LAS 5 ATTACHMENTS- DO NOT COPY! FOR FURTHER READINGS ONLY!!!

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Traditional Resources

Traditional resources include any textbooks and workbooks used in the classroom. For example, language arts
classrooms almost always have literature textbooks, writing textbooks, and even vocabulary and spelling workbooks. In
addition to these, traditional resources also include any supplemental reading material, like novels or poems outside of
the textbook.

These materials can really help to introduce new concepts to your students. For example, when learning the concept
of theme, a literature textbook can provide numerous reading materials all displaying theme in different types of
literature. In the same way, workbooks can give some useful basic practice activities for a new vocabulary words or even
writing activities that might be difficult for students. Then, when mastery is shown on a basic level, a teacher can
introduce more challenging material related to that concept.

To evaluate these traditional resources, the most important aspect is to make sure you choose material within the
resource that appropriately relates to your learning objective. Most textbooks and workbooks have already been
designed to align with certain educational standards and are therefore very reliable in regards to addressing classroom
goals. Still, it is important to be sure to choose material within the textbooks that matches your specific learning
objective.

Graphic Organizers

A second type of instructional material is the graphic organizer, which is any type of visual representation of
information. Diagrams, charts, tables, flow charts, and graphs are all examples of graphic organizers. For instance, in a
math classroom, it is essential to use graphs on a coordinate plane when learning about the equation of a line so that
students can actually see how a line is graphed. In language arts, Venn diagrams and plot diagrams are clear
instructional tools to use when comparing or analyzing events in a piece of literature. All of these graphic organizers
allow students to physically see relationships between ideas. This is imperative for learning, especially for students who
are more visually oriented. Seeing a clear relationship is always easier than an abstract idea in your mind.

In fact, having students create their own graphic organizers can be a great way to incorporate active learning. For
instance, you can have students read a short story or even an informational article and then create their own visual
representation of the information. This pushes students to internalize and apply the information, which requires more
thought than simple recall.

To evaluate your graphic organizers, the most important aspect is to make sure they support learning and are not
merely creative distractions. Some materials can be very fun and interesting, but if they do not support learning, they
should not be included in your lesson. For instance, a Venn diagram on two characters in the novel, A Tale of Two Cities,
can be a nice visual, but this is a higher-level novel and needs a more in depth type of graphic organizer. At this level, a
Venn diagram is just too simple.

Teacher-Made Resources

A last type of instructional material comprises any teacher-made resources. These include anything the teacher
creates, like handouts, worksheets, tests, quizzes, and projects. Many of these are used for assessment in the classroom,
which is determining the level of learning on any given topic. For instance, different handouts or worksheets can be used
throughout a unit to see which students are getting it and which students are struggling.

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 Evaluating these materials is very important. Everything a teacher creates must be a true assessment of the learning
objectives. For instance, a test on a more advanced novel needs to show how a student can apply the concepts of
theme, character development, conflict, and other literary ideas covered in that unit. In this case, simple recall of plot
events should take a lesser role in any teacher-created assessments.

I. Printed and Duplicated Materials

These comprise all textual and other materials that can be run off in large numbers on a duplicator or printing
machine for use by students. Facilities for the production of such materials are now available in practically every college,
and they have become one of the most basic and widely used of all educational tools. Some of the more important types
are listed below:

 Handouts: these comprise all the different types of information-providing materials that are given out to
students, usually in connection with a taught lesson or programme of some sort; they include sets of notes
(either complete or in skeleton form), tables, diagrams, maps and illustrative or extension material.
 Assignment sheets: these include such things as problem sheets, reading lists, lab. sheets, briefing sheets for
projects and seminars, worksheets, etc.; they can be used in practically all types of instructional situations.
 Individualized learning materials: these comprise all the different types of textual materials that are used in
connection with individualized learning; they include study guides, structured notes, textual programmed
materials and textual support materials for mediated learning systems.
 Resource materials for group exercises: these comprise all the various printed and duplicated materials that
are used in connection with group learning exercises; they include background reading material, briefing
material, role sheets, instruction sheets, datasheets, and so on.

II. Non-projected display materials

As its name suggests, this category includes all visual display materials that can be shown to a class, small group or
individual student without the use of an optical or electronic projector of any sort. It includes a number of the most
basic - and most useful - visual aids that are available to teachers and lecturers, some of the more important of which
are listed below:

