Combine PDF

Ethiopian Civil Service University
College of Urban Development and Engineering
Transport Planning and Management Masters

Program
Course Title : Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering and
Road Safety Management (TPM6021)
Chapter One
Introduction to Road Safety and Traffic Engineering
Presented
by
Belet E.
1 March, 2024
Contents
 Introduction to Road Safety and Traffic Engineering
 Road Safety o
Background
o Safety, Accidents and Crashes
 Transport and Traffic Engineering
o Concept of Transportation and Traffic Engineering o
Significance of Transport Engineering o Activities in
Transport Engineering
o Challenge of Transport Engineering o
Elements of Traffic Engineering
2
Unit Learning Objectives
 At the end of this session, students will be able to:
o Understand the importance of safety and causes of road
traffic accidents
o Understand the concept of transport and traffic
engineering
o Comprehend the significance of transport
engineering
o Describe challenge of transportation engineering
3
Background
 With increasing number of motorization, there is an increasing trend in
loss of lives, heavy and light injuries, and property damages
 Historically, the first road traffic accident was reported in August 17,
1896 when Bridget Driscoll, 44 years old mother of two was hit car and
dead due to higher speed
 Transportation related accidents are now global problems and even
becoming among the first critical killers both in advanced and emerging
economies
 According to WB and WHO statistics, 1.2 million people killed each year
(i.e. around 3,000 deaths daily where 500 are children) o One child is
killed, every 3 minutes in the World
o About 50 million people are injured each year, 15 million seriously
 So, these problems needs to be addressed that initiated for the
4 road safety concern
Safety, Accidents and Crashes
 Traffic Safety
 Absence of traffic accidents
 Freedom from injury or risk in the transport process
 Free from fear of traffic accident for trips made from origin
to destinations
 Accident/Traffic Accident
 Collisions on public road at least involving one moving
vehicle
 Causes of Accident
 Different elements in the transport environment (roads,
vehicles, pedestrians, drivers, animals, weather
condition, etc…)
5
Safety, Accidents and Crashes (Cont.…)
 Difference between Accident and Crash
 The term accident implies a chance event, one that is out of
the driver's control
 Crash is a more neutral and purely descriptive term which is
a predictable results of specific actions
 United States of American National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA) in 1996 replace the term 'accident'
with the term 'crash' in all their official documents and
communications
 Nonetheless, since the term accident is still in common use, the
two terms will be used interchangeably
6
Safety, Accidents and Crashes (Cont.…)
 A great number of road safety policy measures were
th
developed in the 20 c (since1960s)
 Limitation in the past road safety policies were:
 Did not consider mobility needs of different modes of transport
(e.g. lack of infrastructure for different modes, even though,
certain European countries were developing policies that regard
cycling and walking as modes of transport)
 Lack of integration between transport planning and land use
planning, between transport planning and environment, etc…
7
Concept of Transport and Traffic
Engineering
 Definition and Scope
 Transportation/transport engineering is the application of
technology and scientific principles in planning, functional
design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide safe, efficient, rapid,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods
 It is the branch of civil engineering and mechanical
engineering
 It includes Highway Engineering, Tunnel Engineering,
Railway Engineering, Air Transport Engineering and Water
Transport Engineering.
8
Concept of Transport and Traffic
Engineering (Cont.…)
 Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses
engineering techniques to achieve safe and efficient movement
of people and goods
 It focuses mainly on research for safe and efficient traffic
flow, such as:
o Road geometry
o Sidewalks and crosswalks o
Cycling infrastructure
o Traffic signs
o Road surface markings and o
Traffic lights
9
Significance of Transport Engineering
 Transport engineering helps to regulate the overall transport
system, where transport system is a vital element of the
overall land use and economic system
 It helps in developing policies and strategies for the
management of the future travel demand, including the most
appropriate modes of travel and identifying the infrastructure
needs
 It may also assists to identify the need for investment in entirely
new systems or forms of transport
10
Activities in Transportation Engineering
 Activities of transportation engineering at different phases (Planning,
Design, Building, Operation and Repair)
A). Activities During Planning
 Planning starts with the selection of projects for design and
construction
 Selection of the project should begin by defining the
problem, gathering data, analyze it, then evaluate various
alternative solutions
 Also involved in the process of forecast future traffic, estimate
of impact of the proposed facility on land use, environment,
and the community
 Determine the benefits/costs that will result if the project is built
and
 Investigate the physical feasibility of the project
11
Activities in Transportation Engineering (Cont.…)
B. Activities During Design
 Design involves the specification of all features of the
transportation system so that it will function smoothly and
efficiently in accord with physical laws
 The design process results in a set of detailed plans that
can be used for estimating the facility costs for carrying out
its construction
 For a highway, the design process involves
o Selection of dimensions of all geometrical features such as
longitudinal profile, vertical curves and elevations and
cross section
12
o It also involves the design of pavement itself, including the
structural requirements for the base and sub-base courses
and the pavement material, such as concrete or asphalt
o Also involves the design of bridges and drainage
structures, as well as the provision for the traffic control
devices and landscaping
13
C. Activities During Construction
 Construction is closely related to design and involves all aspect
of the building process
 Begin with clearing of native soil,
 Preparation of the surface
 Placement of pavement material and
 Preparation of final road way for use by traffic
D. Activities During Traffic Operation
 All activities after street and highway has been constructed and
opened for operation. It involves
 Traffic accident analysis
 Facilities for parking, loading/unloading (terminals)
 Facilities for traffic control (traffic signs, marking,
signals, speed regulation)
14  Highway lighting and landscaping
E. Activities During Maintenance
 Maintenance involves all the work necessary to ensure
that the highway system is properly functioning
 It includes pavement patching, repair, and other actions
necessary to maintain the roadway pavement at a desired
level of serviceability
15
16
Challenge of Transportation Engineering
 To keep pace with the ever-changing new needs and emerge
technologies transport engineers face a number of challenge
during different phases (planning, design, construction,
operations and maintenance).
17
Elements of Traffic Engineering
 Key elements of traffic engineering
o Traffic studies to understanding the traffic
characteristics
o Facility design
o Traffic operations
o Traffic control
o Performance evaluation
o Integration of intelligent transportation system
technologies
o Transportation systems management
18
Elements of Traffic Engineering (Cont…)
 Traffic Studies and Characteristics
 To measure or quantify various aspect of highway traffic (traffic
volumes, demands, speed, travel time, delay, accidents, origins
and destinations, modal use, and other related variables)
 Performance Evaluation
 Rating the operating characteristics of individual
sections of facilities
 Measures of performance quality based on specified performance
criteria in terms of “levels of service” grades from A to F
19
 Facility Design
 Functional and geometric design of highways and other
necessary traffic facilities
 Traffic Control
 Central function of traffic engineers and involves the
establishment of traffic regulations and their communication
through the use of traffic control devices, signs, markings,
and signals
20
 Traffic Operations
 Involves measures that influence overall operation of traffic
facilities, such as
o One-way street systems o
Transit operations
o Surveillance (Inspection/supervision) o
Network control systems
 Transportation Systems Management (TSM)
 Involves all aspects of traffic engineering in a focus of optimizing
system capacity and operations (increasing the person-trip capacity
of existing transportation systems) through:
o High-occupancy vehicle priority systems o
Car-pooling programs
21 o Pricing strategies to manage demand, etc…
 Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)
 Application of modern telecommunications technology to the
operation and control of transportation systems
 Such systems include
o Automated highways,
o Automated toll-collection systems,
o Vehicle-tracking systems,
o In-vehicle GPS and mapping systems,
o Automated enforcement of traffic lights and speed laws,
o Smart control devices, and others.
22
Thank You!!!
Question and Comments!
23
Ethiopian Civil Service University
College of Urban Development and Engineering
Transport Planning and Management Masters

