in excessive amounts in the soil. (B) available to the roots of plants.

(C) retained in soil organic matter. (D) which permeates through the soil profile

6. Hygroscopic soil water refers to

(A) excess water in the soil (B) water available to plants

(C) water that is not available to plants (D) water associated with the water-table

References

I. Agri info, 2015: Soil and Water Conservation Methods - Management Practices,
II. FAO, 2003: Conservation Agriculture for Soil Moisture, Briefing Notes - Production
Systems Management,
III. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers

44
Week: 4

Lesson: 3

Topic: Soil Erosion

Sub-topic: Water Erosion

In agriculture, soil erosion refers to the wearing a way of a field's topsoil by the natural physical
forces of water and wind or through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage.

Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, involves three distinct actions – soil
detachment, movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, fertility and
soil life, is relocated elsewhere "on-site" where it builds up over time or is carried "off-site"
where it fills in drainage channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity and contributes to
the pollution of adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.

Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at an
alarming rate, causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil
structure, poor internal drainage, salinization and soil acidity problems are other serious soil
degradation conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion process.

Fig 1.23 The erosive force of water from concentrated surface water runoff.

45
Water Erosion

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is controlled by the following factors:

Rainfall and Runoff

The greater the intensity and duration of a rainstorm, the higher the erosion potential. The
impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the
aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic
matter are easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or
runoff amounts are required to move larger sand and gravel particles.

Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during
short-duration, high-intensity thunderstorms

Fig1.24 Illustration of water erosion of a piece of rock

Surface water runoff occurs whenever there is excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed
into the soil or is trapped on the surface. Reduced infiltration due to soil compaction, crusting or
freezing increases the runoff. Runoff from agricultural land is greatest during the rainy season.

Soil Erodibility

Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical
characteristics of each soil. Texture is the principal characteristic affecting erodibility, but
46
 structure, organic matter and permeability also contribute. Generally, soils with faster
infiltration rates, higher levels of organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater
resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam-textured soils tend to be less erodible than
silt, very fine sand and certain clay-textured soils.

Tillage and cropping practices that reduce soil organic matter levels, cause poor soil structure,
or result in soil compaction, contribute to increases in soil erodibility. As an example,
compacted subsurface soil layers can decrease infiltration and increase runoff. The formation of
a soil crust, which tends to "seal" the surface, also decreases infiltration.

Slope Gradient and Length

The steeper and longer the slope of a field, the higher the risk for erosion. Soil erosion by water
increases as the slope length increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff.

Cropping and Vegetation

The potential for soil erosion increases if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants
and/or crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash,
tends to slow down the movement of runoff water and allows excess surface water to infiltrate.

Tillage Practices

Tillage and other practices performed up and down field slopes creates pathways for surface
water runoff and can accelerate the soil erosion process. Cross-slope cultivation and contour
farming techniques discourage the concentration of surface water runoff and limit soil
movement.

47
Lesson review

1. The control of soil erosion is necessary in all the islands but it will be MOST critical in
(A) St Lucia (B) Grenada (C) Dominica (D) St Vincent
2. Erosion is best defined as the removal of surface soil
(A) from one place to another (B) by wind and water
(C) from highlands to low grounds (D) from exposed land areas
3. What is the main cause of erosion on earth?
a) Water b) wind c) living organism d) gravity
4. Which of the following causes splash erosion when it hits the ground?
a) Floods b) rainfall c) wind d) wind
5. What is abrasion
a) A type of erosion caused by floods
b) A type of erosion cause when wind carries loose particles away
c) A type of erosion caused by flying particles breaking off pieces of land
d) A types of soil erosion caused by man
6. Unless soil conservation measures are continually practised, the Caribbean will grow
more dependent on foreign countries for food.
The problem referred to here is MOSTLY one of
(A) erosion (B) finance (C) flooding (D) land use
7. Erosion is best defined as the removal of surface soil
(A) from one place to another (B) by wind and water
(C) from highlands to low grounds (D) from exposed land areas

References

I. Omafra Factsheet, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), Order No. 12-051
II. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers
III. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational
publishers

48
Week: 5

Lesson: 1

Topic: Erosion

Sub-topic: Forms of water erosion

Forms of Water Erosion

Sheet Erosion

Sheet erosion is the movement of soil from raindrop splash and runoff water. It typically occurs
evenly over a uniform slope and goes unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been
lost. Deposition of the eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope

Fig 1.26 Illustration of sheet erosion

Rill Erosion

Rill erosion results when surface water runoff concentrates, forming small yet well-defined
channels. These distinct channels where the soil has been washed away are called rills when
they are small enough to not interfere with field machinery operations. In many cases, rills are
filled in each year as part of tillage operations.