 Chalkboard displays : displays that are written, printed or drawn on a dark-colored surface using chalk; still one
of the most widely-used of all visual aids, despite the fact that practically everything that can be done using a
chalkboard can be done more easily, less messily, and (in most cases) more effectively using the overhead
projector; probably most useful for displaying impromptu 'signposts', notes and diagrams during a taught lesson
and for working through calculations and similar exercises in front of a class.
 Marker board (whiteboard) displays: displays that are written, printed or drawn on a light-colored surface using
felt pens, crayons or other markers; these can be used in the same ways as chalkboard displays, and have the
advantage of being less messy and offering a wider range of colors; also, a marker board can double up as a
projection screen if necessary.
 Felt board displays: moveable displays that are produced by sticking shapes cut out (or backed with) felt or
some similar material to a board covered with felt, or to a sheet of felt pinned onto a wall; a comparatively
cheap, highly portable and extremely useful display technique, especially in situations that require the
movement or rearrangement, {pieces (demonstrating table settings, carrying out sports coaching etc.)
 Hook -And -loop board displays: similar to felt board displays, except that the backing material on the display
items possess large numbers of tiny hooks that engage loops on the surface of the display board; suitable for
displaying heavier items than felt boards.
 Magnetic board displays: displays consisting of items that are made of (or backed with) magnetic material or
fitted with small magnets so that they stick to a ferromagnetic display board; can be used in much the same way
as felt board and hook-and-loop board displays.

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  Flipcharts: large sheets of paper hung from an easel of some sort so that they can be flipped forwards or
backwards in order to reveal the information on a particular sheet or produce a fresh blank sheet on which
impromptu information can be written or drawn; individual sheets can be posted on walls to stimulate
discussion.
 Charts and wallcharts: large sheets of paper, carrying pre-prepared textual and/or graphical and/or pictorial
information. Such charts can either be used to display information during the course of a lesson or can be
pinned to the wall of a classroom or lecture room in order to be studied by the students in their own time.
Wallcharts, in particular, can be extremely useful for providing supplementary material or acting as a permanent
aide memoire or reference system for learners (e.g. the periodic tables of the elements that areprominently
displayed in practically all chemistry classrooms).
 Posters: similar to wallcharts, but generally containing less information - often simply a single dramatic image;
useful for creating atmosphere in a classroom.
 Photographic prints: enlarged prints made from photographic negatives may be incorporated into textual
materials, wallcharts etc., and, in linked sequences with suitable captions, can form a useful instructional
medium in their own right; such sequences are particularly suitable for use in programmes designed for
individual study.
 Mobiles: systems of two-or three-dimensional objects that are hung from the roof of a class by thread, thus
producing a visually attractive display whose shape is constantly changing due to air currents; particularly useful
for creating interest among younger children.
 Models: useful in cases where three-dimensional representation is necessary (e.g. crystal structures, animal
skeletons, etc.) or where movement has to be demonstrated.
 Dioramas: static displays that combine a three-dimensional foreground (e.g. a model landscape of some sort)
with a two-dimensional background, thus creating an aura of solidity and realism.
 Realia: displays of real items (e.g. geological or biological specimens) as opposed to models or representations
thereof; extremely useful if such materials are readily available and easily displayed.

III. Still-projected Displays

This category includes all visual display materials which do not incorporate movement and which require an optical
projector of some sort in order to show them to a class or group or enable them to be studied by an individual learner. It
again includes some of the most useful visual aids that are available to teachers, instructors and trainers, the most
important of which are listed below:

 Overhead projector transparencies and similar materials: textual or graphical images on large acetate sheets
that can either be displayed to a class or group using an overhead projector or viewed by individuals or small
groups using a light box of some sort; probably the most useful and versatile visual aid that can be used to
support mass instruction methods in the modern classroom.
 Slides: single frames of 35 mm photographic film mounted in cardboard, plastic or metal binders, often between
twin sheets of glass (compact slides) or larger images roughly 314 inches square (lantern slides - now largely
obsolete); one of the most useful methods of displaying photographic or graphic images to a class, small group
or individual student using a suitable front or back projector or viewer - either singly or in linked sequences.
 Filmstrips: these are simply strips of 35 mm film carrying linked sequences of positive images, each usually half
the size of a standard 35 mm frame (half-frame, or single-frame filmstrips) but sometimes the full size (full-
frame, or double-frame filmstrips); they are a convenient and (when purchased commercially) comparatively
cheap alternative to slide sequences, and can be used in much the same ways, using suitable filmstrip projectors
or viewers for display or study.

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  Microforms: microform is a general term for any medium that is used to carry micro-images, i.e.
photographically-reduced images of pages of text, graphic materials, etc.; the most common types are
microfilms (rolls of strips of photographic film carrying a linear sequence of such images), microfiches
(transparent sheets of photographic film carrying a matrix of such images) and micro cards (opaque sheets
carrying similar matrices of micro images); all such microforms can be used to carry the frames of instructional
programmes (e.g. programmed learning sequences) , to act as highly compact data banks, etc., and can be
studied using special magnifying viewers or projectors.

