CO 4 - QM Concepts

CDOC ENT ER FOR DIS TA N C E A ND
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ON L IN E ED U C AT ION
QUANTUM MECHANICS
– CONCEPTS
KONERU LAKSHMAIAH EDUCATION FOUNDATION

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
B.Tech., (Physics)
II YEAR
4th SEMESTER
By Dr. K. Swapna & Dr. K. Raghavendra Kumar

How to Use Self-Learning Material?
The pedagogy used to design this course is to enable the student to assimilate the concepts
with ease. The course is divided into modules. Each module is categorically divided into units or
chapters. Each unit has the following elements:
Table of Contents: Each unit has a well-defined table of contents. For example: “1.1.1. (a)”
should be read as “Module 1. Unit 1. Topic 1. (Sub-topic a)” and 1.2.3. (iii) should be read as “Module 1.
Unit 2. Topic 3. (Sub-topic iii).
Aim: It refers to the overall goal that can be achieved by going through the unit.
Instructional Objectives: These are behavioral objectives that describe intended

learning and define what the unit intends to deliver.
Learning Outcomes: These are demonstrations of the learner’s skills and experience
sequences in learning and refer to what you will be able to accomplish after going
through the unit.
Self-Assessment Questions: These include a set of multiple-choice questions to be

answered at the end of each topic.
Did You Know?: You will learn some interesting facts about a topic that will help you
improve your knowledge. A unit can also contain Quiz, Case Study, Critical Learning
Exercises, etc., as metacognitive scaffold for learning.
Summary: This includes brief statements or restatements of the main points of unit and
summing up of the knowledge chunks in the unit.
Activity: It actively involves you through various assignments related to direct application
of the knowledge gained from the unit. Activities can be both online and offline.
Bibliography: This is a list of books and articles written by a particular author on a

particular subject referring to the unit’s content.
e-References: This is a list of online resources, including academic e-Books and journal
articles that provide reliable and accurate information on any topic.
Video Links: It has links to online videos that help you understand concepts from a
variety of online resources.
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The Quantum Mechanics & Applications course has two modules.
Module 1
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Concepts: Rutherford atomic model and Bohr atomic model; Black body radiation and
its laws; Planck’s radiation law and its assumption; Particle nature; Photoelectric effect;
Compton effect; Matter waves; Wave packets; Phase and group velocities; Davisson-Germer
experiment; Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Table of Contents
MODULE 1
Quantum Mechanics - Concepts
Unit 1.1 Quantum Concepts and Black body radiation laws
1.1.1 Thomson and Rutherford atomic models – postulates & Drawbacks
1.1.2 Bohr atomic model – postulates & drawbacks
1.1.3 Black body radiation and radiation laws
Unit 1.2 Particle nature of light & applications
1.2.1 Particle nature of light
1.2.2 Photoelectric effect
1.2.3 Compton effect
Unit 1.3 Wave nature of light
1.3.1 Matter waves – de Broglie wavelength
1.3.2 Phase and group velocities
1.3.3 Davisson-Germer experiment
1.3.4 Heisenberg uncertainty principle

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QUANTUM MECHANICS
MODULE - 4
Quantum Mechanics -
Concepts
Module Description
The module focused on the basic concepts related to the Quantum Mechanics and explains in
describing the failures of Classical Physics, the atomic models developed by Thomson,
Rutherford, and Bohr. The atomic models were elaborately presented with their postulates and
drawbacks. The module introduces the black body concept and demonstrates the radiation
laws as proposed by several Quantum Physicists. Later the module illustrates the dual nature
of light exhibiting both particle and wave natures. It also proved experimentally with the help of
Photoelectric effect and Compton effect. At last, the module was completed highlighting the
matter waves proposed by de Broglie and experimentally verified with the help of Davisson-
Germer experiment. Also, highlights the concepts of phase and group velocities, and
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Unit 1.1 Quantum concepts and Black body radiation laws
Unit 1.2 Particle nature of light and applications
Unit 1.3 Wave nature of light

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Unit Table of Contents
Unit 1.1
1.1. Quantum Concepts and Black body radiation laws
Aim
Instructional Objectives
Learning Outcomes
1.1.1 Thomson’s and Rutherford’s atomic models – postulates & drawbacks

Self-Assessment Questions
1.1.2 Bohr’s atomic model – postulates & drawbacks

1.1.3 Black body radiation and radiation laws

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activity
Bibliography
e-References
Image Credits
AIM
This unit describes and enables the students to understand the concepts of Quantum
mechanics. The students also verify different radiation laws and the definition of black
body with the help of necessary equations.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
In this unit, the students will be able to:
• Know the basics concepts of Quantum mechanics

• Differentiate between different atomic models with their postulates
• Understand the definition black body and its experimental verification
• Describe the different radiation laws with their equations
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, the student is expected to:
• Familiarize about the concepts of quantum mechanics

• Compare and contrast the different atomic models with their postulates
• Know the definition of black body and its applications
• Demonstrate the types of radiation laws
CDOC ENT ER F OR DIS TA N C E A ND
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1.1.1 Thomson’s and Rutherford’s atomic models – postulates & drawbacks
Classical mechanics is the theory which describes the motion of objects that are observable
which is deterministic. Examples are motion of planets, motion of baseball, spinning of a top etc.
Quantum mechanics is the theory explains the motion of objects that are non-observable which is
not deterministic. Examples are electrons in atom and the shapes of molecules.
The following are the failures or inadequacies of classical physics.
(i) Classical physics failed to explain motion of atoms or electron in an atom.

(ii) It failed to answer the stability of an atom.
(iii) It failed and needed to explain the spectrum of Hydrogen atom.
(iv) Also, CP failed to define the concept of Black body radiation distribution spectrum for
all wavelengths.
(v) It failed to demonstrate Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Raman effect, and
Zeeman effect.
(vi) It failed to show experimental values of heat capacities of metals and gases at various
temperatures.
Failed to explain the stability of atom
As per Classical mechanics, electrons revolve around positively charged nucleus. Electrons must
experience attractive force. Electrons and nucleus both should have come closer to each other.
Electrons moving around the nucleus must experience centripetal force. It must lose energy
continuously. It comes closer and closer until it collapses with nucleus. If it happens the atom
becomes unstable. It is contradictory to observed fact that the atom is stable.
Fails to explain spectrum of Hydrogen atom
According to Classical theory Hydrogen spectrum is continuous. But experimentally it gives

discrete set of lines.
where R denotes the Rydberg constant.