Program
Course Title : Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering and
Road Safety Management (TPM6021)
Chapter Two
Road Safety Audit (RSA)
Presented
by
Yibeltal Dubale
1 March, 2019
Content
 Definition
 Objectives of RSA
 Benefits of Road Safety Audits
 Main Features of RSA
 Types of Projects that May be Safety Audited
 RSA at Different Stages of the Project
 Road Safety Audit Teams
 Safety Audit Process
 Responses to Safety Audit Reports
 Post-Audit Feedback
2
Unit Learning Objectives
 Understand the concept of Road Safety Audits (RSA)
 Describe benefits of RSA
 Identify types of projects that may be safety audited
 Realize the role and responsibilities of Road Safety Audit
Teams
 Describe Road Safety Audit process and responses
3
2.1. Concept of Road Safety Audit
 Definitions
 RSA is a term used internationally to describe an independent
review of a future road project to identify anything that may
affect the road’s safety
 It intended to deliver a safe road system and is not a review of
compliance with standards
 It’s a formal and standardized procedure to assess possible
road safety consequences of the design
 It’s a preventive measure to signal any potential road safety
problems, before the infrastructure is actually built and to
make suggestions for improvements
4
 RSIA (RIA) and RSA are separate process where RSA examines the
safety aspects within a scheme, RSIA considers safety impact of a
scheme on the surrounding road network
 RSIA and RSA both work to improve the safety performance of new
roads and existing roads that require modifications
5
2.2. Objectives of RSA
 The prime objective of a road safety audit is to help ensure a
project achieves an outcome consistent with Safer Journeys and
Safe System approach –minimization of death and serious injury
 Key objective of RSA is summarized as:
o Minimize the risk and severity of road accidents that might be
affected by the road project at the site or nearby network
o Minimize the need for remedial work after construction o
Reduce the whole-life costs of the project
o Improve the awareness of the safe design practices by all of
those involved in the planning, design, construction and
maintenance of roads
6
2.3. Benefits of Road Safety Audits
 Helps to achieve the objectives of a safe system by providing a
safer road network with self-explaining roads
 Minimize the risk of high-severity crashes that may result from
design deficiencies in a proposed road project
 Minimize the need for rework and physical remedial works caused
by road safety deficiencies at the various stages of project
development, including construction
 Reduce the whole-of-life costs of the project
 Improve the awareness of, and contribute to,
improvements in safe design practices.
 The cost of a road safety audit and the consequent cost of
changing a design are significantly less than the cost of remedial
treatments after works or the social cost of road
7 crashes
2.3. Benefits of Road Safety Audits (Cont…)
 Safe Journeys
 Safer Journeys is a road safety initiatives for a safe road
system increasingly free of death and serious injury’
 Safer Journeys advocates taking a Safe System
approach to road safety
 Safe System approach is based on a ‘shared responsibility’
between system designers and road users, and improving all
elements of the road system including roads and road side,
speeds, vehicles and road use.
 Safe System approach focuses on creating safe roads, safe
speeds, safe vehicles and safe road use
8
Safe System Approach
9
 Safe System Principles
o Recognize that people make mistakes and some crashes
are inevitable.
o Human bodies have limited ability to withstand crash forces
without being seriously injured or killed
o System designers and the people who use the roads must all
share responsibility
o We need to improve the safety of all parts of the system – roads
and roadsides, speeds, vehicles, and road users so that if one part
fails, other parts will still protect the road user
Safe System.PPTX
10
2.4. Main Features of RSA
 Focuses on the safety aspects of the project
 Is carried out by
o People who are independent of the client and designer or
contractor
o People with appropriate experience and training, and who
understand the safe system approach
 Is a formal documented process
 Considers all potential road users
 Requires a formal documented response from the client
11
2.4. Main Features of RSA (Cont.….)
 RSA is not intended to be:
o A substitute for a quality control review, a design review
or a peer review
o A judgment of the quality of a project (as the project will
likely have other components)
o A compliance check with standards, guidelines or drawings
and specifications (a separate review is required for this
purpose noting that compliance with standards or other
documents does not necessarily result in a safe system)
o A redesign of a project
o An informal check, inspection or consultation
12
2.4. Main Features of RSA (Cont.….)
 A means of ranking or comparing one project or option over
another (although it may form part of the decision process).
 Engineering standards and guidelines provide a sound starting
point from which a good design can evolve
 However, their application alone does not necessarily result
in the safest road environment
 Thus, road safety audits provide a further means of
checking road safety outcomes
13
2.5.Types of Projects that May be Safety Audited
 RSA is applicable to all types of road projects, that can be as small
as a pedestrian crossing or set of road humps, or as large as a
motorway
 RSA can be conducted on road projects that include, but are not
limited to:
o Major divided and subdivision roads o
Expressways and motorways
o Reconstruction and realignment
o Intersection upgrades or installations
o Pedestrian and cycle routes and facilities
o Temporary traffic management schemes (from a safe system
perspective, not as a compliance review)
o Intelligent transport systems
o Minor safety works
14 o Seal extensions and widening, pavement rehabilitation
2.5.Types of Projects that May be Safety Audited (Cont.…)
 RSA on Off-Road Projects (Commercial Developments)