IV. Audio Materials

This category includes all the various systems whereby straightforward audio signals can be played to a class or
group or listened to by an individual. It again includes a number of extremely useful - albeit often neglected -
instructional aids, some of the most important of which are described below:

 Radio broadcasts: educational radio broadcasts constitute an extremely useful free resource for teachers and
trainers, and, although they are often difficult to incorporate into the timetable if listened to at the time they are
actually transmitted, this can easily be overcome by recording them for later playback; note, however, that it is
only certain designated educational broadcasts that can be so used without infringing the copyright laws.
 Gramophone records: recordings of music, plays, etc. on gramophone records again constitute a relatively
inexpensive and readily-available instructional resource in certain subject areas, and are suitable both for
playing to a class or group and for private listening by individuals, &though they are not so convenient to store,
handle or use as tape cassettes.
 Audiotapes: audio material recorded on an open-reel tape or tape cassette constitutes one of the most useful
resources at the disposal of the modern teacher or lecturer; such material can be used in a wide range of
instructional situations, either on its own or in conjunction with visual materials of some sort.

V. Linked audio and still visual materials

This is the first of the two classes in which audio and visual materials are combined to form integrated instructional
systems, and includes a number of media that are particularly suitable for use in individualized learning. Again, some of
the most commonly-used systems are listed below:

 Tape-slide programmes: audiotape recordings (usually on cassettes) synchronized with linked sequences of
slides constitute one of the most commonly-used integrated audiovisual media, and one of the most useful; they
can be used in a wide range of instructional situations, particularly individualized learning.
 Tape-photograph programmes: these are basically the same as tape-slide programmes, except that sequences
of photographic prints are used instead of sequences of slides; their range of applications is rot so great,
however, being largely restricted to individualized learning situations.
 Filmstrips with sound: these are simply filmstrips that have an accompanying sound commentary, usually on a
tape cassette; they can be used in much the same way as tape-slide programmes.
 Radio vision programmes: this is a technique pioneered by the British Broadcasting Corporation whereby still
filmstrips are produced to accompany educational radio programmes; the filmstrips can either be shown to a
class during the actual broad cast or used with a recording of same.
 Tape-text: combinations of printed or duplicated materials with audio recordings constitute an extremely useful
individualized learning technique; the audio component can either be carried on a separate audiotape (usually a
cassette) or carried on special strip or sheet that is incorporated in the medium that carries the text; the latter
systems (known as audio cards, audio pages, talking pages, etc.) require specialized equipment to use them.
 Tape-model, tape realia, etc: combinations of audiotapes (usually cassettes) and still visual display materials
such as three dimensional models, collections of realia (e.g. geological and biological specimens) and microscope
slides; such hybrid systems can prove extremely useful vehicles for individualized learning.

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 VI. Cine and Video Materials

This class includes all media that enable audio signals to be combined with moving visual sequences, thus enabling a
further dimension to be added to integrated audiovisual presentations. The main systems that are currently available
are as follows:

 Cine films: such films have been in regular use in education and training for many years, and are available in a
number of formats; the most commonly-used type is probably 16 mm, although 8 mm and Super 8 mm films are
also widely used, since they are much cheaper to make and show.
 Loop films: these consist of loops of cine film (usually 8 mm) mounted in special cartridges that enable them to
be shown or viewed continuously using a custom-designed projector or viewer; such loop films are ideal for
teaching single concepts that require movement to demonstrate them to full advantage, and, although they do
not normally have an accompanying sound commentary, this can easier be added using a separate sound
system.
 Tape-film programmes: these are highly-sophisticated integrated systems that enable audio material to be
combined with sequences of still and moving pictures; most systems of this type use separate cassettes or
cartridges to carry the audio and video components, and obviously require specialized equipment to show or
view them.
 Television broadcasts: as in the case of educational radiobroadcasts, educational television broadcasts
constitute an extremely useful free resource for teachers and lecturers; like the former, they are not usually
transmitted at convenient times, but, thanks to the development of relatively cheap videorecorders, this
limitation can now be easily overcome; readers should again note, however, that it is only certain designated
educational television programmes that can legally be recorded for subsequent educational use, and that an
appropriate license is usually required even for this.
 Videotape recordings: television sequences or programmes recorded on videotape now constitute one of the
most useful and powerful instructional media at the disposal of teachers and lecturers, and can be used in a
wide range of teaching/learning situations.
 Videodisc recordings: although not yet as widely-used as videotapes and videocassettes, videodiscs (in which
the signal is recorded optically or electronically on the surface of a special disc) have a tremendous potential in
education and training.