This shows that the excited Hydrogen atoms emit EM waves of certain wavelengths only.
Heat capacities of solids
Classical physics predicts a constant value of 25 J/K/mol for the molar heat capacity of
monoatomic solids. Experiments at low temperatures, however, revealed that the molar heat
capacity approaches zero when temperatures approach zero. The assumption of discrete energy
levels (a collection of harmonic oscillators) again led to a model that matched the experimental
observations.
Lasers and Photonics

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Thomson’s atomic model was proposed by Willian Thomson in the year 1900. This model
explained the description of the inner structure of the atom theoretically. It was strongly
supported by Sir Joseph Thomson, who had discovered the electron. During the cathode ray
tube experiment, a negatively charged particle was discovered by J.J. Thomson. This
experiment took place in the year 1897. A cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube. The negative
particle was called an electron.
Thomson assumed that an electron is two thousand times lighter than a proton and believed
that an atom is made of thousands of electrons. In this atomic structure model, Thomson
considered atoms surrounded by a cloud having positive as well as negative charges.
Thomson’s model of an atom is similar to a plum pudding as well as watermelon.
Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model
(1) An atom is a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.

(2) An atom is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are equal in
magnitude.
Thomson’s atomic model is compared to watermelon, which he considered as:
(1) Watermelon seeds as negatively charged particles

(2) The red part of the watermelon as positively charged
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Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
(1) It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of the atom failed to explain
how a positive charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom.
(2) The theory failed to mention anything about the position of the nucleus in an atom.
(3) Thomson’s model also failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils.
(4) No experimental evidence in its support.
Although Thomson’s model was not an accurate model to account for the atomic structure, it
proved to be the base for developing other atomic models.
Rutherford explained that the major portion of the atomic mass is concentrated in a minute,
centrally located, positively charged nucleus. In early 1920s, he predicted the presence of
particles with unit mass but have no charge which is named as neutrons. Rutherford in 1911, led
to the development of the Rutherford model or Planetary model of the atom and eventually to the
Bohr model.
Rutherford concluded from the alpha particles scattering experiment that
(a) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the alpha particles passed
through the gold foil without getting deflected.
(b) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the
atom occupies very little space.
(c) A very small fraction of alpha particles was deflected by 180 indicating that all the positive
charges and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the
atom.
The main points of Rutherford’s nuclear model of an atom are mentioned below:
(a) An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, which is surrounded by electrons

moving around it.
(b) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by the coulombic force of attraction.
(c) The size of nucleus is very small as compared to the size of an atom. Experimentally it
was found that radius of the nucleus of an atom is 10-14 to 10-15 m and radius of atom is
10-10 m. Thus, the size of the nucleus is about ten thousandth part of the size of an atom.
(d) Almost the entire mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
(e) Atom is electrically neutral. So, number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom and the
number of electrons surrounding the nucleus are equal.

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1. The  particles are bombarded with
A. Titanium
B. Silver
C. Platinum
D. Gold
2. The alpha particle scattering experiment responsible for discovering the .
A. Deutron
B. Musons
C. Bosons
D. Nucleus
3. The reason for the straight line path chosen by the alpha particles in a thin metal foil
is
A. Positive charge
B. Negative charge
C. Free space in an atom
D. Attraction of charges

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1.1.2. Bohr’s atomic model – postulates and drawbacks
After the gold foil experiment, Rutherford proposed the planetary model of atom. Just like the
solar system, the nucleus lies in the center of the atom and electron revolves around it in their
orbits.
Niels Bohr in 1913 studied the light produced when atoms were excited by heat or electricity. But
Rutherford’s model couldn’t explain why unique colours were obtained by atoms of different
elements. Bohr proposed that electrons are in orbits and when excited jump to a higher orbit.
When they fall back to the original they give off light.
Bohr’s model explains the electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit the sun. Each orbit can
hold a specific maximum number of electrons. Electrons fill orbits closest to the nucleus first.
The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a
circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged particles would radiate
energy (h). Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus. If this
were so, a atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we
know.
As the electron spiral inwards, their angular velocities and frequency would change continuously
and so will be the frequency of the energy emitted. Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum,
in contrast to the line spectrum actually observed.
Neil Bohr, a Danish Physicist studied in Rutherford laboratory since 1912. He successfully
explained the spectrum of Hydrogen atom and presented Bohr’s atomic model. He was awarded
Nobel Prize in 1922.
Electron revolves around the nucleus in definite energy levels called orbits or shells in an atom
without radiating energy.
As long as an electron remain in a shall it never gains or losses energy.
The gain or loss of energy occurs within orbits only due to jumping of electrons from one energy
level to another energy level.
The angular momentum (mvr) of an electron is equal to nh/2. The angular momentum of an orbit
depends upon its quantum number (n) and it is integral multiple of the factor of h/2. Therefore, it
should be mvr = nh/2.
The following are applications of Bohr’s atomic model.
(i) Derivation of radius of an orbit of an atom

(ii) Derivation of energy of an electron in an orbit
(iii) Derivation of wave number
The radius of an orbit of an atom is given by r = (0n2h2) / (Ze2m)

Thus the radius is also written as r = n 2a0
Where a0 = 0.529 Å
The energy of an electron in an orbit is given as En = (-Z2e4m) / (80n2h2)

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Defects of Bohr’s atomic model
(i) According to Bohr, the radiation results when an electron jumps from one energy orbit
to another energy orbit, but he did not explained how this radiation occurs.
(ii) Bohr’s theory explained the existence of various spectral line Hydrogen spectrum, but
it predicted that only a series of lines exist. Later on it was revealed that the spectral
lines that had been thought to be a single line was actually a collection of several lines
very close to each other.
(iii) Bohr’s theory successfully explained the observed spectra for Hydrogen atom and
similar ions but it cannot explained the spectra for polyelectron atoms.
(iv) If a substance which gives line emission spectrum is placed in a magnetic field, the
lines of the spectrum get split up in to a number of closely spaced lines. This
phenomenon is known as Zeeman effect. Bohr’s theory has no explanation for this
effect.
(v) If a substance which gives line emission spectrum is placed in an external electric
field, the lines of the spectrum get split up into a number of closely spaced lines. This
phenomenon is known as Stark effect. Bohr’s theory has no explanation for this effect
as well.
(vi) Bohr suggested circular orbits of electron around the nucleus of Hydrogen atom but
later it was proved that the motion of electron is not in a single plane, but takes place
in three dimensional space.
(vii) Bohr assumes that an electron in an atom is located at a definite distance from the
nucleus and is revolving around it with definite velocity, i.e., it has a fixed momentum.
This idea is not in agreement with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle which states that
it is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum of a particle
simultaneously with certainty.

