Chapter 2 Motion and Recombination

of Electrons and Holes

2.1 Thermal Motion

3 1
Average electron or hole kinetic energy = kT = mvth2
2 2

3kT 3 × 1.38 × 10 −23 JK −1 × 300K

vth = =
meff 0.26 × 9.1× 10 −31 kg

= 2.3 ×105 m/s = 2.3 ×107 cm/s

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-1
 2.1 Thermal Motion

• Zig-zag motion is due to collisions or scattering

with imperfections in the crystal.
• Net thermal velocity is zero.
• Mean free time between collisions is τm ~ 0.1ps
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-2
 Hot-point Probe can determine sample doing type
Hot-point Probe
distinguishes N
and P type
semiconductors.

Thermoelectric Generator
(from heat to electricity )
and Cooler (from
electricity to refrigeration)

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-3
 2.2 Drift

2.2.1 Electron and Hole Mobilities

• Drift is the motion caused by an electric field.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-4
 2.2.1 Electron and Hole Mobilities

m p v = q E τ mp

q E τ mp
v= ; drift velocity
mp

v = µ pE v = − µ nE
qτ mp qτ mn
µp = µn =
mp mn

• µp is the hole mobility and µn is the electron mobility

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-5
 2.2.1 Electron and Hole Mobilities

v =µ E ; µ has the dimensions of v/E  cm/s = cm 2  .

 
 V/cm V ⋅s 

Electron and hole mobilities of selected

semiconductors

Si Ge GaAs InAs
µ
n (cm2/V∙s) 1400 3900 8500 30000
µ 2
p (cm /V∙s) 470 1900 400 500

Based on the above table alone, which semiconductor and which carriers
(electrons or holes) are attractive for applications in high-speed devices?

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-6
 Drift Velocity, Mean Free Time, Mean Free Path
EXAMPLE: Given µp = 470 cm2/V·s, what is the hole drift velocity at
E = 103 V/cm? What is τmp and what is the distance traveled between
collisions (called the mean free path)? Hint: When in doubt, use the
MKS system of units.
Solution: ν = µpE = 470 cm2/V·s × 103 V/cm = 4.7× 105 cm/s
τmp = µpmp/q =470 cm2/V ·s × 0.39 × 9.1×10-31 kg/1.6×10-19 C
= 0.047 m2/V ·s × 2.2×10-12 kg/C = 1×10-13s = 0.1 ps
mean free path = τmhνth ~ 1× 10-13 s × 2.2×107 cm/s
= 2.2×10-6 cm = 220 Å = 22 nm
This is smaller than the typical dimensions of devices, but getting close.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-7
 2.2.2 Mechanisms of Carrier Scattering

There are two main causes of carrier scattering:

1. Phonon Scattering
2. Ionized-Impurity (Coulombic) Scattering

Phonon scattering mobility decreases when temperature rises:

1 1
µ phonon ∝ τ phonon ∝ ∝ ∝ T −3 / 2

phonon density × carrier thermal velocity T × T 1 / 2

µ = qτ/m ∝T
vth ∝ T1/2

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-8
 Impurity (Dopant)-Ion Scattering or Coulombic Scattering

Boron Ion Electron

_
- -
Electron +
Arsenic
Ion

There is less change in the direction of travel if the electron zips by

the ion at a higher speed.
3 3/ 2
v T
µimpurity ∝ ∝ th
Na + Nd Na + Nd
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-9
 Total Mobility
1600 1 1 1
= +
1400 τ τ phonon τ impurity
1200 Electrons 1 1 1
= +
µ µ phonon µ impurity
Mobility (cm2 V-1 s-1)

1000

800
impurity ion scattering
600

400
Holes free-carrier screening
200

1E14 1E15 1E16 1E17 1E18 1E19 1E20

Na +Concenration
Total Impurity Nd (cm-3) (atoms cm-3)

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

Slide 2-10
 Temperature Effect on Mobility

10 1 5

Question:
What Nd will make
dµn/dT = 0 at room
temperature?

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-11
 Velocity Saturation

• When the kinetic energy of a carrier exceeds a critical value, it

generates an optical phonon and loses the kinetic energy.
• Therefore, the kinetic energy is capped at large E, and the
velocity does not rise above a saturation velocity, vsat .
• Velocity saturation has a deleterious effect on device speed as
shown in Ch. 6.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-12
 2.2.3 Drift Current and Conductivity
E Jp

unit
+ area

+ ν

Hole current density Jp = qpv A/cm2 or C/cm2·sec

EXAMPLE: If p = 1015cm-3 and v = 104 cm/s, then

Jp= 1.6×10-19C × 1015cm-3 × 104cm/s
= 1.6 C/s ⋅ cm 2 = 1.6 A/cm 2
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-13
 2.2.3 Drift Current and Conductivity

Jp,drift = qpv = qpµpE

Jn,drift = –qnv = qnµnE

Jdrift = Jn,drift + Jp,drift = σ E =(qnµn+qpµp)E

∴ conductivity (1/ohm-cm) of a semiconductor is

σ = qnµn + qpµp
1/σ = is resistivity (ohm-cm)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-14
Relationship between Resistivity and Dopant Density

DOPANT DENSITY cm-3

P-type

N-type

RESISTIVITY (Ω⋅cm)
ρ = 1/σ
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-15
EXAMPLE: Temperature Dependence of Resistance
(a) What is the resistivity (ρ) of silicon doped
with 1017cm-3 of arsenic?
(b) What is the resistance (R) of a piece of this
silicon material 1µm long and 0.1 µm2 in cross-
sectional area?
Solution:
(a) Using the N-type curve in the previous
figure, we find that ρ = 0.084 Ω-cm.
(b) R = ρL/A = 0.084 Ω-cm × 1 µm / 0.1 µm2
= 0.084 Ω-cm × 10-4 cm/ 10-10 cm2
= 8.4 × 10-4 Ω
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-16
EXAMPLE: Temperature Dependence of Resistance

By what factor will R increase or decrease from

T=300 K to T=400 K?