49
 Fig 1.27 The distinct path where the soil has been washed away by surface water runoff
is an indicator of rill erosion.

Gully Erosion

Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion where surface channels are eroded to the point
where they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage operations. Surface water runoff, causing
gully formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet
design for local surface and subsurface drainage systems. Gully erosion results in significant
amounts of land being taken out of production and creates hazardous conditions for the
operators of farm machinery.

Fig 1.28 Gully erosion may develop in locations where rill erosion has not been managed.

Bank Erosion

Natural streams and constructed drainage channels act as outlets for surface water runoff and
subsurface drainage systems. Bank erosion is the progressive undercutting, scouring and
slumping of these drainageways. Poor construction practices, inadequate maintenance,
uncontrolled livestock access and cropping too close can all lead to bank erosion problems. The

50
 direct damages from bank erosion include loss of productive farmland and undermining of
structures such as bridges.

Fig 1.29 Bank erosion involves the undercutting and scouring of natural stream and drainage channel banks.

Effects of Water Erosion

On-Site

The implications of soil erosion by water extend beyond the removal of valuable topsoil. Crop
emergence, growth and yield are directly affected by the loss of natural nutrients and applied
fertilizers. Seeds and plants can be disturbed or completely removed by the erosion. Organic
matter from the soil, residues and any applied manure, is relatively lightweight and can be
readily transported off the field. Pesticides may also be carried off the site with the eroded soil.

Soil quality, structure, stability and texture can be affected by the loss of soil. The breakdown
of aggregates and the removal of smaller particles or entire layers of soil or organic matter can
weaken the structure and even change the texture. Textural changes can in turn affect the water-
holding capacity of the soil, making it more susceptible to extreme conditions such as drought.

Off-Site

The off-site impacts of soil erosion by water are not always as apparent as the on-site effects.
Eroded soil, deposited down slope, inhibits or delays the emergence of seeds, buries small
seedlings and necessitates replanting in the affected areas Sediment that reaches streams or
watercourses can accelerate bank erosion, obstruct stream and drainage channels, fill in
reservoirs, damage fish habitat and degrade downstream water quality. Pesticides and

51
fertilizers, frequently transported along with the eroding soil, contaminate or pollute
downstream water sources, wetlands and lakes.

Lesson review

1. True or False: humans cause erosion through activities such as Cutting down tree, farming
and ranching True False

2. Which of the following is a way to limit the amount of erosion caused by human activity?

a) Planting trees to protect farmland from the wind

b) Planting tree to replace one that were cut down

c) Rotating herds between pastures

d) All of the above

3. This type of erosion creates small channels of running water on the side of a slope.

a) gully erosion
b) wave erosion
c) rill erosion
d) tributary erosion

4. What is the difference between weathering and erosion?

5. Explain the differences between onsite and offsite erosion

6. How can water erosion affect the productivity of the land?

References

I. OMAFRA Factsheet, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), Order No. 12-051
II. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers

52
Week: 5

Lesson: 2

Topic: Erosion

Topic: Wind erosion

Wind Erosion

Wind erosion occurs in a small percentage of land – mainly sandy and organic or muck soils.
Under the right conditions it can cause major losses of soil and property.

Fig 1.30 Illustration of wind erosion

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is controlled by the following factors:

Soil Erodibility

Very fine soil particles are carried high into the air by the wind and transported great distances
(suspension). Fine-to-medium size soil particles are lifted a short distance into the air and drop
back to the soil surface, damaging crops and dislodging more soil (saltation). Larger-sized soil
particles that are too large to be lifted off the ground are dislodged by the wind and roll along
the soil surface (surface creep). The abrasion that results from windblown particles breaks down
stable surface aggregates and further increases the soil erodibility.

53
Soil Surface Roughness

Soil surfaces that are not rough offer little resistance to the wind. However, ridges left from
tillage can dry out more quickly in a wind event, resulting in more loose, dry soil available to
blow. Over time, soil surfaces become filled in, and the roughness is broken down by abrasion.
This results in a smoother surface susceptible to the wind. Excess tillage can contribute to soil
structure breakdown and increased erosion.