VII. Computer-mediated Materials

This final category includes all the various materials that require a computer of some sort to enable them to be
displayed, studied or used. Arguably, the computer constitutes the most important single resource ever to become
available to teachers and lecturers since the invention of the printing press, and may well have a similar revolutionary
effect on the way education is carried out, bringing about the massive shift from conventional expository teaching to
mediated individualized learning that some commentators are currently predicting. Whether or not this happens, there
is no doubt that appropriate use of computers can be of tremendous assistance to the practicing teacher or lecturer.
Some of the main types of computer-mediated systems are listed below:

 ‘Number crunching' and data processing packages: one of the most obvious uses of the computer in education
is as a ‘supercalculator' or data processor; it is now possible to acquire or produce software packages that
enable virtually any calculation or data processing task to be carried out automatically on the computer, and,
when appropriately used, such packages can be of tremendous help to both teachers and learners.
 'Substitute tutor' packages: another obvious use of the computer is as a vehicle for administering individualized
learning, since it has the potential to provide a degree of interaction and feedback that no other system (apart
from a real live tutor) possesses; thus, 'substitute tutor' computer-based learning packages seem certain to
become one of the most important tools available to lecturers and students.

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 'Substitute laboratory' packages: a third important instructional application of the computer is as a vehicle for
providing, through computer-based simulations, access to a far wider range of educational experiences than has
ever been possible before; again, such 'substitute laboratory' packages seem certain to become increasingly
important tools for lecturers and students of all types.
 Data base systems: as well as being used to process information, the computer can be used to store it, and to
help retrieve it when required; thus, teachers and lecturers can now use computers to create data bases that
can be used in a whole range of instructional situations.
 Computer-managed learning systems: a fifth major application of computers in education is their use in an
administrative or managerial role, e.g. in the overall administration of the system, timetable planning, budgetary
control, and the management of the actual teaching/learning process; here again, software packages that
enable these various things to be done are likely to become increasingly widely used.
 Interactive video systems: such systems, which probably constitute the most powerful and potentially the most
useful in mediated instruction system yet developed, use a computer to gain access to video material stored in a
random-access videorecorder in the context of a fully-interactive computer-based learning programme.

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 LAS 6 ATTACHMENTS- DO NOT COPY! FOR FURTHER READINGS ONLY!!!
PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

1. Principles of Appropriateness
 IMs must promote the general and specific goals of the class
 IMs must be appropriate to the intended level
o Vocabulary level
o Difficulty of concepts
o Methods of development
o Interest appeal
 IMs must be either basic or supplementary to the curriculum
 It must be applicable to a certain grade level
2. Principle of Authenticity
 IM must present accurate, up-to-date and dependable information
 It should be factual, well-defined, reliable
3. Principle of Cost
 Substitutes must be considered first
 The cost per student of media presentation diminishes as the number of students using it
increases
4. Principle of Interest
 IMs must catch the interest of the learners
 Must stimulate curiosity or satisfy the learner’s need to know
 It must have the power to motivate, encourage creativity, and imaginative response among
users
5. Principle of Organization and Balance
 IM must be well organized and well balanced in content
 Purpose of the material must be clearly stated or perceived
 There should be logical organization, clarity and accordance with the principles of learning such
as reinforcement, transfer and application in the materials
 The instructional materials and their contents should be aligned with the curriculum
 Topics should be arranged in a sequential manner
 Objectives should be S.M.A.R.T (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time-bound)

4 FACTORS IN SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

1. Learning Tasks and Condition

 What do the students need to accomplish using the instructional materials?
 What are the learning objectives and the type of learning activities?
2. Learners
 What are the characteristics of learners? (needs, capabilities)
 Are the learners motivated + inspired to learn?
3. Context
 How can the learning environment be conducive for learners so they can complete their tasks?
 What are the instructional conditions that facilitate learning?
4. Media Attributes
 What are the attributes of instructional media you will be using?
 The other factors given, how is the chosen medium affected?

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 LAS 7 ATTACHMENTS- DO NOT COPY! FOR FURTHER READINGS ONLY!!!
GUIDELINES IN SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

“You should have a good idea of your destination… if you do not know where you are going, you
cannot properly choose a way to get there”

1. Size
 The materials (text or picture) big enough to be seen by the farthest students in the classroom.
 Relativity of size of picture observed when it is viewed with other materials or pictures.
2. Color
 Is the material colorful?
 Pupils are attracted by bright and dark colors. And if so, is the choice of colors life-like
harmonious?
 Does the color facilitate understanding?
3. Durability
 Can the materials stand several uses?
 Can it be used over and over again?
4. Economy
 Is the material worth its costs?
 Or can a cheaper material in terms time spent in preparing it and in terms of the cash value be
used?
5. Easy to Handle
 Is the material light and easy to manipulate?
 Is it easy to put up and then store for future use?
6. Relevance
 Is the material up to date?
 Is it related to the lesson in particular and to the specific needs, problems, and experiences of
the target clientele?
7. Novelty
 Does the material possess an element of newness?
 Can it arouse the curiosity and a sense of discovery in the learners?

THE PROPER USE OF MATERIALS

You may have selected your instructional material well. This is no guarantee that the instructional
material will be effectively utilized. It is one thing to select a good instructional material. It is another thing to
use it well.