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4. When an electron moves from the higher energy level to a lower energy level, the
energy of an electron is
A. Absorbed
B. Emitted
C. Both A and B
D. None
5. The energy of each orbit is
A. Same
B. Fixed
C. Changes with time
D. None
6. Radius of the Hydrogen atom on going to the first excited state is of the
Bohr’s radius.
A. Double
B. Four times
C. Remans same
D. None
7. According to the Bohr’s atomic model, the radius of the orbit is directly proportional to
the
A. n2
B. 1/n2
C. 1/n
D. n

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1.1.2. Black body radiation and laws of radiation
Black body concept
According to Prevost, cold body receives or absorbs maximum radiation and emits less radiation.
Whereas the hot body emits more radiation and absorbs less radiation. Hence, it is showed that
all bodies emit radiations at all temperatures. Whenever the temperature increases emission of
energy also increases. Also, when the temperature of body increase it gives UV, visible, and IR
radiations. A body at lower temperatures gives a very smaller number of radiations. However, a
body at higher temperatures emits IR radiation.
A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it. Therefore, it
reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black. It is also a perfect emitter of radiation. At a
particular temperature, the black body would emit the maximum amount of energy possible for
that temperature.
If a body is heated, it emits different radiations depending on the temperature and also its color
will change according to the rise in temperature. For example, heating elements of a stove first
visible in dark red, bright red, and then orange, yellow, and finally white in color which is really
very hot. Hence, the emission spectrum depends on the material. As an object is heated, the
radiation it emits peaks at higher and higher frequencies.
A black body is a perfect absorber and perfect emitter. A good approximation of a black body is a
small hole leading to the inside of a hollow object. The hole acts as a perfect absorber. The
nature of the radiation leaving the cavity through the hole depends on the temperature of the
cavity. The radiation emitted by a black body is called black body radiation.
Energy spectrum of black body radiation
The following are the characteristics of black body radiation from its energy distribution spectrum.
i. It is observed that the energy distribution of radiation from the spectrum is not uniform
and the pattern shows quite complex.
ii. The blackbody spectrum depends on the temperature of the object. It is revealed from

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the figure that the intensity of radiation increase with increase in wavelength and
temperature.
iii. The intensity of radiation becomes maximum at a particular wavelength where it
peaks.
iv. The peak wavelength shifts towards higher wavelengths as the temperature
decreases.
v. It is also observed that the area under the curve represents total energy of the object
which is equal to the Stefan’s-Boltzmann law.
Laws of black body radiation
The four laws which governs the black body radiation are as follows.
Rayleigh-Jeans law
Stefan-Boltzmann law
Wein’s displacement law
Planck’s radiation law
Rayleigh-Jeans law
The energy distributions is directly proportional to the absolute temperature and is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength which is given by the equation.
I (,T) = (2ckT) / 4
The Rayleigh-Jeans law is quite successful at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). It fails
badly at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies). The failure has become known as the
ultraviolet catasptrophe.
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law
The energy radiated by a blackbody per second unit area is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature.
Energy = T4
The hotter the body, the greater the amount of energy flux or radiation.
The total amount of energy flux described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law is proportional to the area
under the Planck’s energy distribution curve.

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Wein’s displacement law
The maximum of the distribution shifts to smaller wavelengths as the temperature is increased.
Hence, the wavelength decreases as the temperature increases. This law holds good only for
shorter wavelengths and not for longer wavelengths.
max = 2.9 x 10-3 / T
The hotter the body, the shorter the wavelength and vice-versa.
Planck’s law
The following are assumptions of Planck to describe the black body radiation law.
(i) Black body chamber contains n number of atoms.
(ii) All the atoms are acting as simple harmonic oscillators and performs continuous
oscillations which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
(iii) The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is same as the frequency of its
vibration.
(iv) An oscillator cannot emit energy continuously. It emits energy in the multiples of small
unit call photon.
(v) The oscillators emit and absorbs radiation energy in the form of packets having energy
h. Hence, it can be concluded that exchange of energy between radiation and matter
cannot takes place continuously but are limited.
(vi) Energy emitted by the oscillator is in terms of discrete energy values like o, 1 h, 2 h,
3 h, …….so on which is generally given by
E = nh
where n is an integer value and h is Planck’s constant (6.625 x 10 -34 J sec-1)

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Planck generated a theoretical expression for the wavelength distribution given by,
2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2
𝐼 (𝜆, 𝑇) = ℎ𝑐
𝜆5 (𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −1)
At longer wavelengths, Planck’s equation reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans law. Whereas, at shorter
wavelengths, it predicts an exponential decrease in intensity with decreasing wavelength. This
agrees with the experimental results.
8. The wavelength for which energy is maximum is
A. Directly proportional to absolute temperature

B. Inversely proportional to absolute temperature
C. No change with temperature
D. None
9. The distribution of energy of black body at given temperature is
A. Uniform
B. Non-uniform
C. Linear
D. Non linear
10. Radiation with maximum penetration power is .
A. Infrared radiation
B. X-rays
C. Gamma rays
D. UV rays
11. The radiation energy is proportional to power of absolute temperature.
A. T2
B. T3
C. T4
D. T5

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Summary
A well-behaved normalized wave function of a specific system determines the
probability distribution function for that function. This probability density is not directly
observed experimentally for a single.
In Quantum Mechanics, the physical significance of wave equation is well defined.
The wave function is a single-valued, must be continuous and finite value.
|𝜓|2at a particular time is proportional to the probability of finding the body there at
that time. The product of wave function and its conjugate complex represents the
probability density of a particle.
Terminal Questions
1. Describe the conditions for normalization of wave function.
2. Explain the physical significance of wave function.
3. Discuss the probabilistic interpretation of wave function with necessary equations.