 Vehicle–pedestrian conflicts in a new car park
 Increased numbers of pedestrians crossing the
adjacent road
 A spillover of parking onto an adjacent busy road
 Location of access ways
 Restricted visibility or delays where vehicles access the
development
 Changed public transport circulation and access by users
 Changed access unloading for service vehicles
15
2.6. Terminologies Related to RSA
 Road Controlling Authority (RCA): organization charged
with managing the road asset
 Asset Manager: organization ultimately responsible for
managing the asset. For most road projects this will be the
RCA.
 Client: organization commissioning the project
 Project Manager: Person delegated to manage the
project on the behalf of the client
 Safety Engineer: Advisor to the client on safety issues
 Designer: team undertaking the investigation, or the design,
or supervision of the construction of the project
16
2.6.Terminologies Related to RSA (Cont.…)
 Contractor: The team engaged by the client to
construct the project
 Road Safety Audit Team: The team undertaking the audit
 Project: Any work that results in a change in nature or use
of an asset
 Road: Refers to any area that may be frequented by either a
motorized or a non-motorized member of the public
17
2.7.When to Undertake a Road Safety Audit
 A road safety audit should be undertaken at project
milestones such as:
o Concept stage (part of a business case)
o Scheme or preliminary design stage (part of pre-
implementation)
o Detailed design stage (pre-implementation or
implementation)
o Pre-opening or post-construction stage
(implementation or post-implementation)
18
Road Safety Audit Milestones Within Project
Development Cycle
19
2.7.When to Undertake a Road Safety Audit (Cont.….)
 The above stages should not be seen as rigid, as all projects are not
the same and smaller projects will not always follow all the
development stages
 The earlier an audit is undertaken, the easier and less
expensive it is to make changes
 A road safety audit only at the post-construction stage should be
avoided, as often it is too late to make significant improvements if
required
 A post-construction road safety audit should be undertaken before
opening the project for public use
 If this is not possible, the road safety audit should be
undertaken as soon after opening as possible
 For projects that are constructed in sections, road safety audit may
be conducted at the completion of each section
20
2.8. Road Safety Audit at Different Stages
 Road safety audit may be carried out at any or all of the
following stages:
 Stage 1: Feasibility (Concept stage )
 A safety audit can influence: o
Scope of a project
o Route choice
o Selection of design standards
o Impact on existing road network o
Route continuity
o Provisions of interchanges or intersections o
Access control
o Number of lanes
o Route terminals, stage development, etc…
21
2.8. RSA at Different Stages (Cont.….)
Stage 2: Preliminary Design Stage (Draft design)
– This audit stage is undertaken on completion of a draft plan or a
preliminary design and typical considerations include at this
stages:
• Horizontal and vertical alignment
• Sightlines
• Intersection layouts
• Lane and shoulder width
• Super elevation
• Overtaking lanes
• Provisions for parked and stationary vehicles
• Provisions for bicyclists and pedestrians
• Effects of departures from standards and guidelines
• Safety during construction, etc
22
Stage 3: Detailed Design Stage ( pre implementation or
implementation stage)
• This stage is on completion of detailed design, normally before
preparation of contract documents, considerations include:
o Line markings o
Signing
o Delineation
o Lighting
o Intersection details
o Clearance to roadside objects o
Drainage
o Roadside objects o
Landscaping
o Road side batters o
Guard fencing
o Provision to road user groups with special requirements
o Temporary traffic management and control during
construction, etc…
23
Stage 4: Pre-opening or Post-construction stage
(implementation or post-implementation)
• Prior to opening of the road to traffic, the audit would
involve driving, riding and walking through the project to
check the adequacy for the needs of all road users
– Involve night-time inspection
– Inspection of both wet and dry conditions
• It would consider similar issues raised in stage 2 and 3, but
with the view of assessing their adequacy as actually
constructed
• Taking specific note of variations that might have occurred
from the plans in the process of construction
24
Stage 5: In-service (Monitoring)
• Systematic examination of sections of the existing road
network to assess the adequacy of the road, intersection,
roadside, etc from an explicit safety viewpoint
• This can have two applications
• Monitoring a new scheme after it is opened to traffic (i.e. in
the weeks and months following stage 4 audit)
• Safety audit of an existing road network with a view of
identifying safety-related deficiencies (Although all 5 of the
above stages can and have been used)
• In practice the first and last of these stages are less
common
25
2.9. Parties to Road Safety Audit
 The parties typically involved in the road safety audit vary
but typically include:
o Client
o Asset manager (where different from the client) o
Designer and/or Contractor and
o Road Safety Audit Team
26
2.10. Road Safety Audit Teams
 The most appropriate size of a road safety audit team
depends on the complexity of the audit task
 The audit team should be normally not more than four persons
composed of:
o Team Leader (1)
o Team Members (1 to 3) o
Observers (1 to 2)
 Benefits of having an audit team, rather than a single person,
include:
o Diverse backgrounds, experience, knowledge and
approaches of different people
o Cross-fertilization of ideas through discussion o
Simply having more than one pair of eyes
 The teams should possess balanced skills appropriate to the
27 individual projects
2.11. Required Skills at Different Stages
 Concept and scheme/preliminary design stages:
o The issues to be examined are quite different (broader and
often more subtle) than for later stages and these audits should
be undertaken only by very experienced safety auditors
 Detailed design stage :
o Include person(s) familiar with the types of details
required in the project (for example, a person with
expertise in motorway design, traffic signals, cycle
facilities, etc…)
 Pre-opening or post-construction stage:
o Must include members such as traffic police officer who has
experience in traffic and safety, an advocate for pedestrians
and/or cyclists, a maintenance engineer, a
28 person familiar with traffic control devices, etc.
2.12. Required Skills and Experience from Team
Members
 Well trained professionals who have experience and
knowledge in:
o The application of Safe System principles to road design
and safety audits, including safe roads, safe speeds and safe
road use principles
o Crash reduction studies
o Traffic engineering, and management of traffic and other
road users
o Road design and road construction/maintenance
techniques.
29
2.12. Experience and Skills (Cont.…)
 Team Leader
o A good understanding of the Safe System approach (with
training)
o Demonstrated management and reporting skills
o A wide range of road safety engineering experience o
Crash reduction study skills
o Up-to-date professional experience and knowledge of current
research
o Previous experience in other regions in a country or other
countries
30
2.12. Experience and Skills (Cont.…)
 Team Members
o A good understanding of the Safe System approach (with
training)
o Road safety engineering experience o
Crash reduction study skills
o Up-to-date professional experience and knowledge of current
research
o Previous Experience in road safety audits
 Observers: can be included in a RSA team simply to
observe the process
o They may come from a variety of backgrounds
o Those aspiring to become team members and ultimately
team leaders should satisfy the criteria
31 above
2.13. Road Safety Audit Process
 Once a decision has been made to undertake a road safety
audit and the audit team had been selected and appointed,
the audit team will work through the process
 If a decision is made not to undertake an audit then this
should be documented.
32
2.13. Road Safety Audit Process (Cont.…)
2.13. Road Safety Audit Process (Cont.…)
Road Safety Audit Process Party Responsible
Steps
Steps in Road Safety Audit Process
1). Project Information
 The client/designer should provide the road safety audit team
with all the project information, preferably at least one week
before the audit is undertaken
 The following documents should be provided to audit team o
Information on project scope and objectives
o Stage and scope of the road safety audit
o Previous audits, responses and client decisions o
Project assessment reports
o Traffic data
o Crash data
o Design report or statement covering standards adopted
 Desirably a road safety audit should not proceed until
drawings and documents are complete
35
Steps in Road Safety Audit Process (Cont...)
2). Briefing Meeting
 Communication between the parties throughout the audit
process is very important as it helps foster trust and credibility
in the process.
 For the designer and client to brief the road safety audit
team on issues, constraints and specific areas that require
comment
 For the road safety audit team to seek additional data and
discuss any initial observations from reading the background
information
 To discuss the program for completion of the audit and
delivery of the report
 To determine the protocol for delivery of the report
36
3). Document Assessment
 This phase takes place in parallel with the site
inspections
 The road safety audit team discusses their initial
observations and reviews the documents in detail
 In this phase, specific tasks may be allocated to various team
members, e.g. one team member may review the geometry of
the road, while others review the drainage and lighting,
delineation, etc.
37
4). Site Inspection
 Inspections of the site are a key component of a road safety
audit and are recommended for each stage of an audit
 An inspection provides the opportunity to see how the
proposal interacts with its surroundings and to visualize
impediments and conflicts for all road users
 Be adequately equipped with safety vests, cameras,
measuring equipment and whatever else they will need
 Should include adjacent sections of road, so that
interface and consistency with the project are considered
38
5). Exit Meeting
 It provides the opportunity to:
o Seek clarification on concerns
o Give preliminary feedback to the designer and client about
the safety concerns identified (particularly those that require
urgent attention)
o Discuss the reasons behind concerns
o Discuss possible solutions to the problems o
Resolve misunderstandings or errors of fact
39
6). Report Writing
 Report on the project involves road safety concerns, and to
make recommendations for corrective actions
 Recommendations may indicate the nature or
direction of a solution
 The road safety concerns should be listed in a logical order
with a numbering system that makes them easy to refer
 The report should not be cluttered with trivial matters
 By their nature, road safety audit reports appear to be negative
documents as they typically raise only concerns
40
Contents of RSA Report: Road safety audit reports could
contain the following information:
i). Introduction
o Title
o Brief description of the road safety audit process
undertaken
o Clear statement of what is being audited
o Road safety audit team: names and affiliations o Dates
that the road safety audit was carried out o Brief
description of the project and its objectives
41
ii). Project information
o List of drawings and documents made available for the audit
o Other supporting information used
o Plans which identify the extent of work
iii). Findings and recommendations
o Sequential list of safety concerns and recommendations,
o Ranking of concerns to aid designers and project
managers
o Referencing system so that the findings are easily
identified, eg by using the checklist topics.
o Formal statement
o Response and decision reporting
42
7). Responses to Reports
 The audit team will send the report to the client and the client
will send it to designer for action
 Designer’s response to the client will:
o Clarify whether they agree or not with each safety audit
issue raised in the report and recommend whether each
audit recommendation should be adopted or not
o Document the reason for the designer’s views (addressing the
safety issue raised and not relying on compliance with
standards)
o Identify the cost and implications of implementing each
audit recommendation
43
o A copy of the report, including the designer’s response to the
client and the client’s decision on each
recommendation, shall be given to the road safety audit
team leader as part of the important feedback loop.
o The road safety audit team leader will disseminate this to
team members.
o It is the client who makes the final decision about whether
recommendations are to be adopted
o Where a recommendation is not adopted, the reasons should
be documented by the client
44
o The client shall brief the designer to make the
necessary changes and/or additions for agreed
recommendations
o Decision tracking is an important part of the road safety
audit process
o A decision tracking table is embedded into the report format at
the end of each set of recommendations to be completed by the
designer, safety engineer and client
45
 The decision tracking table documents: o
The designer’s response
o The client’s decision (and in some cases as noted above,
the asset manager’s comment)
o The action taken
o A copy of the report, including the designer’s response to the
client and the client’s decision on each recommendation
o If major changes result, the client may consider the need for
a further road safety audit
46
8). Post-Audit Feedback
 A key part of maintaining a safe system requires a self-
improvement process
 Actions should be considered to promote the healthy
sharing of knowledge within the industry either formally or
informally
o Regularly review previous audit reports to identify
recurring issues for industry-wide dissemination
o Disseminate information relating to road safety audits or road
safety generally to the industry by either direct communication
with interested parties or a website
o From the review process identify issues that should be
considered for a review of standards or guidelines
47
Discussion Questions
1) What is road safety audit (RSA)?
2) How it is conducted and what are the process?
3) How it helps for road users safety?
48
Thank You!!!
49
Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering and
Road Safety Management
Chapter Three
Causes of Road Traffic Accident
1
Content
 Road Traffic Accidents and the Traffic Engineer
 Major Causes of Road Traffic Accidents
o Road characteristics;
o Vehicle factor;
o Driver factor;
o Other Road Users
• Pedestrian
• Cyclists
• Motor-cycle and Scooter Riders o
Environmental Factors
 Parking and Its Influence on Accidents
2
Learning Objectives
 Identify Major Causes of Road Traffic Accidents
 Evaluate Safety of Different Road Users
 Analyze Parking and Its Influence on Road Traffic
Accidents
3
3.1.Road Traffic Accidents and the Traffic Engineer
 Road crashes are the number one killer of young people
worldwide
 Thus, the traffic engineer must devise ways to reduce
accidents through better planning, design, construction,
maintenance and traffic operation
 The traffic engineer is also concerned about the regulation
and management of traffic to ensure safer travel
4
3.2. Major Causes of Road Traffic Accidents
 Broadly, the factors that cause road traffic accidents
include:
(i) The road characteristics
(ii) The vehicle factor
(iii) The driver condition
(iv) The road user other than motorist
(v) Environmental factors
5
3.2.1. Road Characteristics
1). Curve Radii (Horizontal and Vertical Curve) (1.pptx) o
Safe speed at which a vehicle can negotiate a curve
depends on the radius of the curve, where sharp curves permit
low speeds and large curve radius cater to high design speeds
o Thus, the engineer should have to provide as large a
radius as possible, taking recourse to minimum and
ruling radii only when constrained by site conditions
2). Vertical Alignment (2.pptx)
o Should be designed with the provision of suitable shock-
proof vertical curves
o The vertical curves should be made to blend
homogeneously with the horizontal curves
6
3.2.1.Road Characteristics (Cont...)
3). Sight Distance - Drivers ability to see ahead, it should be
considered for safe
(i) Stopping
(ii) Meeting and
iii) Overtaking, wherever overtaking is prohibited, suitable signs
should be provided
4).Super Elevation (3.pptx)
 For a vehicle to negotiate any curve at the desired speed, the road
should have adequate super elevation
 Deficiency in super elevation can cause serious accidents
5).Carriageway Width
 The minimum carriageway width for a two-way road should be 7 m
to cater for 2 lanes of traffic
 Due to limited finance, most roads in DC are single lane which is a
major cause of accidents because of the inherent
7 danger during overtaking and crossing.
3.2.1.Road Characteristics ….
6). Shoulder Width and Conditions (4.pptx)
 Shoulders are needed for parking stopped vehicles and used for
overtaking and crossing vehicles
7). Road Signs and Road Markings
 Properly designed and maintained road signs inform the
driver of need for caution and can avert many accident
 Similarly road markings such as centre line marking, stop
line marking and pedestrian crossing marking can prevent
accidents.
8
8). Junction Design (5.pptx)
 Any deficiency in the design of junctions can cause
accidents
 Elements of junction design such as turning radius, width
at entry and exist and channelizing islands should receive
proper attention
 Channelization reduces the number of collision points and
hence promotes safety
9). Pavement Surface Characteristics
 The surface should have anti-skid properties even when
the pavement is wet
9
10). Formation Delineators and Guard Rails (6.pptx)
 When driving along curves or high embankments, the driver
needs to be guided about the direction of road
 Guard rails and safety barriers prevent vehicles from going off
the roadway in the event of loss of control and are very useful
in specific situations.
11). Narrow Bridges and Culverts (7.pptx)
 Narrow bridges and culverts can cause very serious
accidents, especially when the roadway is wide
 Widening of such narrow structures should be undertaken if
accidents are frequently caused at the location
 Posting proper warning signs can also save ugly
accidents.
10
12). Median Width (8.pptx)
 A wide median prevents glare from opposite stream of traffic
and promotes safety.
 Strips of 15 m width seem to be desirable for safe operation
of opposing streams of traffic, but it is often difficult to
obtain such a wide median
13). Street Lighting
 Besides reduction in the number of accidents at night, good
street lighting also reduces the proportion of the more severe
type of accidents
 A British study reports that the' average reduction in night
accidents observed after the provision of improved lighting is
about 30 per cent
11
3.2.2. Vehicle Factor
 Vehicles play a dominant role in road safety
 One estimate puts that mechanical deficiencies cause about
5% of all traffic accidents
 However, the subject of vehicle safety is controversial
between manufacturers and users
 The truth is that no vehicle is perfectly safe
 Various aspects of vehicle design and maintenance are
involved in making
(i) Accidents fewer in number
(ii) Accidents less serious to other road users
(iii) Accidents less severe to vehicle occupants
12
3.2.2.Vehicle Factor…
1). Braking System
 One of the prime causes for accidents during braking is the
wheels getting locked and the driver losing control of the
vehicle consequently
2).Vehicle Lighting System
 Lighting system of the vehicle consists of headlights,
(driving main beam and dipper beam), side lamps, parking
lights; rear lights, direction indicators and stop lamps
 The headlight perform two functions: enabling the driver to
see the road ahead for sufficient long distance and to provide
a dipper beam which must avoid glare to the opposing traffic,
while at the same time providing sufficient visibility to the
driver.
13
3.2.2. Vehicle Factor…
3). Vehicle Body and its Features
 Factors that need to be considered are:
(i) the shape and dimensions of the driver's seat
(ii) arrangement of dials on the dash board
(iii) positioning of controls in relation to the driver's seat
(iv) visibility of the driver from the seat
(v) noise levels in the vehicle
(vi) concentration of carbon monoxide inside the vehicle
14
3.2.2. Vehicle Factor….
4). Tyres
 The performance of tyres relative to puncture, blowouts,
vulnerability to damage by sharp objects, braking and road
surface characteristics are areas where considerable research
has taken place
 Skidding is governed by the interaction of the tyre, brakes,
road surface, speed and wetness of the road surface
15
3.2.2. Vehicle Factor….
5). Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance
 Legislative enforcement of an effective inspection
system will yield good results in safety
 Some countries have made it compulsory for testing the
vehicle periodically
 Most important items that need periodic inspection are the
brakes, lighting system and the steering mechanism, the tyres,
suspension system and the windscreen
16
3.2.3. The Driver Condition
1). Sex of the Drivers
o Males have more accidents and convictions than females
2). Age of the Drivers
o Young drivers cause more accidents than mature drivers
with considerable driving experience
o Similarly, old drivers also seem to cause more accidents
than middle-aged drivers due to physical illness
o The minimum 'accidents are caused by the middle aged
group, like 40-50 years old
3). Martial Status of the Drivers
o Married persons (both male and female) have been
observed to be better drivers than others
17
3.2.3. The Driver ….
4). Skills of the Drivers
o Skill is the capacity to control and manipulate the vehicle
under situations
o Some skill is partly inborn and some skill is acquired out of
training and experience
o Systematic training of drivers should have a profound effect on
their driving behavior and performance
o Driving instructions/trainings should only be given by fully
qualified personnel
18
5). Alcohol and Drugs
o Impairs sensory faculties/ablities of a driver
o The judgment and skill of a driver can only properly work as
long as his sensory faculties function unimpaired
o Such functioning is affected by alcohol and drugs
o Drugs which have a profound influence on-the central nervous
system cause changes in the behavior of drivers-to an
appreciable extent
• Study results show that accidents rise during night hours