To ensure effective use of instructional material, Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel, (1972) book
authors on Instructional Media, advise us by the acronym PPPF.

 Prepare yourself. You know your lesson objective and what you expect from the class after the session
and why you have selected such particular instructional material. You have a plan on how you will
proceed. What questions to ask, how you will evaluate learning and how you will tie loose ends before
the bell rings.

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  Prepare your students. Set class expectations and learning goals. It is sound practice to give them
guide questions for them to be able to answer during the discussion. Motivate them and keep them
interested and engaged.

 Prepare the material under the best possible conditions. Many teachers are guilty of the R.O.G.
Syndrome. This is means “running out of gas” which usually results from poor planning. (Smith, 1972)
Using media and materials, especially if they are mechanical in nature, often requires rehearsal and a
carefully planned performance. Wise are you if you try the materials ahead of your class use to avoid a
fiasco.

 Follow up. Remember that you use instructional material to achieve an objective, not to kill time nor to
give yourself a break, neither to merely entertain the class. You use the instructional for the attainment
of a lesson objective. Your use of the instructional material is not the end in itself. It is a means to an
end, the attainment of a learning objective. So, if there is need to follow up to find out if objective was
attained or not.

There is no such thing as best instructional material

 Any instructional material can be the best provided it helps the teacher accomplish his/her intended
learning.
 No instructional material, no matter how superior, can take the place of an effective teacher.
 Instructional materials may be perceived to the labor saving device for the teachers. On the contrary,
the teacher even works harder when she makes good use of instructional material.
 “You should have a good idea of your destination, both in the over-all purposes of education and in the
everyday work of your teaching. If you do not know where you are going, you cannot properly choose
a way to get there.”
 The use of instructional materials is not the end in itself, but it is a means to an end, which is the
attainment of the learning objective. Selecting appropriate instructional materials is one thing and it is
another thing to ensure or sure its effective use. And there is a need to follow up to find out if the
objective was attained or not, otherwise they become useless.

Robert Gagne’s nine (9) events of instructional material in the subject facilitating learning.

Robert Mills Gagné (August 21, 1916 – April 28, 2002) was an American educational psychologist best
known for his Conditions of Learning. He pioneered the science of instruction during World War II when he
worked with the Army Air Corps training pilots. He went on to develop a series of studies and works that
simplified and explained what he and others believed to be "good instruction." Gagné was also involved in
applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based training and multimedia-based
learning.

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 These are the (9) instructional material in the subject facilitating learning:

1. Gain attention- With many distractions present upon entry to the classroom, it is important to capture
their attention immediately. Learning may only take place when students are focused and you have
managed to peak their interest. There are many ways to gain their attention:
 A fun fact or prompting question at the beginning of a lesson
 A gesture or loud noise to offer a change in stimulus
 A visual or auditory prompt, such as images or sound effects on PowerPoint Slides
 Questions constructed by students to be answered by peers in the class

2. Inform learner of objectives- The learning objective is typically shared with students early on in the
lesson. This not only helps them achieve the specific expectations related to the learning goal, but also
internally motivates them to complete each task. There are many ways to outline the learning objectives:
 Draft an example piece that meets expectations
 Co-create success criteria as a class
 Describe specific benchmarks to be met and how they would be measured
 Outline learning goals on evaluations

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning- Learning is a process consisting of many steps where each new piece
of information is built upon the last. Prior experiences facilitate the learning process because they allow
information to be stored meaningfully. Prompting for prior knowledge can be done in many ways:
 Encourage students to integrate previous knowledge into the activity
 Make connections from earlier topics to the current lesson
 Question students about prior concepts
 Ask students to share any related experiences they have had

4. Present stimulus material- After drawing on prior knowledge, the content is then presented to each
learner. Information should be presented in various ways in order to meet everyone’s learning style. There are
many ways to meaningfully share content with learners:
 Reiterate information through various forms of media (e.g. presentation, video, group project)
 Pique interest by sharing content in different ways (e.g. lecture, podcast)
 Allow students to access information anytime through a digital platform such as Blackboard
 Promote student engagement with active learning strategies

5. Provide learner guidance- The overarching goal of providing learning guidance is to “make the stimulus
as meaningful as possible”. Making connections with the topic of study helps learners better retain
information. This event also offers examples of correct performance in the form of graphs or case studies.
There are many ways to provide learning guidance to students:
 Offer mnemonics, images and analogies – visual tools enable students to recall information more
easily
 Brainstorm ideas and co-create a concept map to help students connect to the material
 Scaffold learning by gradually reducing instructor support
 Provide examples of what a correct performance would look like and non-examples of what to
avoid during a performance

6. Eliciting the Performance (Practice)- It is now the learner’s turn to direct the next event by practicing
the skill taught. The learner will demonstrate their understanding with a performance, which will further
cement their knowledge on the topic. However, the role of the instructor is still valuable. The teacher can
support memory retention and initiate learning by:
 Creating effective evaluations – tests and quizzes should include comprehension questions and
application opportunities, not just recall or simple memorization.