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Answer Keys
Question No: Answers
1 D
2 D
3 C
4 B
5 B
6 B
7 A
8 B
9 B
10 C
11 C

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
External References
1. Bernard, Laloe, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics, Wiley Publishers, first edition, pp.
1-536.
2. French, Taylor and Edwin (1978) An introduction to Quantum Physics, W.W. Norton &
Company, 2nd Edition, pp. 1-628.
3. David Griffiths (2005) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2 nd edition, Pearson

Prentice Hall, pp. 1-586
4. Binney James, David Skinner (2014), The Physics of Quantum Mechanics, 1 st edition,
Oxford University Press, pp. 1-475.
e-References
 http://www.issp.ac.ru/ebooks/books/open/Theoretical_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mecha
nics.pdf
 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-03170-4
 http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Books.html
 https://www.fisica.net/mecanica-quantica/Phillips%20-
%20Introduction%20to%20Quantum%20Mechanics.pdf
Image Credits
GetupLearn.com

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Unit 1.2
1.2. Particle nature of light and applications
Aim
Learning Outcomes
1.2.1 Dual nature of light

1.2.2 Photo Electric Effect

1.2.3 Compton Effect

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activity
Bibliography
e-References
Image Credits

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AIM
This unit describes the importance of dual nature exhibited by the light waves. The unit also
explains experimental verification of particle nature of light with the help of Photoelectric effect
and Compton effect. However, the wave nature of light is verified by interference,
diffraction, polarization and etc.
• Know significance of Dual nature of light

• Evaluate the applications of particle nature of light
• Describe the phenomenon like Photo electric effect and Compton effect
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Familiarize with the concept of dual nature exhibited by light waves

• Familiarize with deriving the mass, momentum, and energy of photon
• Demonstrate the Photo electric effect and Compton effect

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1.2.1. Dual nature of light – particle and wave
Light has dual nature. According to Newton’s Corpuscular theory and Max Planck’s Quantum
theory, light has particle nature. According to Huygen’s wave theory and Maxwell EM theory, light
has wave nature. However, light doesn’t show both natures simultaneously when light travels in a
medium. It behaves as a wave until it meets any obstacle. When it interacts with any material, it
behaves as a particle.
The energy of light when it behaves as a particle is given by

E = nh = nhc / 
where the energy of light is in the form of packet called photons.
Particle nature of light is explained experimentally by Photo electric effect and Compton effect.
Whereas, the energy of light when it behaves as a wave is given by E = h where  is the
frequency of light waves. The wave nature of light is demonstrated with the help of interference,
diffraction, and polarization etc.
Properties of photons
(i) A photon travels at a sped of light ‘c’ in vacuum or free space or air medium.
(ii) It has zero rest mass, i.e., the photon cannot exist at rest.
(iii) The kinetic mass of a photon is given by m = E /c 2 = h / c.
(iv) The momentum of a photon is represented as p = E / c = h / .
(v) Photons travel in a straight-line motion.
(vi) Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon; so the energy of the
photon doesn’t change when photon travels from one medium to another medium.
(vii) The wavelength of photon changes in different media; so velocity of a photon is
different in different media.
(viii) Photons are electrically neutral.
(ix) Photons may show diffraction under given conditions.
(x) Photons are not deviated by magnetic and electrical fields.
Characteristics of photons
1. Existence of photons
2. Energy of photons
3. Momentum and mass of photons
4. Non-electrical nature of photons
Existence of photon
The experimental facts provided that the real existence of photons are as same as experimental
proving the existence of electrons. The experiments suggest that the indivisible quantities such as
charge and mass of electron, and h and  for photon. Fractions of photons are as unknown as
fraction of electrons.
Energy of photon
The energy of a photon is always represented in terms of quantum of energy packet equal to h .
This energy h is not same for all radiations. It is different for different radiations because of
frequency of radiation is different. According to the original Quantum theory of radiation, the

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energy of photon is equal to integral multiple of h (E = nh).
But according to Quantum Mechanics, the energy is given by

E = (n+1/2) h where n is integer values with n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …….
Hence, the energy of photon is not zero but it is 1/2h at limiting value of n = 0.
The energy of a photon is E = h = hc / 
Mass and momentum of photon

According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent. Hence, Einstein’s
mass-energy relation is given by E = mc2.
Since photons travel with a velocity of light and hence Einstein’s relation can be applied to them.
E = h = hc / 
hc /  = mc2
m = hc / 
The above equation shows the mass of photon.
Similarly, mc2 = h
mc = h / c
p = h / c = h /  (since  = c/)
The above equation shows the momentum of photon.
Non-electrical nature of photons

(a) Photons are electrically neutral.
(b) They cannot be deflected either by electric or magnetic fields.
(c) They do not ionize in the presence of electric or magnetic fields.

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1. Among those phenomena exists in the nature _________ shows the particle nature of
light.
A. Interference
B. Reflection
C. Photo electric effect
D. Diffraction
2. If the wavelength of light is increased the energy of the photon is ______

A. Stable
B. Increases
C. Decreases
D. unpredictable
3. Which experiment proved the particle nature of light.

A. Interference
B. Photo electric effect
C. Davisson Germer experiment
D. Compton effect

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1.2.2. Photo Electric Effect
When a beam of radiation of certain frequency incident on an alkali metal (Na, K, etc) surface
then electrons are emitted out of the metal surface. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric
effect.
The electrons emitted out of metal surface when a radiation is incident, and these electrons are
called photo electrons. The photoelectric effect was first discovered by Hertz and experimentally
proved by many scientists like J.J.Thomson and Millikan and others.
Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect with the incident of UV rays on zinc plate and observed
electrons are coming out of the metal surface. The photon can interact with one electron only and
after interaction, the total energy of photon disappears.
There are two metal plates placed inside the evacuated chamber among which one plate is
connected to the negative terminal and other plate is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery. The two plates in which one will act like a cathode which generates electrons when
radiation is incident on the metal surface. The other plate act like anode where the electrons
emitted from the cathode moves towards and reaches the anode. As result of flow of electrons
from the cathode to anode results in flow of current and deflection is observed in the ammeter
reading. If no electrons are emitted then no flow of current is observed in the ammeter reading
i.e., electrons are not emitted from negative metal plate. The current which is observed as a
deflection in ammeter reading is called photo current. This experiment proves that when light or
radiation is incident on the metal surface, electrons are emitted out of metal surface. The number
of electrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of radiation emitted from the source or
light incident on the metal surface. Since the photo electrons are emitted from metal surface and
are moving possess velocity in turn associated with the kinetic energy. This kinetic energy of
electrons depends up on the following factors.

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(i) Potential difference between the two metal plates

(ii) Intensity of incident radiation
(iii) Frequency of incident radiation
(iv) Nature of photo metal used in the evacuated chamber
Characteristics of photo electrons
(1) Effect of potential difference

Intensity, frequency, photo metal is kept constant. When there is no potential difference,
some current flows through the ammeter. The first metal plate is connected to negative
terminal and the other plate is connected to the positive terminal of battery.
When we increase the potential the photo current increases to a maximum value. If we
increase the potential further, then the photo current becomes constant which is known as
saturation current or threshold current. Now by reversing the negative and positive
terminals of battery and applying the potential difference between the metal plates. At a
particular value of potential, the photo current becomes zero. The potential applied
between the metal plates at which the photo current becomes zero is called stopping
potential.
At the stopping potential, the kinetic energy of electrons is equal to the applied potential
between the metal plates. Hence the kinetic energy is depending on the potential
difference applied between the plates.
(2) Intensity of incident radiation

Here the frequency of radiation and photo metal are kept constant.