and week ends. Why?
19
6). Fatigue
o When a driver is tired, due to long hours of driving, he suffers
usually from a lack of concentration that adversely affects road
safety
o Long and monotonously straight reaches of a road have
been known to induce drowsiness and lack of vigilance
 The alignment with a good blend of straights and
curvature tends to keep the driver alert
o Loss of sleep causes drowsiness and lapses in attention
 Limiting the continuous period of driving by
regulations is one of the methods to prevent
accidents
20
7). Use of Crash Helmets
o Motorcyclists who are involved in an accident are prone
to head injuries
o Wearing a protective helmet reduces by 30 to 40 % risk of
injury to the head covered by the helmet
8). Use of Safety Belts
o Drivers, when travelling at a high speed and being suddenly
forced to apply the brakes are thrown forward and hit the
windscreen or the steering wheel which causes serious
accident
21
 Speed Driving
 The frequency and severity of accidents increase as the speed
increases because
(i) The distance needed to stop a vehicle increases as the speed
increases
(ii) The minimum safe separation distance between
vehicles increases with speed (the risk of accident increases
at greater speeds)
(iii) With higher speeds, the distance travelled during the
driver's reaction time increases
(iv) With higher speeds, the skid resistance of wet roads
decreases
(v) When vehicles are approaching with high speed, the 22
judgment of the pedestrian can be less reliable
(vi) Risk of tyre bursts increase with higher speeds
(vii) Risk of mechanical failure due to overheating is
greater at higher speeds
 These problems call for the need to enforce the speed limit
o A reduction in the speed to 50 MPH results 15%
reduction in all injury accidents
o A reduction in the speed to 40 MPH results 20% reduction in
all injury accidents and 30% reduction in fatal and serious
injuries
23
3.2.4. Other Road Users
 Seriousness of the Pedestrian Safety Problem
 A large number of road accidents involve pedestrians
 In the U.S.A., 2/3 of road deaths are of car occupants, and
less than 1/5 are pedestrians
 In Europe 1/3 are pedestrians and 1/3 are riders of two
wheelers
 In Delhi, the pedestrians constitute 46% of the
fatalities from road accidents
 What about in Ethiopia?
24
3.2.4.1. Pedestrians (Cont.…)
 Pedestrian Accident Pattern
 Age: children and the very old are more likely to be at greater
risk than the other age groups
 Sex: the general conclusion is that women are more careful
pedestrians than men
 Social Conditions: The under-privileged and low income groups
figure prominently in pedestrian casualties due to lack of adequate
training and education
 Familiarity with the Locality: knowledge about the crossings,
restricted areas, restricted turnings, one way streets, etc leads to
lesser accidents
25
 Road and its Influence on the Pedestrian Accidents
 Geometric features of the road, design of intersections, foot
way design, traffic control devices, street lighting, and color of
the road surface
o A divided carriageway with central verge is less accident
prone than a two-way carriageway having the same number of
lanes
o The greater the width of the road to be crossed, the greater is
the risk of pedestrian accidents (Crossing at wider carriage
way.pptx)
o One way streets are safer than two-way streets for
pedestrians
o Properly designed channelizing islands, which also
serve as pedestrian refuges, offer an advantage to the
26
pedestrians crossing a road at the intersection
 Pedestrian Crossing Design
o Uncontrolled crossings (Zebra crossing) if the traffic is not
heavy and controlled crossings (Signalized crossings) if the
traffic is heavy, where signal controlled crossings are the safest
 Road Lighting and Vehicle Lighting
o Both road lighting and vehicle lighting play an important
role in ensuring visibility in the darkness
 Pedestrian Footways
o Should be raised above the road level and must have a surface
which will attract the pedestrians to use it
o Encroachments by hawkers and vendors must be
prohibited
27 o The minimum width of a footway should be 1.5 m
 Pedestrian Subways
o Pedestrian subways are provided where large
connection of pedestrian flow occurs
o The subways should be attractive, well lit and
maintained
o A gentle gradient, 1 in 10 or flatter, should be
provided for the ramps
o The width of the subways should be sufficient to meet the-
peak pedestrian flows
28
 Time and Its Influence on Pedestrian Accidents
 Dark period of heavy traffic usually cause frequent
pedestrian accidents (the evening and morning rush hours)
 Pedestrian accident rates are high during week days (heavy
traffic flow and drunks)
 Special rush days due to occasions
29
 Study of Pedestrian Behavior at Crossing
 Speed of Walk
o The average walking speeds range from 0.75 to 1.8 m per
second
o Some authorities recommend that walking speeds below
0.9 m per second should not be used
 Choosing a Safe Gap in the Traffic Stream
o Gap rejections should take place for gaps that are too short
and too risky
o A need to wait for suitably safe gap to cross, merge,
etc…
30
 Measures to Increase Pedestrian Safety
• Segregation of pedestrians and vehicles by the
provision of raised footways
• Provision of railing barriers on busy roads to
channelize the pedestrian flow in safe direction
• Special attention should be paid to mark the crossings o
Black-and-white stripes
o Proper signing
o Near schools warning signs of children
• Provision of dual carriageways, wherever feasible
• Pedestrian refuges should be provided at junctions
• Where pedestrian traffic is very heavy at intersections,
separate pedestrian phases should be
31 provided at signals
• Converting some of the busy streets in the shopping
• One way streets are advantageous for the reduction in the
accident rate
• Adequate street lighting at pedestrian cross-walks and junctions
and vehicle lighting measures ensure pedestrian safety
• Children near schools need special patrol or guides for
crossing the streets
• A legislative measure to force pedestrians to walk facing the on
coming traffic can prevent many accidents
• Road safety education, especially for children,
propaganda and enforcement of traffic rules and
regulations deserve careful consideration
2
• Provision of Crossings for pedestrian-Five types of
pedestrian crossings:
o Zebra crossings: painted in black and white stripes and drivers
are legally obliged to give way to pedestrians waiting to cross.
Zebra crossings don’t have traffic lights but they do have a
broken give-way line that you mustn’t cross when you stop
o Pelican crossings: Differ from zebra crossings in that the flow of
traffic is controlled by traffic lights. Pedestrians waiting at a
pelican crossing are able to press a button that changes the traffic
lights to red after a timed delay, work with timer.
o Light duties: Unless there are people already on the crossing,
drivers can keep going if the lights are green, even if there are
people waiting to cross
33
o Puffin crossings: Pelicans and puffins are essentially the same,
except that a puffin crossing has its sequences controlled by
sensors mounted on the lights, rather than a timer. These sensors
can detect whether any pedestrians are on the crossing and
control the color of lights accordingly.
o Toucan crossings: are designed for pedestrians and cyclists to
use at the same time. With a toucan crossing, the area is
wider, leaving plenty of room for cyclists to ride across.
34
3.2.4.2. Cyclists
 Cycles are becoming popular because of renewed
environmental interest
o Consumes no energy
o Occupies very much less space than an automobile o
Makes no noise and emits no pollutants
o However, a large number of accidents are associated with
cycles, where the types of accidents usually are collision and
falls
 Usual Causes for Cycle Accidents o
Making improper turns
o Disregarding traffic signals, signs and markings o
Improper maintenance of roads (pot-holes, etc…)
 Providing separate cycle tracks is the ideal solution for
35 preventing cycle accidents
3.2.4.2. Cyclists (Cont…)
 Rules to Govern Cycle Traffic to Promote Safety
o Not more than two cycles shall remain abreast or side by side
except at separate cycle tracks
o Cyclists should not use foot-ways
o Cyclists should compulsorily use separate cycle tracks
wherever they' are provided
o Cyclists should not be towed/pulled by any other vehicle
o Double-riding shall not be allowed
o Where no separate cycle tracks are provided, the cyclists
shall keep to the extreme left of the carriageway
o All cycles should be provided with good brakes, night
36 lamps and red reflector at the rear
3.2.4.3. Motor-cycle and Scooter Riders
 The number of motor-cycle and scooters on the streets of the
world is increasing
 This trend is likely to increase in developing countries, where
few can afford the luxury of a car
 A study in Delhi has estimated that the chances of fatality is
14 times as great for motorcycle and scooter riders as for car
drivers
 Regulatory Measures Aimed at Safety of Motor-cycle and
Scooter Riders
o Compulsory provision of rear view mirrors
o Compulsory provision for a screen to cover the rear wheel so
that loose garments do not get entangled in the spokes of the
wheels
37
3.2.4.3. Motor-cycle and Scooter Riders (Cont…)
o Restricting the number of riders to the driver and one
pillion/side seat rider
o Prohibiting a rider with a learner's license to carry a pillion
rider
o Compulsory provision of a proper foot-rest for the pillion
rider
o Restricting the speed of vehicles to a lower value when the rider
is not wearing a crash helmet
38
3.2.5. Environmental Factor
 Weather and its Effect on Accidents
 Elements of weather having an affect on accidents are
(i) Rain
(ii) Snow or Ice and
(iii) Fog
 Rain water causes the pavement to be slippery and can
contribute to skidding accidents and also decreases visibility
 Snow and ice leads for more frequent accidents due to
slipperiness of the road
 Fog also cause accident by affecting visibility of the road
39
3.2.6. Skidding
 Road accidents are very commonly caused by pavement
slipperiness which results in skidding of the vehicle
 Accident statistics show that in U.K., 27% of the accidents
involving vehicles was attributable to skidding
 The wheels of the vehicle get locked due to sudden braking and
skidding results if the frictional resistance offered is too low
 Factors Determining Skid Resistance
1). Pavement
o Different types of pavements have different skid resistance
properties, for instance rough asphalt has a better skid
resistance property than mastic asphalt
40
3.2.6. Skidding ….
2). Effect of Water on the Surface
 The greatest danger of skidding is where the pavement is wet
and the frictional resistance drops down consequently
3). Speed
 As speed increases, the skid resistance drops down
markedly
4). Tyre Characteristics
 The friction which develops between the tyre and the road
surface is governed to a great extent by the tyre
characteristics
41
3.2.6. Skidding ….
 There are two components of this friction
(i) Adhesion component (tyre-pavement interface on dry roads)
and
(ii) Hysteresis component (tyre-pavement interface on wet
roads)
 The tread depth and pattern of tyres influence the skid
resistance to a great extent
42
3.2.7. Parking and its Influence on Accidents
 Parking and unparking maneuvers can cause accidents to
pedestrians, cyclists or to other motorists
 Opening of car doors on parking can suddenly cause a cyclist
or a motorist to be involved in an accident
 Pedestrians can appear from between parked vehicles or in front
of a parked vehicle, unnoticed by a speeding vehicle
 Parking generally reduces the street space and increases the
congestion, thereby indirectly causing accidents
 A suitable policy of regulating on-street parking will have a
salutary effect on the accident situation
43
Causes of Road Traffic Accident
(Photos).pptx
44
Thank You!!!
45
Ethiopian Civil Service University College of Urban
Development and Engineering Department of Transporting
Planning and Management
(Masters Program)
Road Safety and Traffic Management (TPM6051)
Week -3 (Session- 5)
Prepared by:
Belete Ejigu (PhD)