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  Providing mid-point assessment – projects, assignments, and presentations throughout the unit
allows you to monitor learning and provide appropriate feedback.

 Directing classroom activities – encourage collaboration, ask thought-provoking questions, and

facilitate discussions on a topic.

7. Provide feedback- Feedback is a valuable tool used to keep students on track towards the learning goal.
Personal and timely guidance from the instructor allows students to modify their performance in order to
meet the objective. Feedback from their peers is also valuable, as it may help answer their questions during
the learning process. Instructors may offer feedback in a variety of comment types, a few of which are listed
below.
 Confirmatory feedback: provides encouragement and confirms to the student that they are on a
course that is likely to result in success. Confirmatory feedback does not provide the next steps for
the learner.
 Evaluative feedback: evaluates the precision of the student’s performance. Evaluative feedback
also does not provide the next steps to progress.
 Remedial feedback: displays the correctness of a student’s performance. While Remedial feedback
prompts students to review their work, it does not provide the correct response.
 Descriptive or analytic feedback: offers suggestions, next steps and where the student needs to
improve. Arguably the most valuable of feedback, this is also the most time-consuming as an
instructor
 Peer-evaluation and self-evaluation: allows for reflection and analysis. Students are able to
identify gaps in their performance and examine the work of their peers. Discussing various
responses and examples may help students answer their own questions about the topic.

8. Assess performance- Assessing student performance is usually demonstrated in the form of a

summative assessment; whether the learner is able to meet the objectives without prompting or support. It is
important to note that one evaluation alone is not sufficient to determine if a student needs additional
practice on some skills or whether the content has been stored in memory. Multiple evaluations may be
necessary to determine if the learning goals have been achieved. There are multiple ways to assess student
learning:
 Offer students multiple opportunities to demonstrate understanding
 Be transparent about learning criteria and attach rubrics to written work and assignments
 Provide feedback in order to guide students towards success (e.g. quiz, oral discussions)
 Place formative assessments throughout learning journey to check for acquisition of skills

9. Enhance retention transfer- One way to support retention of skills is by practice. This event is often the
least favored by students as they find the repetition rather tedious. However, practice is proven to be effective
in developing the application of skills as well as increasing the likelihood that the skills will be retained over a
long period of time. Limited time in class often means that there are limited opportunities to enhance memory
retention as well as practice applying skills taught to new situations. Regardless, there are many ways to
enhance retention of skills and transfer knowledge to long-term memory:

 Promote the transformation of information by encouraging students to convert their knowledge to

a different format (e.g. from visual to written).
 Promote cross-curricular learning by weaving information from the current topic of study into
other course content.
 Build on previous learning by adding in content from prior tests to new evaluations.
 Highlight the objectives by consistently referring back to your learning goals and developing
assignments that support achieving these goals.

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 LAS 8 ATTACHMENTS- DO NOT COPY! FOR FURTHER READINGS ONLY!!!
IMPORTANCE AND THE USEFULNESS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SOCIAL STUDIES INSTRUCTIONS

1. Stimulation of Interest

In teaching-learning process, there is the need to generate, arouse, motivate and maintain students’
interest. If the learners’ interest is built properly, learning can take place effectively. As instructional materials
have the potentials if effectively used for regulating the pace of information flow among different class of
learners under the same classroom. It addresses individual differences and preserve-in fact, Students are
arousing with the nature and the beautiful appearance of the materials which will make them to Settle down
and learn what the teacher had prepared to teach.
Nnyejmesi (1981) sited by Anyawu (2003) agreed and based on investigations that pictures-(i)
stimulates and help further study, helps children to take active interest in the topic presented, (ii) Manning
admitted that they find pictures interesting and that pictures gave them clear ideas of the topic. This resulted
in further activities and comprehension of the verbal materials.

2. Concretize abstract issues or topics in social studies

The use of instructional materials in social studies makes learning real, practical and more permanents
to the learners. It makes conceptual abstraction in social studies more meaningful.
Esu (2004) sates that; instructional materials are valuable assets in learning situations because they make
lesions practical and realistic. They are the pivots on which the wheels of the teaching-learning process rotate.
Since its concretize issues, it then facilitates revision (recall) activities and provider very unique opportunities
for self and group evaluation for the teacher and the students alike. It captures the student intellect and
eliminates boredom; make the work easier, neater, and boosting for clarity and more appeal.

3. Creating effective communication

Instructional materials if properly used allow for a flow and transmission of ideal from the teacher to
the students and likewise from the students to the teacher or from one group to other.
The learners will be able to see, touch, spell what is been talked about by the teacher and be curious to ask
questions that would be very helpful for effective evaluation (formative) of the teacher and instructions in
social studies.