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At the low intensity I, we can measure the current by varying the potential. We get some
saturation current and some stopping potential.
Now at the medium intensity 2I, we can measure the photo current by varying the potential
difference applied between the metal plates. Hence, we get some saturation current I2
which is greater than I1 and some stopping potential V 0 same as for in the case of low
intensity I.
At high intensity 3I also, we get the saturation current I3 which greater than I2 and I1 and
same stopping potential V0 same as in the case of low and medium intensities.
This shows that current increases with increase in intensity of incident radiation. That
means number of photo electrons emitted out of the metal surface increases and hence
number of electrons emitted from the metal surface depends on the intensity of incident
radiation and stopping potential is independent of incident radiation. So kinetic energy of
electrons emitted from metal surface is independent of incident radiation.
(3) Effect of frequency of incident radiation

In this case, keep the intensity of incident radiation and photo metal constant.
We can measure different stopping potentials for different frequencies of radiation.

The potential cannot increase up to some frequency. That is no current flows up to some
frequency. After getting a minimum value potential starts to increase with increase in the
frequency. This minimum frequency is known as threshold frequency.
The minimum frequency required for the electrons to free from the nucleus attraction in the
atom and to free the electrons from the metal surface is known as threshold frequency
(0).
0 = c/0
Where 0 represents the threshold wavelength.

The maximum wavelength required from the electrons to free from metal surface is known
as threshold wavelength (0).
From the first one, the characteristic of kinetic energy depends on the potential difference
applied between the metal plates.
From the third one, the potential depends on the frequency. From these two, the kinetic
energy of emitted electrons depends on the frequency of incident radiation.
(4) Effect of nature of photo metal

Keeping the intensity of incident radiation constant, draw the graph between frequency
and stopping potential.

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By using the different photo metals, we get different intercepts on frequency () axis i.e., threshold
frequency is different for different photo metals. Hence the threshold frequency depends on the
nature of photo metal used in the experiment.
Laws of photo electric effect

1. The number of electrons emitted from metal surface depends on the intensity of incident
radiation and does not depend on the frequency of incident radiation.
2. The kinetic energy of emitted electrons depends on frequency of incident radiation and
does not depend on the intensity of incident radiation.
3. The minimum frequency required to emit the electrons out of the metal surface is known
as threshold frequency. Before this frequency, no electrons are emitted out of the metal
surface.
4. There is no time lag between the emission of electrons and incident light which is 10 -8 sec
only.
Photo electric effect fails to explain the 2 nd law and 4th law of photo electric effect but it
successfully explains the interference, diffraction, and polarization etc., by considering the wave
nature of light.
Einstein’s explanation
As photo electric effect was not explained by the Classical theory, Einstein explained the photo
electric effect using the Quantum theory by considering the particle nature of light in 1905.
Einstein assumed that,
(i) The energy is discontinuous.
(ii) The energy can be divided into small energy packets called quanta or photon (E =
nh).
(iii) The photon has less energy when the frequency of radiation is less (E = h).
(iv) The photon has high energy when the frequency of incident radiation is high.
(v) One photon can interact with only one electron i.e., when we incident photon on
electron, the energy of photon is completely absorbed by the electron.
According to Einstein, the energy of photon when incident on electron, the energy absorbed by
the electron can be utilized in two ways.
(i) Some of its energy is used to free the electrons from metal surface
(ii) Remaining energy is converted to kinetic energy

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h = W + ½ mv2
where W is the work function (equivalent to h0)
The work function is defined as the minimum energy required to emit the electron out of the metal
surface and move from cathode to anode plate.
eV0 = ½ mv2max
where V0 is the stopping potential (current is zero).
h = h0 + eV0
h ( - 0) = eV0
V0 = (h/e)  - (h/e) 0
which is of the form of y = mx + c where slope m corresponds to (h/e) and intercept denotes (-
h/e)0.
4. Photocell is a device to ____

A. Measure light intensity
B. Store the photon energy
C. Convert photon energy into mechanical energy
D. Convert photon energy into electricity
5. The stopping potential of photo electrons depends on ______

A. Frequency of incident light and nature of metal
B. Intensity of the incident light
C. Frequency of the incident light
D. Nature of cathode material
6. The minimum energy required to remove an electron is called _____

A. Stopping potential

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B. Kinetic energy
C. Work function
D. None of the above
1.2.3. Compton Effect
When a radiation of high frequency or low wavelength (X-rays or -rays) is incident on some
matter, then the scattered radiation consists of two components. One component is the radiation
which consists of same frequency as that of the incident radiation. The other component
corresponds to the radiation consists of less frequency than that of the incident radiation.
According to the Quantum theory of radiation, the radiation consists of system of particles called
photons having energy h. However, the interaction between the photon and electron can be
considered as elastic collision. Hence, the law of conservation of energy and momentum holds
good.
The radiation in which change in frequency is known as modified radiation. Whereas the radiation
in which no change in the frequency compared to the incident frequency of radiation is known as
unmodified radiation. Hence, the Compton effect gave modified and unmodified radiations, and
recoiled electron.
Before collision
Photon Electron
Energy h m0c2
Momentum along x-axis h/c 0
Momentum along y-axis 0 0
After collision
Photon Electron
Energy h mc2
Momentum along x-axis (h/c) cos mvcos
E
Momentum along y-axis (h/c) sin mvsin
Here the scattering obeys the law of conservation of energy and momentum as it is an elastic
collision between the photon and electron.
According to the law of conservation of energy, total energy before collision is equal to the total
energy after collision.
h + m0c2 = h + mc2
mc2 = h + m0c2 - h
mc2 = h (-) + m0c2
According to the law of conservation of momentum, total momentum before collision and after
collision are equal. So along X-axis,
h/c = (h/c) cos + mvcos

h = h cos + mvccos
mvccos = h - h cos
Now along Y-axis,
mvcsin = hsin
After simplification by squaring and adding the equations,
m2c4 – m2c22 = m2c4 (1-2/c2)
According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity,
m = m0 / (1-2/c2)1/2
after simplification, finally we get,
1/ = 1/ + (2h/m0c2) sin2(/2)
1/ > 1/ or  < 
Substituting the values of  (=c/) and  (=c/)
 > 
 -  = (2h/m0c) sin2(/2)
Therefore, the difference in wavelengths is known as Compton shift which is represented by .
 =  - 
The change in wavelength, i.e., the Compton shift depends up on the scattering angle of photon.