Assistant Professor of Urban Planning and Development - Road Transport Safety
March 20241
Impacts of Road Traffic Accident
Objective
• At the end of the discussion the candidates will be
able to explain the impact or consequences of RTAs
Introduction
• Transportation has created a burden on the modern
society in the form of RTA.
• All countries in the world are currently affected by
road traffic accidents.
• The impacts of RTA vary from country to country;
however, it should be the concern of everybody.
• RTA is a neglected health, social and economic problem.
• In short, the impact or cost of RTA can be:
i. Social impact/health cost
ii. Economic cost
iii. Psychological impact
iv. Environmental impact
v. Administrative cost
1. Social Impact
• The RTA has influence/impact on the social aspects of
the livelihood of victims, families, relatives and friends.
• Over 50% of the global mortality due to road traffic injury
occurs among young adults aged between 15 and 44 years.
• The rates for this age group are higher in low-income and
middle-income countries.
• In 2012, males accounted for 73% of all road traffic
deaths, with an overall rate almost three times than
for females.
• Road traffic mortality rates are higher in men than in
women in all regions regardless of income level, and
also across all age groups.
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
• The report of WHO (2004) indicated that people with road
traffic injuries accounted for
. 13-31% of all injury-related attendees and
. 48% of bed occupancy in surgical wards and were the most
frequent users of operating theatres and intensive care
units. . The increased work load in radiology departments and
. increased demand for physiotherapy and rehabilitation
services were largely attributed to road traffic injuries.
• Permanent disability, such as paraplegia, quadriplegia, loss
of eye sight or brain damage, can deprive an individual the
ability to achieve even minor goals and can result in
dependence on others for financial support and routine
physical care.
• Less serious injuries can result in chronic physical pain and
limit the injured person’s physical activity for lengthy periods.
2.Economic Impact
• Road traffic accidents are currently deteriorating the
financial assets of many nations.
• The cost of road crash injuries is estimated at roughly 1% of
Gross National Product (GNP) in low-income countries, 1.5% in
middle-income countries and 2% in high-income countries. Now
a day, it is within the range of 1-5% GNP
• The direct economic costs of global road crashes have been
estimated at US$ 518 billion; with the costs in low-income
countries-estimated at US$ 65 billion which exceeding the total
annual amount received in development assistance.
• The economic cost of road crashes have been estimated to be as
much as: US$ 24.5 billion in Asia, US$ 19 billion in Latin America
and Caribbean, US$ 9.9 billion in Central and East Europe, US$
7.4 billion in the Middle East and US$ 3.7 billion in Africa (Naci,
Chislom et al, 2008).
• The report FTA (2018) clearly indicates an estimated cost of RTA
in Ethiopia was 920,771,314ETB.
Cost of RTAs
• Reviewing previous studies shows that several key
methods have been used for crash costing in various
studies. For instance, the study made by Hills & Jones-Lee
(1982 & 1983), Krupp et al. (1993) and ADB (2009) have
been proposed different methods of road traffic accident
costing for developing countries.
• They stated that the criteria for choosing any
appropriate method at any particular situation depends
on:
- the objectives and
- the priorities of those who intend to use the costs and
values concerned.
Cont’d…
• The report of Krupp et al. (1993) clearly identified the
three different road traffic accident valuation methods.
1. The human capital approach (HC) which can be further
classified as gross loss of output approach, the net loss
output approach and the value of time approach.
2. The willingness to pay approach (WTP) which can be
further grouped as the individual willingness to pay
approach and the social willingness to pay approach.
3. The cost of restitution method which is the
direct cost generated by accident (restitution is repayment/compensation)
RTAs Valuation Methods
Traffic Accidents Cost
Human Capital Approach Willingness to Pay Approach Cost of Restitution
Gross Output Individual
Net Lost Output Society
Value of Time
Figure 2.6
The Road Traffic Valuation Methods