4. Use for mass instruction and taking care of wide audience.

With the use of projected and electronic materials such as television, overhead transparencies and
computer especially, instructions are packaged in a very broad manners and which take care of wide range of
learner in a classroom with less stress and time. Many students will be able to learn faster as the package
takes care of various learners’ interest at the same time. Teacher can handle a very large class conveniently as
the teacher is guiding and displaying the instructional materials on the wall with the use of projector.

5. Providing meaning and useful sources of information to teachers and learners.

Teachers are up to date and able to provide for reliable and useful information for the learners with
the use of instructional materials, it can effectively be used to ultimate, shorten information from various
sources for the purpose of comparison and contrasting ideas. It helps in perception and retention of
information or knowledge in social studies learners.

6. They help in developing a continuity of reasoning and coherence of thought

Social studies discipline been an integrate course of study that incorporate ideas from different
disciplines, the use of instructional materials helps the learners on providing integrated experiences, which
may vary from, disciplines which make the end product of education more productive.

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 Since students are expose to the real nature of those concept or body of knowledge they tend to
analyses and synthesis those body of knowledge for the proper application in their daily lives.

7. They save time and reduce verbalism or repetition of word

Emma & Ajayi (2004) asserts that “figurative speaking instructional materials enable the teacher to be
in more than one place at a time and to address several issues at a time. For example, a video material could
be on while the teacher moves around to explain to individual students the subject contents in response to
requests based on individual differences on problems. While the video material continues, providing details of
the assignment the teacher also becomes part of the listening audience. It reduces verbalism or repetition of
world by the teacher without knowing their meaning and also adds Varity in reinforcing verbal messages by
providing a multi-media approach. Esu (2004) asserts that instructional materials are indispensable factor in a
teaching learning process. This is because or clearly words or verbalization has been found to be inadequate
for effective teaching. Instructional materials, frankly speaking reduce the level at which the teacher should
strives himself in the process of talking rather he guide the process of the instructions. And as a result save his
time in process of teaching.

8. They are used to perfect teaching methods and promote chores relations between the community
and school.
The teachers of social studies perfect not only their methods of teaching but also perfect contents and
situations (activities) to be taught. With the use of instructional materials, the teacher is able to edit, try and
retry, alter and delete his activities to fit the standard of the students and also to effectively address the
curriculum objectives. Instructional materials if properly utilize helps in giving direct contact with the realities
of the learners both social and physical environments.

The purpose of using instructional materials in social studies is for the students to internalize the
situational issues happening around his totality, the students will be able to identify crucial issues and address
these issues if properly inculcated with the use of instructional materials. Walsh (1967 in chuba 2000) posited
three importance of teaching aids in social studies class, as;
1. Easing off teachers’ teaching task,
2. Satisfying different children’s learning patterns and
3. In-building of special child’s/ learner’s appeal by teaching aid manufactures, which help to motivate or
captivate interests of the learner.

Almost in a similar note, Ikwumelu (1992; 29 in cluba. 200; 102) outlined the following points as the
reasons why teachers must apply teaching aids in the social studies classrooms:
1. Teaching aids helps to concretize abstract issues and topics;
2. They motivate pupils’ interests in topic being discuses,
3. They develop continuity of reasoning and coherence of thought which augurs well with the inter-
interdisciplinary nature of social studies,
4. Teaching aids save time and as things presented are almost self-explanatory, energy is saved in too
much talking and writing and
5. They help to appeal to pupil interests and this is because, they tend to appeal to children’s difficulties
as well as take care of children’s differences.

PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENT FOR THE SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

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 The preceding discussion had shown that there are many instructional materials available and from
various sources equally. It is therefore very important, of a social studies teachers to note and bear in mind
that every instructional materials has its definite unique strength in teaching-learning situation that properly
cannot be replicated by the use mother. It is necessary to note that through effective communication, better
teaching and faster learning can only be facilitated or guaranteed by careful selection and skillful utilization of
appropriate instructional materials by the users.
However, availability, of the instructional materials, teacher’s experience, terms of preference and the
volume of instructions should constitute intrinsic consideration in their selection decision. Despite of that fact,
the following five principles should guide social studies teachers in the selection of instructional materials:

Principle 1 instructional tasks; The behavioral objectors, contents, learning activities, evaluation instruments
and techniques as element of instructional tasks, should be taking into cognizance by social studies teacher in
the selection of instructional materials.

Principle 2 target audience attributes; These consists the learners’ factures and their level of understanding,
their developmental stages such as age, sex, physical skills, attitude towards self and others, the learners
experiences, social-economic background should be considered.

Principle 3 the economy; The available resources, financial factors technological advancement, economic
climate of society where the materials should be operated, the socio-cultural level of the materials users,
degree of urbanization, feasibility and acceptability of the selected instructional materials are equally
considered in the selection decision.