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Case (i):  = 0
 =  -  = 0
Case (ii):  = 90
 = (2h/m0c) (1/21/2)2
= h/m0c = 0.02426
Case (iIi):  = 180
 = (2h/m0c) (1)2
= h/m0c = 0.04852
From this we can observe that as scattering angle increases, Compton shift increases.
Experimental verification of Compton effect:
The figure shows experimental set up for the verification of Compton effect. Here we incident high
energy radiations on carbon block which acts as a good scatterer. We get two radiations in which
one is modified and unmodified radiation. The intensity and wavelength at different scattering
angles of scattering (X-ray radiations) are studied by Bragg’s spectrometer.
Now a graph drawn between wavelength and intensity for different scattering angles. We get two
peaks of intensities and for two wavelengths say as that of incident radiation (unmodified),
another peak represents wavelength of scattered radiation which is greater than that of the
incident wavelength.

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From graph, as scattering angle increases, the Compton shift increases. The difference between
two peaks gives the Compton shift. For  = 90, we get Compton wavelength. Thus, the Compton
effect is verified experimentally.
7. The following one doesn’t affect the photon ____

A. Magnetic field
B. Electric field
C. Both A and B
D. None
8. Compton shift depends on ______

A. Incident radiation
B. Nature of scattering material
C. Angle of scattering
D. Amplitude of frequency of radiation
9. Which one of the following holds good in Compton effect _____

A. Conservation of energy
B. Conservation of momentum
C. Both A and B

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Summary
The dual nature of light shows that light exhibits both particle and wave nature.
However, both the natures cannot be exhibited simultaneously.
The light particles or photos have energy of h is given by the Classical Mechanics.
According to Quantum Mechanics, the energy of photon is given by integral multiple
of h.
The photoelectric effects describes the particle nature of light. When a light is incident
on a metal surface then the electrons are emitted from the metal in turn, produces
electrons called photo electrons. As a result, the change in ammeter reading is
observed shows the production of current.
The emitted photoelectrons depends on the frequency or wavelegnth of light and

nature of the metal.
The number of electrons emitted from the metal depends on the intensity of radiation
and does bot depend on the frequency of radiation.
The minimum amount of energy required to make electrons free from metal is called
work function. Whereas, the minimum potential required to stop the flow of electrons
is called stopping potential.
The incident radiation is scattered into two components when a radiation of high
frequency is incident on the material. One is having unmodified intensity of radiation
and the other is with modified intensity.
The Compton shift increases with the increase in scattering angle. This can be
studied by Bragg’s spectrometer.
Terminal Questions
1. Describe the concept of dual nature of light and explain the properties or
characteristics of photon.
2. Define Photo electric effect. Explain the photoelectric phenomenon with its
experimental demonstration and necessary equations.
3. Discuss the Compton effect. Show that the Compton shift increases with the scattering
angle.

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Answer Keys
1 C
2 C
3 D
4 A
5 A
6 C
7 C
8 C
9 C

E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
External References
1. Bernard, Laloe, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics, Wiley Publishers, first edition, pp.
1-536.

Prentice Hall, pp. 1-586
e-References
nics.pdf
Image Credits
GetupLearn.com

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Unit 1.3
1.3. Wave nature of light
Aim
Learning Outcomes
1.3.1. Matter waves – de Broglie wavelength

1.3.2. Phase and group velocities

1.3.3. Davisson – Germer Experiment

1.3.4. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer Keys
Activity
Bibliography
e-References
Image Credits

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AIM
This unit describes and enables the students to understand the concept of matter waves
proposed by de Broglie. In turn, the students will derive the necessary equation for de
Broglie wavelength as a function of different parameters. Further, the student will study
about Davisson-Germer experiment demonstration and Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
principle to know the position and momentum of a particle.
• Understand the concept of matter waves

• Derive the de Broglie wavelength as a function of different properties
• Understand the applications to demonstrate wave nature of light
• Discuss the Davisson-Germer experiment and Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
principle
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Familiarize the concepts of matter waves

• Know about the de Broglie waves and its wavelength
• Understand the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
• Understand the applications of wave nature of light

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1.3.1. Matter waves – de Broglie wavelength
Photoelectric effect and Compton effect decisively proved that the electromagnetic waves have
particle behavior under certain conditions. However, the optical phenomenon like interference and
diffraction shows their wave nature.
A particle has position, mass, momentum, kinetic energy, and electric charge. A wave has
wavelength, frequency, amplitude, energy, momentum. A particle is located but the wave is
spread out. It appears that light can best be considered as a wave in some experiments and as a
particle in others. However, this does not occur randomly.
The wave nature of light well describes the propagation experiments. An important part of their
explanation is the consideration of the path or path traveled by the light, as in interference
experiments where a path difference is determined. At other side, the interaction experiments are
well described by the particle nature of light. These are the experiments where radiation interacts
with matter in absorption or scattering in blackbody, photoelectric effect etc. This is called dual
nature of the electromagnetic radiation.
In 1924 Louis de Broglie suggested that symmetry in nature demands a dual nature of matter as
well. He said that material particle like electron might act at certain times like waves. The waves
associated with the material particles are known as matter waves or de Broglie waves.
ℎ𝜐 ℎ
For a photon 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 and 𝑝 = 𝑐
= 𝜆
ℎ
∴ 𝜆 = 𝑝
A material particle will have associated with the de Broglie’s wavelength
ℎ ℎ
𝜆 = =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
where m is the mass and v is the velocity of the particle. de Broglie concluded that a moving body
behaves in certain ways as it has a wave nature.
The above relation may also be written in terms of kinetic energy K,
We know that,
1 𝑝2
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑚
∴ 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐾
ℎ
∴ 𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝐾
When a charged particle carrying a charge q is accelerated through a potential difference of V

volts, then kinetic energy K is given by,
𝐾 = 𝑞𝑉
Hence the de Broglie wavelength will be,
ℎ
𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉

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If the material particles are in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, then

3
𝐾 = 2 𝑘𝑇
where k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/oK, is the Boltzmann constant.
and de Broglie wavelength will be,

ℎ
𝜆 =
√3𝑚𝑘𝑇
1. The following waves can be transmitted through solids, liquids and gases ______
A. Transverse waves
B. Electromagnetic waves
C. Mechanical waves
D. Longitudinal waves
2. Sound travels through a gas under the condition is _______