Source: Krupp et al., 1993
Cont’d…
• The study made by Hills & Jones-Lee (1982 & 1983) have
been proposed six different accident costing method for
developing countries, Hence, the more reliable and
usually used accident costing methods or techniques are
briefly summarized as follows:
1. The Gross Output Method
2.The "net output" Approach
3. The "life-insurance" Approach
4. The "court award" Approach
5. The "implicit public sector valuation" Approach
6. The "willingness to pay" Approach
1. Gross Output Method:
- This method basically requires the estimation of direct and
indirect costs incurred to individuals and society as a whole.
o Costs of a traffic accident divided in to two categories:-
i. the costs due to the loss of current resources
ii. the costs due to the loss of future resources that the victim
would have lived to earn which must be discounted back, to
give present values
- This method suffers a drawback when estimating lost output
using the average wage rates of the nation due to the majority of
the accidents concentrate around cities and on people living in
cities where wage rates are significantly above the national
average. But the method still can be used with some modification to
account for this limitation.
2. The "net output" Approach:
• - The difference between an individual’s gross
output and future consumption may be regarded as a
measure of the rest of society’s economic interest in
his continued survival
• The major limitation in using this approach is that
- it could be very difficult to estimate what a
person consumes through his/her life time.
- the second limitation is lack of literatures used this
technique in estimating road accident costs and
- it is not being used in most countries.
3. The "life-insurance" Approach
• the cost of road accident is directly related to the sums
which individuals are willing or are able to insure
their lives. This is based on the assumption that
insurance cover provides an estimate of the value of
his/her life to dependants.
• Limitation of this method:
- relatively few people carry life insurance like in Ethiopia
4. The "court award" Approach
• The sums awarded by the courts to the surviving dependants
of those killed or injured are treated as indicative of the cost
that society associates with the road accident or the value
that it would have placed on its prevention.
• Real resource costs are then added to this figure to
obtain the cost of an accident.
- The main drawback of this method in using for estimating
road accident costs in Ethiopia is that the sums awarded by
the court is highly dependent on the complex issues taken that
are to be taken into consideration such as degree of
negligence of the defendant, whether any blame is attached to
the person killed or injured, and whether industrial injury
benefits are to be paid rather than the real costs incurred due
to the occurrence of the accident
5.The "implicit public sector valuation" Approach
• With this method an attempt is made to determine the costs
and values that are implicitly placed on accident prevention
in safety legislation or in public sector decisions taken
either in favour of or against investment programmes that
affect safety.
- the main drawback of using this method is that there is an
enormous variation in “implied values of life” even within the
same sector
6. The "willingness to pay" Approach
• This method mainly estimates the amount of money
people affected would pay to avoid an accident.
• Each individual has their chance of being involved in a
fatal accident reduced by a small margin if a road
safety improvement is introduced.
• Thus, the value of preventing one fatality in one
accident is defined as the aggregate amount that all
the affected individuals in society are willing to pay
for these small risk reductions.
• Another approach uses a complex questionnaire where
samples of individuals are asked more or less directly
how much money they would be willing to pay in order
to obtain a small reduction in their own or other people
risk
Cont’d
• Generally, in choosing the appropriate methodology for
costing road traffic accidents in developing countries
like Ethiopia needs a number of issues that should be taken
into account. The objectives and priorities of decision
makers who actually uses the cost figure for
implementation of policies.
• For instance:
- if the objective is to maximize social welfare this can at
best be achieved through utilizing the willingness-to-pay
approach whereas if the objective is to enhance the Gross
National Product (GNP), gross output approach is better
to adopt.
The Main Cost Components in Human Capital Method
• In employing the human capital or gross output approach in most
developing countries, we can use the following cost components.
Causality Lost Labor

Output
Related/Victims
Crash Cost Related/ Cost
Funeral Cost
Property Damages:
vehicle & roadside
furniture
Vehicle & Non - Vehicle Medical Cost
Property damages.
Administration: Police Human Cost:

Investigation, Insurance pain, grief &
Administration & Legal court suffering.
Costs
Figure 2.7
The Main Cost Components in Human Capital Method
Source: Babtie Ross & Silcock, 2003: Melhuish et al., 2003
Cont’d…
In Assessing the Socio - economic and administrative Cost of Road Traffic
Accidents.
- - One of the most well known approaches to
determine road crash costs in developing
countries recommended by TRL, Silcock
According to the study made by Hills (2003) is Human Capital Method because it
& Jones-Lee (1982 & 1983) have consider the output that individuals can
been proposed six different accident produce over their productive life period.
costing method:-
1.The Gross Output Method -The present study used Human Capital/Gross
Output Method of estimating road traffic accidents.
2.The "net output" Approach This method includes the following cost components:
3.The "life-insurance" Approach
4.The "court award" Approach 1.Property damage cost:
5.The "implicit public sector i. Vehicle Damages Cost and
valuation" Approach ii. Non- Vehicle Damage Cost
6.The "willingness to pay" Approach 2. Lost Output (Loss of Productivity)
3. Hospital and Medical Cost,
4. Emergency Cost
5. Loss of Quality of Life/Human Cost
(Pain, Grief and Suffering)
6. Administrative Cost
(Police and Insurance administrative cost)
Cont’d…
Table 3.5
Road Traffic Accident Costing by the Human Capital Theory of the Estimation Process
Estimation Formula
1. Lost productivity in terms of income loss due to fatalities:
n
i
= [No. fatalities × average age in years] × [foregoing income per year using Σ = W(1+g)
(1+r)i
i
2. Lost productivity in terms of income loss from serious injuries (during tr eatment or recovery period): = [No. of serious
injuries] × [No. of days in hospital] × [average wage per day]
3. Lost productivity in terms of income loss by care givers:
= [No. of serious injuries] × [No. of days in hospital] × [average wage per day],two caregivers per
inpatient
4. Lost productivity in terms of income loss from slight injuries (during treatment or recovery period): = [No. of slight
injuries] × [No. of days in hospital] × [average wage per day ]
1. T otal medical costs (fat al injuries) = [No. of fatal injury cases] × [average hospitalization days]
×
[average hospitalization expenses per/person/day]
2. T otal medical costs (serious injuries) = [No. of serious injury cases] × [average hospitalization days]
×
3. T otal medical costs (slight injuries) = [No. of slight injury cases] × [average hospitalization days]
×
1. It is calculated based on t he life insurance and health insurance obtained i.e., t he t otal life
insurance
given and their associated total cost for Fatality as well as t he total number of disabilit y claims paid
and
associated total cost for Serious injury . Emergency Cost for Slight injury
Source: Silcock and TRL, 2003; ADB, 2009; Ayati, 2009 & Adam 2016
Thank You
Ethiopian Civil Service University College of Urban
Development and Engineering Department of Transporting
Planning and Management
(Masters Program)
Road Safety and Traffic Management (TPM6051)
Week -4 (Session- 6)
Prepared by:
Belete Ejigu (PhD)

Assistant Professor of Urban Planning and Development - Road Transport Safety
March 20241
Road Traffic Accident
Prevention, Reduction and
Investigation
Objectives
• At the end of the discussion, the participants will be able
to explain the concept Road Traffic Accident Prevention,
Reduction and Investigation.
Accident Prevention and Reduction
 Accident prevention refers to the plans, preparations and actions
taken to avoid or stop an accident before it happens.
 It is a legal obligation of organizations to comply with the
laws, standard practices, and safety observations to avoid
emergencies and accidents.
 Accident prevention is considered with the application of
safety principles to new road improvement or traffic
management schemes that are initiated to satisfy traffic
demands.
 Accident prevention includes all measures taken in an effort
to save lives, escape from injury, lessen the degrees of injury,
avoid damage to property, reduce treatment and compensation
costs, and prevent the loss of productive time and morale. 4
Cont’d…
 In direct contrast with accident prevention, the term
'accident reduction' is normally associated with remedial
proposals that result from direct accident investigations
on existing roads and which are mainly justified by savings
in the number and severity of accidents.
5
Cont`d…
The
as:
schemes/measures can usually be classified
 Engineering (Safe road and road

environment)
 Education
 Enforcement
 Emergency
6
Engineering Measurements
1. Speed Management

Implement cost-effective speed management measure
and reducing speed limits.
 Well known in literature: the relationship between
vehicle speed, crash risk, and outcome of severity.
2. Guard Rails
 protect traffic from hazardous objects or slopes.
 install it everywhere there is a potential hazard
along the roadside, but that would be expensive.
7
Cont`d…
Guardrail
8
Cont`d…
3. Clear Zones
• Clear Zone is the area along the roadside that is free
of fixed objects or dangerous slopes.
9
Cont`d…
 Theoretical dimensioning principles for clear zone
2 2 2 2
S= V - 11.1 = V - 11.1
2µ×g 2a
Where,
S= breaking distance [m]
V=design speed or operating speed[m/s]
a= deceleration[m/s^2]
µ = coefficient of friction
g= gravity [9.81m/s^2]
10
Cont`d…
 For fill
approximate
slopes, the
stopping
distance of a vehicle at the
design or observed speed of the
roadway may be determined from
the following equation:
2 2 2 2
S= V - 11.1 = V - 11.1
2µ×g 2g× (µcosα-sin
α)
 Where, α = fill slope angle[degree]
11
Cont`d…
4. Recovery Zone
 Itpolicies:
is defined in two different ways according to European
in most countries it is a narrow roadside zone beside
the carriageway considered as an integral part of the total clear,
hazard-free safety.
 Inallows
a few countries, the recovery zone is a hard shoulder that
limited vehicle maneuvers and is considered as a
separate issue.
 Studies show increasing the width of the hard shoulder
by around 0.3 m appears to reduce the number of injury
accidents by about 20 % while increasing the width of the
hard shoulder by around 1 meter does not lead to
statistically significant changes in the total number of
accidents (injury and property damage only accidents).
12
Cont`d…
5. Hazard Protection
 For lighting and utility columns, energy absorbing and break-
away structures are important structures to incorporate into the
roadside area.
 The structures – deformable and rigid – is shown in Figure.
13
Cont`d…
6. Rigid Lighting Columns protected with Guardrail
• Natural features like trees are sometimes difficult to
remove from the roadside area due to historic and
aesthetic requirements. Therefore the third task is
sometimes more applicable – protect the road user from
the hazard.
14
Cont`d…
7. Actions to be taken near hazards
I. Remove the hazard: As for point hazards, the nature of the
hazard will determine what is possible. Man-made distributed
hazards should be designed so that they are not located within the
safety zone. Similarly, natural hazards (rock faces, groups of trees,
etc) should be set back from the road so that they are not located in
the safety zone.
II. Modify the hazard: Almost all distributed hazards of
concern are related to the roadside geometry. RISER statistical
accident data indicate that roadside geometry; including slopes,
embankments and ditches (or no specific impacted object),
contribute to almost half of all run-off-road accidents involving
injury or fatality. These roadside features are believed to be the
leading cause of rollover in single-vehicle, run-off-road accidents.
The layout of the side slopes and ditches adjacent to the road
15
Cont`d…
III. Hazard shielding: The application of road restraint
systems (safety barriers) to protect distributed hazards is
the best alternative when a hazard cannot be relocated
outside the safety zone. The safety barrier must be
selected to provide suitable protection for the exposed
traffic and the dimensions of the hazard.
16
Cont`d…
 Lighting Columns
 Rigid lighting columns and
utility poles are very
common and severe
hazards in the roadside. On
new roads all poles
should be located beyond
the safety zone. If the
location inside safety zone
can not be avoided only
passively safe columns
should be used.
17
Cont`d…
 Recommendation
1. Remove poles inside the safety
zone
2. Locate/relocate poles beyond
the safety zone
3. Place the utilities underground
4. Decrease the number of poles
5. Use break-away poles
6. Shield a pole with a safety
barrier
18
Cont`d…
 Fixed object along the road
 There is evident need for better roadside safety because
of trees and steep slope. In this road section the only
solution for better roadside safety is safety barrier – by
choice the guardrail with aesthetical value.
19
Cont`d…
Rock Face
1. Removal from
safety zone (new
roads)
2. Shielding with
safety barrier
3. Protective earth
slope
20
Cont`d…