Principle 4 dynamic variables; These variables constitute the concentration and size of the target audience,
the desired level of learners response and participation, the classroom social climate, sitting, viewing and
listening arrangement, available time, space, teacher competence among others are to be seriously
considered in the selection decision.

Principle 5 the environmental factors; these consists the educational community and the available
educational infrastructure. Such as people facilities, equipped library, workshops, laboratories, electricity,
water supply and personnel should equally be considered in the selection.

Bozimo (2002) posited the following criteria in the selection of instructional materials;-
(i) Appropriateness of the materials to instructional objectives;
(ii) Freedom of the content from bias,
(iii) Degree of the quality variety of the materials,
(iv) Quality of the format, print, sound or photography,
(v) Availability of the materials to clarify objectives of and how to operate the materials,
(vi) How reasonable the time, effort and expenses are for both the students and the teachers

These considerations are extremely necessary in selecting instructional materials for social studies. Kissock
(1981:86-87 in Bozimo 2002:39-40) poses some questions that will assist a social studies teacher in selecting
and applying instructional materials. These questions are as follows;

(i) Do the materials fit within the planned rationale and scope of the programme?
(ii) Will there use help ensure alignment of objectives created for this programme?
(iii) Are they compatible within the teaching strategies selected?
(iv) Do they offer the content which is important for achieving the objectives?
(v) Are they languages and vocabularies appropriate for the studies’ reading abilities?
(vi) Are there any harmful ethnic, religious, social, sexual or racial biases in the materials?
(vii) Are they well made?

(viii) Is the cost appropriate and affordable?

(ix) Will they be useful for the length of time desired?

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(x) Will teachers find the materials easy to use?
(xi) Will students be interested in making use of them?
(xii) Are they factually correct?

Hence, Iyewarun (1989:60 in Bozimo 2002) added that, in order to select and use resources materials
appropriately, the social studies teacher must be able to respond satisfactory to the following questions:

(i) Can the resource materials serve intended purpose?

(ii) Are the resource materials appropriate for intended learners?
(iii) Are the resource materials readily available?
(iv) Can the resource materials serve as adequate supplements?
(v) Are the resource materials careful and systematically organized for effective use?

Emma & Ajayi (2004) identify five criteria for the selection as follows:
(i) Behavioral objectives and the structure of subject Mather
(ii) Learning style
(iii) Practicability
(iv) Availability
(v) Teacher’s capability

THE PRINCIPLES OR GUIDELINES AND REQUIREMENT FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Use and utilization judges the value of instructional materials, process or personnel by the degree they
singly or collectively satisfy the derived instructional needs. The foresight instructional behavior controls, to a
large extent, the means for achieving them. Instructional materials are not ends in themselves but means of
attaining specific instructional functions. Teachers ability to effectively utilize the available media and this
optimize the attainments of instructional situation varies with their level of utilization. However, once
materials have been selected, careful preparation comes first by the user and other subsequent preparation.
Anyanwu (2003) identify three ways by which the teacher should prepare for the use of instructional
materials in social studies, these are as follows:

(1). By previewing: - before any instructional materials are brought to the class, the teacher has to have a first
knowledge by using it herself before the class,
(2). First knowledge: - the teacher should have a full knowledge of the parts, names operational level of the
intended instructional materials,
(3). Actual presentation- this is the period the teacher operates and uses these materials in instructing the
children.

The following are the basic six guidelines and requirement for utilization and use of instructional
materials in social studies:

1st Guideline: specification-of objectives clear objectives which are behaviorally stated are user ring guides in
instructional materials using process they direct the sequence, methods, content and techniques of
instructional in social studies. They provide scientific basis of valid evaluation instruments construction and
administration.

2nd Guideline: maximal, fit with instructional tasks Instructional materials must be appropriate to situation
ally determined and individually responsive

3rd Guideline: preparation and preview for effectives and successful use of instructional materials for proper
teaching –learning situation, the teacher must in advance prepare himself, the learners and the environment,
the materials as a matter of must should be previewed by the teacher in order to follow its process of
presentation sequentially.

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4th Guideline: multi-dimensional presentation proper and creative use of a variety of instructional materials
at different level of lesson planning can be adequate in achieving various instructional objectives, reason
because it will enrich variety of learners mind as they attain better goals more easily than with the use of a
single medium
5th Guideline: environmental situation the environmental variables such as physical cultural and social in
which the instructional materials are utilized for learning have significant effect on their effectiveness. Sound-
motion films for instance with their attention-complexly properties can be successfully presented in less quiet
environment.

6th Guideline: measure for outcomes instructional materials should be evaluated in terms of their suitability,
practicability to the instructional objectives, appeal to the cost effectiveness, learner achievement level,
consistency with content call for improvement in utilization techniques etc.

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