A. Isothermal condition
B. Non-isothermal condition
C. Adiabatic condition
D. Non-adiabatic condition
3. The filament emits electron when the potential difference of 50 V is applied across it, then
the wavelength of electron is _____
A. 1.63 Ao
B. 1.73 Ao
C. 1.83 Ao

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1.3.2. Phase and group velocities
The de Broglie wave involves the probability of finding the particle at a point in space and at a
given instant of time. This is represented in terms of a quantity  (x, y, z, t) called the wave
function. The probability of finding the particle described by  at a point (x, y, z) at the time t in
proportional to |𝜓 2 |.
This squire of the absolute value of ψ is called probability density
𝑃𝑑 = |𝜓 2 |
This quantity varies from zero to one. When Pd =0, it is certain that the particle in not there. When
Pd =1, particle in certainly there. The wave function itself is called the probability wave.
Wave velocity:
If u is the velocity of wave than
u = 
Where  in the frequency and  is the de Broglie wavelength

ℎ
𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣
where v is the particle velocity.
The frequency  is found from the relation
E= h =mc2
𝑚𝑐 2
𝜐 =
ℎ
Now velocity of de Broglie wave,

𝑚𝑐 2
𝑢 = 𝜐𝜆 = ℎ
𝜆
𝑐2
∴𝑢 = 𝑣
Now since v < c, above relation implies that u > c or u > v.
Thus the velocity of de Broglie wave comes larger than the velocity of particle itself. In this case
the particle will be left behind the associated wave. There is no contradiction is this because the
wave velocity is the phase velocity of the wave associated with the particle and not the velocity of
the particle itself.
Phase velocity:
The usual form of the wave equation in general is
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
where y is the displacement at time t and place x

 is the angular frequency = 2
k is the wave number = 2/ (radiation/m)

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The phase velocity of a wave is given by,

𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑘
Group velocity
The difficulty of the outcome u > c or u > v, can be overcome by assuming each moving particle of
matter consists of a group of waves or a wave packet, rather than a single wave. A wave group of
certain wavelength consists of a number of component waves of slightly different wavelengths
superimposed upon each other. The mutual interference of waves leads to amplitude variation
and defines the shape of wave packet as shown below.
Schematic of the wave group
This group of wave travels in the medium with group velocity G. Considering the superposition of
two wave components, the group velocity is given by,
𝑑𝜔 𝜔1 − 𝜔2
𝐺 = =
𝑑𝑘 𝑘1 − 𝑘2
It can also be easily found that the group velocity is same as the particle velocity.
𝐺 = 𝑣
Hence the position of the moving particle can be anywhere inside this wave packet.

E
4. In a wave guide, the following condition is true .

A. Phase velocity is equal to speed of light
B. Phase velocity is greater than speed of light
C. Phase velocity is less than the speed of light
D. Group velocity is equal to speed of light
5. The term Cos  is given by 2.5 then the phase velocity is _______
A. 3
B. 5
C. 7.5
D. 10.5
6. The product of phase and group velocities is given by __

A. Speed of light
B. Half of the Speed of light
C. Two times speed of light
D. One fourth of speed of light
7. The phase and group velocities does not depend on

E. Frequency
F. Wavelength
G. Phase constant
H. Attenuation constant

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1.3.3 Davisson-Germer Experiment
Davisson and Germer verified the simultaneous occurrence of wave and particle aspects in a
crystal diffraction experiment in 1927. They demonstrated that the electron beam undergo
diffraction in the regular atomic arrays of crystal. Davisson and Germer directed a beam of
electrons on to a block of nickel, from an electron gun as shown in figure 6. It was possible to vary
the energy of electrons, the angle of incidence of the beam on the target and the position of the
electron detector.
Experimental arragement for Davisson and Germer Experiment
In the figure:  is the angle between incident beam and crystal plane
 is the angle between incident beam and diffracted beam
By an accident, the target got oxidized. To reduce the oxide in pure nickel, the target (nickel
block) was removed from the experiment and backed at a high temperature. The effect of this
backing at high temperature was to form a single large nickel crystal out of many small individual
crystals in the nickel block. In the single crystal all the atoms are arranged in the regular array.
So this backing of nickel crystal leads to new results when crystal is returned to the apparatus of
this experiment. Instead of a continuous variation of scattered electron intensity with angle,
distinct maxima and minima were observed whose positions depend upon the electron energy.
The pattern of the observed spectrum in Davisson and Germer Experiment

E
Davisson and Germer used 54 eV electron beam at normal incidence which produces a sharp
maximum at angle  = 50 with the incident beam. Let us now try to find out the wavelength
associated in this experiment.
ℎ ℎ
de Broglie formula 𝜆 = 𝑝
= 𝑚𝑣
can be used to find the expected wavelength of the electron.
The kinetic energy of 54 eV electron is smaller than its rest mass energy m oc2 ≈ 0.51 MeV. So the
velocity of beam is small in comparison to the velocity of light and we may use non-relativistic
formula for kinetic energy (K = qV).
ℎ
𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉
-19
putting for electron, q = 1.6 x 10 coulomb
V = 54 volts
m = 1.9 x 10-31 Kg
Estimated,  = 0.166 nm
From Davisson and Germer experiment, the angles of incidence and scattering relative to the
family of Bragg plane is shown below.

Crystal plane
Bragg’s plane for Nickel crystal
The Bragg law for X-ray diffraction by a crystal is
2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
where d is the spacing between planes in the crystal, λ is the wavelength of X-rays and θ
is the angle at which maximum diffraction occurs.
At  = 50, angle  = (180 - )/2 = 65
The spacing of the planes which can be measured by X-ray diffraction is 0.091 nm. We can now
use Bragg equation for maxima in the diffraction pattern as,
n =2d sin
Substituting, d=0.091nm,

E
 =65
and n=1(first order)
we can get,  = 2 × 0.091 sin65

= 0.165 nm
This is the nearly the same value that is obtained by de-Broglie calculation. Hence this
experiment directly verifies de Broglie hypothesis or the wave nature of moving bodies.
8. The following theory confirmed by the Davisson-Germer experiment _____

A. de-Broglie theory
B. Newton’s theory
C. Einstein’s theory
D. Planck’s theory
9. The following is used in the Davisson-Germer experiment _____

A. Single slit
B. Double slit
C. Electron gun
D. Electron microscope
10. The following crystal is used in the Davisson-Germer experiment ____