Energy absorbing
guardrail terminal and
flared guardrail terminal
 Shield
barrier
with safety
21
Cont`d…
8. PASSIVE SAFETY ROAD EQUIPMENT
 It includes Road Restraint Systems (RRS), breakaway
equipment supports, energy absorbing supports, and arrester
beds.
 Classification
Equipment
and Function of Passive Safety Road
I. Safety Barriers:
A. Longitudinal barriers
 barriers designed for vehicle impacts to one side
only and are installed on the edge of the
carriageway.
22
Cont`d…
B. Median barriers
 barriers designed to be mounted between
opposing travel lanes and can be impacted on
both sides.
C. Bridge parapets
 specialized longitudinal barriers designed to be
installed on bridge decks.
23
Cont`d…
II. Crash Cushions
 Their performance for oblique impacts is used to divide
crash cushions into the following categories:
 Redirect
designed for oblique impacts and can behave
like a safety barrier for short sections.
 Non redirect
 no capacity for oblique impacts.
24
Cont`d…
25
Cont`d…
III. Cable Guardrail
 Cable guardrail is the least expensive, but it requires
maintenance because it loses effectiveness when cable
tension is not maintained.
26
Cont`d…
IV. Arrester Beds
 Arrester beds are areas adjacent

to the roadway section in areas
with long downgrade.
 These facilities are used for
vehicles (typically heavy goods
vehicles) that have lost their
braking capacity. When
braking problems are
identified, the driver
intentionally drives onto the
arrester bed which has a
specific surface material that
allows the vehicle to be
brought to a stop.
27
Cont`d…
V. Break-away or energy
absorbing structures
 These are typically used
for lighting columns,
utility posts, sign posts,
etc. These structures are
designed so they break or
deform in a controlled
way when impacted by a
vehicle.
28
Cont`d…
VI. Rumble strip (Shoulder
rumble strips)
 A thermoplastic or grooved
transverse marking with
slight vertical profile which
is designed to provide
audible and tactile warning
by the use of the ribs.
 It is normally located
between hard shoulders and
nearside travel lanes of
carriageway. 29
Cont`d…
9. Engineering Measurements for
Walking Infrastructures
 Sidewalks/Walkways on both sides of Road
 There is 88% reduction in “walking along the road”
pedestrian crashes.

Provide raised median or raised islands
 40% reduction in pedestrian crashes
30
Cont`d…
31
Cont`d…
 Providing pedestrian countdown signals
 10 to 15% reduction in pedestrian crashes
 These may become standard as proposed in a Notice of Proposed
Amendment for the MUTCD
32
Cont`d…
 Add overhead lighting along road in pedestrian areas
 40 to 60% reduction in night-time crashes (including pedestrian
crashes)
33
Cont`d…

Reduce pedestrian exposure to vehicular traffic

Separate pedestrian in space (Provide sidewalks,
underpass, overpass etc)

Separate pedestrian in time ( Install and/or upgrade
traffic and pedestrian signals)

Construct enhanced marked crossings

Provide vehicle restriction/diversion measures

Reduce traffic volumes by switching journeys from
the car to public transport, walk and cycle for
distances and purposes where these options work well
34
Cont`d…

Reduce vehicle speeds

Reduce speed limit

Implement area-wide lower speed limit program, for
example, 30 km/h

Implement road-narrowing measures

Install speed management measures at road sections

Install speed management measures at intersections

Provide school route improvements
35
Cont`d…
 Improve sight distance and/or visibility between motor
vehicles and pedestrians

Provide crossing enhancements

Implement lighting/crossing illumination

measures

Reduce or eliminate obstruction by physical objects
including parked vehicles

Install signals to alert motorists that pedestrians are
crossing

Improve visibility of pedestrians
36
Cont`d…
Road safety education covers all measures that
aim at positively influencing traffic behavior
patterns, with an emphasis on:
 Promotion of knowledge and understanding of
traffic rules and situations
 Improvement of skills through training and
experience
 Strengthening and/or changing attitudes
towards risk awareness, personal safety and
the safety of other road users
37
Cont`d…
 Two major obstacles in developing countries
 a lack of teaching resources
a lack of knowledge by teachers how to teach
road safety, and what should be taught
38
Cont`d…
 Campaigns
 Regular campaigns are needed to make the general public aware
of road safety
 Campaigns should preferably focus on one risk factor at a time.

 Campaigns attempting to cover too broad a range of topics are
neither understood nor remembered by the public.
 Campaigns should be organized on a large scale, if possible

(though not necessarily) in different forms (using radio and
TV spots, posters or leaflets) and should be carried by all the
main media, including the press, radio, television and,
increasingly, the Internet.
39
Cont`d…
Finally, it is recommended that several (generally
three or four) national campaigns
be planned each year to maintain a sufficient level
of awareness among the public about road safety.
The messages should be repeated as frequently as
possible,
just like when advertising a commercial product.

40
Cont`d…
The following element should be taken into
consideration
 Subject (theme)
 Target group
 Slogan
 Duration of the campaign
 Goal/impact (evaluation)
41
Cont`d…

Means of Campaign

Media (radio, TV, Newspaper adds, etc)
 Posters, brochures
Plays
etc)
or demo on the spot (in schools, shows

On the road
42
Cont`d…
Before designing the campaign, you will need to
collect background information on the problem. It
will be necessary to collect data about possible
contributing factors, the types of road users who
are involved, and the context in which the problem
occurs
43
Cont`d...

Steps to be followed in road safety campaign
 Step 1: Getting started

Identifying and defining the problem

Analyzing the context

Locating partners and stakeholders and getting them
involved

Drafting the budget

Gather the campaign partners together for a kick-off
meeting
 Calling for bids and setting up the campaign team
44
Cont`d…
Step 2 : Analyzing the Situation

Thoroughly analyzing the problem and possible
solutions
 Deciding whether to segment the audience

Determining how to act on main motivations and
reach the audience

Defining the campaign’s specific objectives

Gathering information from evaluations of past
campaigns and other actions
45
Cont`d…
Step 3 : Designing the campaign and the evaluation

Developing the campaign strategy
 Designing the campaign evaluation
Step 4 : Conducting the Before-Period Evaluation
and Implementing the Campaign

Conducting the before-period evaluation

Producing the campaign materials

Implementing the campaign

Controlling the release of campaign materials and
possibly feedback to previous steps
46
Cont`d…
Step 5 : Completing the Evaluation and Drawing
Conclusions

Implementing the chosen evaluation method for the
during- and/or after-campaign periods

Processing and analyzing the evaluation data

Gathering cost and cost-effectiveness information

Drawing clear conclusions about the campaign
Step 6 : Writing the Final Report
47
Enforcement
Experience has shown that a truly effective road
safety campaign must include enforcement and
penalties.
If these are lacking, the campaign will have little
sustainable effect on reducing road crash fatalities
and injuries, with only spontaneous users of seat
belts continuing to buckle up.
48
Cont`d…
 Enforcement

Introducing a fixed penalty offence for carless
driving

Drink and drug driving law

Introducing a fixed penalty for illegal crossing

Implementing Blood alcohol content (BAC)

Helmet

Seat belt

speeding
49
Cont`d…

Speed Enforcement
 Enforcement would result in a reduction in mean speed and in the
spread of speed
 This will lead to reduction in crash number and severity.
 Automated speed enforcement have been effective in reducing
speed
 Not only on the site where they have been set up.
 But also in leading to a change in attitudes towards
speeding.
 The wide spread use of speed cameras has already
produced a change in driver attitude in Australia
where portable speed cameras have been in use for
several years.
50
Emergency
Emergency includes
 provision of rehabilitation services
 provision of pre hospital care systems
51
Traffic Accident Investigation
 Accident investigation is the process of determining
the root causes of accidents, in order to prevent it
from occurring again.
 Reasons to investigate accident include:
 To find out the cause of accidents that helps to
prevent similar accidents in the future
 To fulfill any legal requirements
 To determine the cost of an accident
 To determine compliance with applicable safety
legislation
 52
To process workers' compensation claims