Climate

The speed and duration of the wind have a direct relationship to the extent of soil erosion. Soil
moisture levels are very low at the surface of excessively drained soils or during periods of
drought, thus releasing the particles for transport by wind

Unsheltered Distance

A lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, crop residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into
motion for greater distances, thus increasing abrasion and soil erosion

Vegetative Cover

The lack of permanent vegetative cover in certain locations results in extensive wind erosion.
Loose, dry, bare soil is the most susceptible.

Effects of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion damages crops through sandblasting of young seedlings or transplants, burial of
plants or seed, and exposure of seed. Crops are ruined, resulting in costly delays and making
reseeding necessary. Plants damaged by sandblasting are vulnerable to the entry of disease with
a resulting decrease in yield, loss of quality and market value. Also, wind erosion can create
adverse operating conditions, preventing timely field activities. Soil drifting is a fertility-
depleting process that can lead to poor crop growth and yield reductions in areas of fields where
wind erosion is a recurring problem.

54
Conservation Measures

The adoption of various soil conservation measures reduces soil erosion by water, wind and
tillage. Tillage and cropping practices, as well as land management practices, directly affect the
overall soil erosion problem and solutions on a farm. When crop rotations or changing tillage
practices are not enough to control erosion on a field, a combination of approaches or more
extreme measures might be necessary. For example, contour plowing, strip-cropping or
terracing may be considered. In more serious cases where concentrated runoff occurs, it is
necessary to include structural controls as part of the overall solution – grassed waterways, drop
pipe and grade control structures, rock chutes, and water and sediment control basins.

Lesson review

1. What type of erosion would occur most frequently in the Sahara Desert?

a) Glacial Erosion b) Water Erosion c) Wind Erosion d) None of the above

2. What leads to erosion?

A) Deforestation b) Overgrazing c) Clear Cutting d) All of the above

3. What causes erosion?
a) Wind b) moving water c) ice d) all of the above

4 The soil layer that is affected most by erosion is .

a) Topsoil b) subsoil c) bedrock d) parent rock

5. . Accelerated soil erosion is caused by:

A) overgrazing B) landslides
C) strong winds blowing over desert areas D) running water on steep slopes.
6. Explain how farmers use cultural practices, vegetation and engineering to control
soil erosion.?

55
References

I. OMAFRA Factsheet, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), Order No. 12-051
II. BMP 06, Soil Management
III. BMP 26, Controlling Soil Erosion on the Farm
IV. R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination
Macmillan publishers
V. S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean
educational publishers

56
Week: 5

Lesson: 3

Topic: Plant nutrients (macro and micro) and their functions

Macronutrients: used in large quantities by the plant

Structural nutrients: C, H, O

Primary nutrients: N, P, K

Secondary nutrients: Ca, Mg, S

Micronutrients: used in small quantities by the plant

Fe, B, Cu, Cl, Mn, Mo, Zn, Co, Ni

Plants require eighteen elements found in nature to properly grow and develop. Some of these
elements are utilized within the physical plant structure, namely carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O). These elements, obtained from the air (CO2) and water (H2O), are the basis for
carbohydrates such as sugars and starch, which provide the strength of cell walls, stems, and
leaves, and are also sources of energy for the plant and organisms that consume the plant.

57
Elements used in large quantities by the plant are termed macronutrients, which can be further
defined as primary or secondary. The primary nutrients include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
and potassium (K). These elements contribute to plant nutrient content, function of plant
enzymes and biochemical processes, and integrity of plant cells. Deficiency of these nutrients
contributes to reduced plant growth, health, and yield; thus, they are the three most important
nutrients supplied by fertilizers. The secondary nutrients include calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
and sulfur (S).

The final essential elements are used in small quantities by the plant, but nevertheless are
necessary for plant survival. These micronutrients include iron (Fe), boron (B), copper (Cu),

chlorine (Cl), Manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni ).

Major Nutrients

1. Nitrogen (N):

Nitrogen is an essential element for plant growth and is found in many compounds. These
include chlorophyll (the green pigment in plants), amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and
organic acids.

2. Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus is used in several energy transfer compounds in the plants. An essential function for
P is its role in nucleic acids, the building blocks of the genetic code material in plant cells.