A. Aluminum
B. Nickel
C. Cobalt
D. Zinc

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1.3.4 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
The duality of particle and wave properties implies that it is impossible to know both the precise
position and precise momentum of the particle simultaneously. Since the particle is replaced by
group of waves, which represents the probability of finding the particle of a point, the narrow the
wave group, more precise will be the location. But to make wave group narrower there must be
superposition of a larger number of waves with a greater range of wavelengths. The greater range
of wavelength means a larger uncertainty in its momentum since p=h/. If momentum is made
more precise by decreasing the range of wavelength, the wave group becomes wider introducing
the larger uncertainty in the position.
The superposition of a range of wave could be mathematically expressed using Fourier integral. If
ψ(x) is the wave function representing a wave group at a certain instant of time t. Then,
∞
𝜓(𝑥) = ∫0 𝑔(𝑘) [𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝑘𝑥)]𝑑𝑘
Here g(k) is a function of wave number, k = 2/, which describes how the amplitudes of the wave
superposed can vary with k. The function g(k) is the Fourier transform of the function ψ(x). The
following pictures can depict these ψ(x) and g(k) functions.
The minimum value of product x.k occurs when the envelop of wave group has the form of
Gaussian function as shown in the figure 10 (d).
The minimum value of this product ‘x.k’ comes out to be 1/2. Therefore,
1
x.k
2
2π 2π px
Since k = 
= h
From equation (2) and (3),

2𝜋 px 1
x ℎ
2
1 ℎ
x px  2 2𝜋
ℎ
taking ℏ =
2𝜋
ℏ
x px  2

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This is called the principle of uncertainty relating to position and momentum.
11. The uncertainty principle applies to _____

A. Macroscopic particles
B. Microscopic particles
C. Gases
12. The relation according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is _____

ℎ
A.)∆𝑋 × ∆𝑃 ≤ 4𝜋
ℎ
B.)∆𝑋 × ∆𝑣 ≤ 4𝜋
ℎ
C.) ∆𝑋 × ∆𝑃 ≥ 4𝜋
ℎ
D.) ∆𝑋 × ∆𝑣 ≥ 4𝜋
13. The uncertainty principle can be easily understood with the help of ____
A. Dalton’s effect
B. Compton’s effect
C. Electron theory
D. Photoelectric effect
14. If the uncertainty in the position of an electron is zero, then the uncertainty in its
momentum will be
A. <h/4
B. >h/4
C. Zero
D. Infinite

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Summary
According to de Broglie, there is a symmetry in nature and nature loves symmetry.
Hence, he developed the concept of matter waves such the light will behave like
waves sometimes and as a particle.
The de Broglie waves involves the probability of finding the particle at a point and
space which is given by the wave function. The wave velocity is the phase velocity of
the wave associated with the particle and not the velocity of particle itself.
The electron beam undergo diffraction in the regular atomic arrays of crystal with
simultaneous occurrence of wave and particle aspects as demonstrated in
Davisson-Germer experiment.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle illustrates that it is not possible to identify the
position and momentum of a particle to be exactly measurable.
Terminal Questions
1. Explain the concept of matter waves.
2. Describe the de Broglie’s matter waves. Derive the de Broglie wavelength in terms
of kinetic energy, absolute temperature, and potential.
3. Discuss the Davisson-Germer experiment to show experiment proof of wave

nature of light.
4. Demonstrate the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle with respect to position and

momentum.

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Answer Keys
1 D
2 C
3 B
4 B
5 C
6 D
7 D
8 A
9 C
10 B
11 B
12 C
13 B
14 D

BIBLIOGRAPHY
External References
1. Bernard, Laloe, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics, Wiley Publishers, first edition,
pp. 1-536.

Prentice Hall, pp. 1-586.
e-References
nics.pdf
Image Credits
GetupLearn.com

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CDOC ENT ER FOR DIS TA N C E A ND

KONERU LAKSHMAIAH EDUCATION FOUNDATION

By Dr. K. Swapna & Dr. K. Raghavendra Kumar

Instructional Objectives: These are behavioral objectives that describe intended

Self-Assessment Questions: These include a set of multiple-choice questions to be

Bibliography: This is a list of books and articles written by a particular author on a

The Quantum Mechanics & Applications course has two modules.

Unit 1.1 Quantum Concepts and Black body radiation laws

1.1.1 Thomson and Rutherford atomic models – postulates & Drawbacks

1.1.2 Bohr atomic model – postulates & drawbacks

1.1.3 Black body radiation and radiation laws

Unit 1.2 Particle nature of light & applications

1.2.1 Particle nature of light

1.2.2 Photoelectric effect

1.2.3 Compton effect

Unit 1.3 Wave nature of light

1.3.1 Matter waves – de Broglie wavelength

1.3.2 Phase and group velocities

1.3.3 Davisson-Germer experiment

1.3.4 Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Unit 1.1 Quantum concepts and Black body radiation laws

Unit 1.2 Particle nature of light and applications

Unit 1.3 Wave nature of light

Unit Table of Contents

1.1. Quantum Concepts and Black body radiation laws

1.1.1 Thomson’s and Rutherford’s atomic models – postulates & drawbacks

1.1.2 Bohr’s atomic model – postulates & drawbacks

1.1.3 Black body radiation and radiation laws

In this unit, the students will be able to:

• Know the basics concepts of Quantum mechanics

At the end of the unit, the student is expected to:

• Familiarize about the concepts of quantum mechanics

1.1.1 Thomson’s and Rutherford’s atomic models – postulates & drawbacks

The following are the failures or inadequacies of classical physics.

(i) Classical physics failed to explain motion of atoms or electron in an atom.

Failed to explain the stability of atom

Fails to explain spectrum of Hydrogen atom

According to Classical theory Hydrogen spectrum is continuous. But experimentally it gives

where R denotes the Rydberg constant.

Heat capacities of solids

Lasers and Photonics

Postulates of Thomson’s atomic model

(1) An atom is a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.

Thomson’s atomic model is compared to watermelon, which he considered as:

(1) Watermelon seeds as negatively charged particles

Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model

Rutherford concluded from the alpha particles scattering experiment that

(a) An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, which is surrounded by electrons

Lasers and Photonics

1. The  particles are bombarded with

2. The alpha particle scattering experiment responsible for discovering the .

Lasers and Photonics

1.1.2. Bohr’s atomic model – postulates and drawbacks

As long as an electron remain in a shall it never gains or losses energy.

The following are applications of Bohr’s atomic model.

(i) Derivation of radius of an orbit of an atom

The radius of an orbit of an atom is given by r = (0n2h2) / (Ze2m)

The energy of an electron in an orbit is given as En = (-Z2e4m) / (80n2h2)

Lasers and Photonics