Cont`d…

There are four main investigative approaches used to
develop accident reduction programs.
1. Single site schemes;
2. Mass action programs;
3. Route action programs;
4. Area action programs.
 All involves four major planning steps.
(1) data collection, storage and retrieval,
(2) identification of hazardous locations for further study,
(3) diagnosis of the accident problem(s), and
(4) Final selection of sites to be included in the remedial
implementation program
53
Cont`d…
1.Single Site Approach
 Is probably the most commonly used approach, which
involves identification of 'black spot' locations on the
basis of the number of accidents clustered at single
locales within a given period of time (usually three
years).
 A large accident reduction (typically 33%) and a high
first-year economic rate-of-return (typically not less
than 50%) should be expected' from black spots that
are included in a final remedial action program for
single sites.
54
Cont`d…
2. Mass Action Approach
 This is the second most commonly used approach
that involves searching for sites that are clearly
associated with a particular predominant type of
accident for which there is a well-proven
engineering remedy.
 Once identified these sites can normally be
economically treated in mass, for instance by the
resurfacing or surface dressing of skid sites.
 Mass action program should be expected to achieve
an average accident reduction of 15% at treated
sites and a first-year economic rate-of-return not
less than 40%.
55
Cont`d…
3. Route Action Approach
 With this approach the main 'black sites' along a
particular road or class of road (i.e. sites with more
accidents than the normal) are identified from
analysis of traffic data collected over a recent period
(usually 1-3 years).
 Black sites treated should achieve average accident
reductions of 15% and first-year economic rates-of-
return of not less than 40%.
56
Cont`d…
4. Area Action Programs
 In urban areas a significant proportion of accidents are
sparsely scattered.
 In this case, the distribution of accidents throughout the
urban area is searched over a recent one-, two- or three-year
period in order to identify discrete areas, e.g.
neighborhoods or 1 km Ordnance Survey grid squares,
having accidents per unit area or per unit of population
above a predetermined level.
 Traffic calming measures are often the remedial outcomes of
area action programs.
 Appropriate objectives for area action plans might be to
achieve accident reduction of 10% and a first-year
economic rate-of-return of 10-25% within each area
addressed.
57
Cont`d…

The Planning Process
1. Data Collection, Storage and Retrieval
 Whatever the approach used, establishment of a data
bank of accident record is area of responsibility for
the road authority.
 Basic accident description: e.g. its severity (Fatal,
Serious injury, Slight injury or Property damage),
number of casualties and vehicles involved,
contributory factors (if collected), and time, day, date
and location it occurred .
58
Cont`d…
 Road features: e.g. class and identification number,
carriageway type or markings, speed limit, and
intersection type and control.
 Environmental features: e.g. weather and light
conditions, surface condition, any carriageway
hazards, or any special conditions.
 VehicleFeatures: Vehicle type, maneuvers,
movements and location, skidding, and hit object(s).
59
Cont`d…
 Driver features: Age, sex, breath test results, and
whether a hit-and-run was involved casualty details,
severity of injury, and pedestrian location, movement
and direction, and any school pupil involvement
 Other data: exact location of each accident and site
characteristics such as road geometry, surface type
and texture, adjacent land use, speed limits, physical
aids (e.g. lighting, signs .and markings), and
permanent extraneous features (e.g. advertisement
hoardings and notice boards, posts, poles, tree trunks)
and guardrails, and street furniture such as bus
shelters or telephone boxes.
60
Cont`d…
2. Identification of hazardous locations for
further study
 This phase of the investigation is concerned with the
examining of the accident data to obtain a
preliminary ranked list of sites that are most likely to
be proned to engineering treatment.
 A simple method of identifying hazardous locations
that has been commonly used in the United States is
to assign a rating number to each accident on the
basis that accident severity is the most important
consideration.
61
Cont`d…
For instance
 9 points might be assigned to each fatal
accident, 1 point to each serious-injury
accident, 0.1 points to each slight-injury
accident, and 0.01 for each property
damage-only accident, and the site with the
greatest number of points would then be
regarded as the most dangerous.
62
Cont`d…
3. Diagnosis (diagnosis of the accident problems)
 The objective is to diagnose the main cause(s) of
each accident and develop a remedial proposal that
will avoid the common dominant causes.
 Traffic conflicts occur more often than accidents so
that a supplementary on-site conflict study, may be
able to identify unsafe driving and/or accident-
generating maneuvers at hard-to-diagnose high-risk
accident locations.
63
Cont`d…
4. Final Selection of the remedial measures
 Before implementing a remedial proposal it is usual to
test that it is financial justified.
 Various economic methods are used to resolve these and
other issues of choice.
 In Britain, a determination often used to resolve is used
for this purpose, the first-year economic rate-of-return
(FYRR):
FYRR in % = Net benefits in the first year after completion of scheme x 100
Total capital cost of scheme
64
Cont`d…
 The first-year rate-of-return evaluation is
appropriately used to compare proposals that have
similar scheme lives and similar profiles of cost and
benefit throughout their lives.
 Then the scheme with the highest FYRR-value can
be given highest priority.
 However, the comparisons are better made on the basis
of the net present values of the schemes as determined
over their anticipated lives using life cycle cost-benefit
analysis to show long term or future impact of the
measurement used.
65
Cont`d…
• Net Present Value (NPV) is the value of all future cash
flow over the entire life of an investment discounted to
the present.
o CF-Cash Flow in ith year,
o k –discounted rate and
o Io – initial investment
NPV  CF1  CF2 ... CFn  I 0

2 n
1k (1  k) (1  k)
66
Measurements of Traffic Safety

Answer to questions like:

What type of metrics should be used when
measuring road traffic safety?
How can we best measure road traffic safety in
order to target and identify the parameters of a
safe road environment?
67
Cont`d…
Some of the examples for crash risk measurements
are the foll0wing.
1. Fatalities per 10,000 vehicle = No. of fatalities
per year per 10,000 vehicles
 e.g Ethiopian around 60-68 fatalities per
10,000 vehicles
2. Fatalities per 100,000 population :
 e.g. 4 fatalities per 100,000 population
68
Cont`d…
3. Crash rate
A. Road segment
R= C×100,000,000
AADT×365×N×L
 Where R = crash rate for the road segment expressed
as crashes per 100 million vehicle-kilometres of
travel; C = Total number of roadway crashes in the
study period; AADT = Average Annual Daily
Traffic; N = number of years of data; L = length of
the roadway segment in Kilometers
69
Cont`d…
B. Intersection
R= C×100,000,000
AADT×365×N
4. Injury severity ratio
Severity Ratio (SR)
= Number of Fatal or Serious crashes per year
Total Number of Injury Crashes per year
70
Cont`d…
5. Expected crashes per year or time
 Itregression,
can be determined using count models e.g. Poisson
negative binomial regression etc.
I. Poisson regression
o λ = EXP (βXit)
Where:
 λ is the mean number of crashes at the road
segment in the time period.
 Xit is a vector of explanatory variables and

crashes and β is a vector-estimable regression
parameter.
71
Cont`d…
II. Negative binomial regression
 Itcrash
is used in order to accommodate over dispersion in the
data.
 A negative binomial model is formulated as follows.
λ = EXP (βXit + εit)
Where:
 EXP (εit)is a gamma-distributed error
term with mean 1 and variance for all i
and t.
72
Road Safety Slogans
 Life's short, don't rush it
 Don't Drink and drive
 Drive for safety
 If you want to stay married, divorce speed.
 Be alert! Accidents hurt.
 Hug your kids at home, but belt them in the car!
 You can't get home, unless you are safe.
 Night doubles traffic troubles.
 Stop accidents before they stop you.
 Drive with reason this holiday season.
 If you drink drive you're a bloody idiot
73
Road Safety Slogans
 Don't Drink and drive
 Better be Mister Late than to be Late Mister.
 Are you tired - Take a break
 Keep your child safe - Teach him road safety
 Think, anticipate, and avoid accidents.
 Kill your speeds not a child.
 Give way to pedestrians.
 Country people die on country roads.
 Life is so precious. The life you save may be your own.
 Children should be seen and not hurt.
 Better a minute late than "dead on time"
 Road safety is no accident .
 Normal speed meets every need.
74
Any Questions?
75

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Ethiopian Civil Service University

College of Urban Development and Engineering

Transport Planning and Management Masters

Transport Planning and Management Masters

 RSA on Off-Road Projects (Commercial Developments)

• Study results show that accidents rise during night hours

 What about in Ethiopia?

Road Safety and Traffic Management (TPM6051)

Belete Ejigu (PhD)

Human Capital Approach Willingness to Pay Approach Cost of Restitution

Gross Output Individual

Net Lost Output Society

The Road Traffic Valuation Methods

Causality Lost Labor

Administration: Police Human Cost:

injuries] × [No. of days in hospital] × [average wage per day]

3. Lost productivity in terms of income loss by care givers:

injuries] × [No. of days in hospital] × [average wage per day ]

Road Safety and Traffic Management (TPM6051)

Belete Ejigu (PhD)

 Engineering (Safe road and road

 Arrester beds are areas adjacent

 Campaigns should preferably focus on one risk factor at a time.

 Campaigns should be organized on a large scale, if possible

just like when advertising a commercial product.

Step 6 : Writing the Final Report

To process workers' compensation claims

NPV  CF1  CF2 ... CFn  I 0

 Xit is a vector of explanatory variables and

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