3. Potassium(K):

Potassium is used as an activator in many enzymatic reactions in the plant. Another role for K in
plants occurs in special leaf cells, called guard cells, found around the stomata. Guard cell turgor
controls the degree of opening of the stomata

4. Magnesium:

Magnesium plays a vital role in plant cells since it appears in the center of the chlorophyll
molecule. Certain enzymatic reaction require Mg as a cofactor.

58
5. Sulfur:

Sulfur is a component of sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine.

6. Calcium:

Calcium is required for calcium pectate, which is essential in cell wall development. Also, Ca is
used as a cofactor of certain enzymatic reactions. Calcium sources: Calcium nitrate, calcium
chloride.

Micronutrients:

7. Boron (B):

Boron functions in the plant are not well understood. Boron seems to be essential for healthy
meristem development in young parts such as root tips. Also, it plays a role in flowering stage of
plants. Boron-deficient plants show dead shoot tips, and new side shoots also die. Know
about essential nutrients for plant growth. Boron sources: Sodium borate, Boric acid.

8. Iron (Fe):

Iron is used in the biochemical reactions that form chlorophyll, and is a part of one of the
enzymes that are responsible for the reduction of nitrate nitrogen to ammoniacal nitrogen.

In the deficiency of iron, new leaves turn yellow with greenish nerves.

9. Manganese (Mn):

Manganese functions in several enzymatic reactions that involve the energy compound
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Manganese also activates several enzymes and is involved in the
processes in the electron transport system in photosynthesis.

The dead yellowish tissue is observed between leaf nerves in manganese deficiency.

10. Copper:

59
Copper is a component of many enzymes in plants and is a part of the protein in the electron
transport system of photosynthesis. Dead leaf tips and withered edges are observed in copper
deficiency. Copper sources: Cupric chloride, copper sulphate.

11. Zinc:

Zinc is involved in activation of several enzymes in the plant and is required for the synthesis of
indoleacetic acid, a plant growth regulator. Deficient plants show yellowish areas between
nerves, starting at leaf tip and edges. Zinc source: Zinc sulphate.

12. Molybdenum:

Molybdenum is a constituent of two enzymes involved in nitrogen metabolism. The most

important of these is nitrate reductase. Deficiency symptoms are brownish areas along leaf edges
and inhibited flowering.

13. Chlorine:

Chlorine plays a possible role in photosynthesis and might function as a counterion in K fluxes
involved in cell turgor. Deficiency symptoms are wilting due to a restricted and highly branched
root system, often with short tips, and leaf mottling and leaflet blade tip wilting.

Major elements
Nutrient Function
1. Nitrogen 1. It makes plant dark green & succulent
2. It promotes vegetative growth.
2. Phosphorus 1. It stimulates root development, increases the number of tillers, gives
strength to straw and prevents lodging.
2. It hastens ripening of plants and counteracts the effects of excessive
nitrogen.
3. It improves the quality and yield of grain.
4. It increases disease resistance, enhances the activity of rhizobia and
increases the formation of root nodules in legumes
3. Potassium 1. Vigour and disease resistance to plants.
2. It increases efficiency of the leaf in manufacturing sugars and starch.
3. It helps to produce stiff straw in cereals and reduces lodging

60
 4.Calcium 1. Increases stiffness of straw and promotes early root development and
growth.
2. It encourages seed production
3. It is essential for all green plants
5.Magnesium Helps in uptake of phosphorus and regulates uptake of other nutrients.
6.Sulphur It stimulates root growth, seed formation and nodule formation.

Lesson review

1.Calcium is a macro-nutrient needed by plants for:

A protein synthesis B chlorophyll formation
C development of root tips D succulence of fruits.
2.Boron is a trace element required by plants for:
A synthesis of respiratory enzymes B formation of chlorophyll
C amino acid synthesis D normal cell division.

3. What are the three primary nutrients needed for plant growth?

A. Calcium, sulfur and magnesium

B. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium

C. Zinc, boron and copper

D. Don't know

4.Identify one primary and two secondary macro plant nutrients

5 Explain the importance of the following nutrients; nitrogen. Calcium and phosphorus.
5.
References
(i) R. Ramharacksingh, 2011. Agricultural science for C.S.E.C examination Macmillan
publishers

(ii) S. Ragoonanan,2011. Agriculture for C.S.E.C revision course. Caribbean educational

publishers

61