Solution: The temperature dependent factor in σ (and

therefore ρ) is µn. From the mobility vs. temperature
curve for 1017cm-3, we find that µn decreases from 770
at 300K to 400 at 400K. As a result, R increases by

770
= 1.93
400

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-17
 2.3 Diffusion Current

Particles diffuse from a higher-concentration location

to a lower-concentration location.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-18
 2.3 Diffusion Current
dn dp
J n ,diffusion = qDn J p ,diffusion = −qD p
dx dx
D is called the diffusion constant. Signs explained:
n p

x x

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-19
Total Current – Review of Four Current Components

JTOTAL = Jn + Jp

dn
Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diffusion = qnµnE + qDn
dx

dp
Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diffusion = qpµpE – qD p
dx

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-20
 2.4 Relation Between the Energy
Diagram and V, E
V(x)
0.7eV

0.7V

–
x
+
N type Si
N- 0

Ec and Ev vary in the opposite

E E c (x)
direction from the voltage. That -
E f (x)
is, Ec and Ev are higher where
the voltage is lower. E v (x)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 1 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑣𝑣 0.7V

E(x)= − = = +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 x

𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 = −𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-21
2.5 Einstein Relationship between D and µ
Consider a piece of non-uniformly doped semiconductor.

− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
N-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor n = N ce
dn N −( E − E ) / kT dEc
Decreasing donor concentration =− ce c f
dx kT dx
Ec(x) n dEc
=−
kT dx
Ef
n
=− qE
Ev(x)
kT

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-22
2.5 Einstein Relationship between D and µ
dn n
=− qE
dx kT

dn
J n = qnµ nE + qDn= 0 at equilibrium.
dx
qDn
= −
0 qnµ nE qn E
kT
kT kT
Dn = µn Similarly, Dp = µp
q q
These are known as the Einstein relationship.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-23
 EXAMPLE: Diffusion Constant

What is the hole diffusion constant in a piece of

silicon with µp = 410 cm2 V-1s-1 ?

Solution:
 kT 
D p =   µ p = (26 mV) ⋅ 410 cm 2 V −1s −1 = 11 cm 2 /s
 q 

Remember: kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-24
 2.6 Electron-Hole Recombination
•The equilibrium carrier concentrations are denoted with
n0 and p0.
•The total electron and hole concentrations can be different
from n0 and p0 .
•The differences are called the excess carrier
concentrations n’ and p’.

n ≡ n0 + n'
p ≡ p0 + p '

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-25
 Charge Neutrality
•Charge neutrality is satisfied at equilibrium (n’=
p’= 0).
• When a non-zero n’ is present, an equal p’ may
be assumed to be present to maintain charge
equality and vice-versa.
•If charge neutrality is not satisfied, the net charge
will attract or repel the (majority) carriers through
the drift current until neutrality is restored.

n' = p'

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-26
 Recombination Lifetime

•Assume light generates n’ and p’. If the light is

suddenly turned off, n’ and p’ decay with time
until they become zero.
•The process of decay is called recombination.
•The time constant of decay is the recombination
time or carrier lifetime, τ .
•Recombination is nature’s way of restoring
equilibrium (n’= p’= 0).

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-27
 Recombination Lifetime
•τ ranges from 1ns to 1ms in Si and depends on
the density of metal impurities (contaminants)
such as Au and Pt.
•These deep traps capture electrons and holes to
facilitate recombination and are called
recombination centers.
Ec
Direct
Recombination Recombination
is unfavorable in centers
silicon
Ev

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-28
 Direct and Indirect Band Gap

Trap

Direct band gap Indirect band gap

Example: GaAs Example: Si
Direct recombination is efficient Direct recombination is rare as k
as k conservation is satisfied. conservation is not satisfied

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

 Rate of recombination (s-1cm-3)

dn′ n′
=−
dt τ

n′ = p′

dn′ n′ p′ dp′
=− =− =
dt τ τ dt

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-30
 EXAMPLE: Photoconductors

A bar of Si is doped with boron at 1015cm-3. It is

exposed to light such that electron-hole pairs are
generated throughout the volume of the bar at the
rate of 1020/s·cm3. The recombination lifetime is
10µs. What are (a) p0 , (b) n0 , (c) p’, (d) n’, (e) p ,
(f) n, and (g) the np product? (h) If the light is
suddenly turned off at t=0, fine n’(t) for t>0.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-31
 EXAMPLE: Photoconductors

Solution:

(a) What is p0?

p0 = Na = 1015 cm-3

(b) What is n0 ?
n0 = ni2/p0 = 105 cm-3

(c) What is p’?

In steady-state, the rate of generation is equal to the
rate of recombination.
1020/s-cm3 = p’/τ
∴ p’= 1020/s-cm3 · 10-5s = 1015 cm-3

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-32
 EXAMPLE: Photoconductors

(d) What is n’?

n’= p’= 1015 cm-3

(e) What is p?
p = p0 + p’= 1015cm-3 + 1015cm-3 = 2×1015cm-3

(f) What is n?
n = n0 + n’= 105cm-3 + 1015cm-3 ~ 1015cm-3 since n0 << n’

(g) What is np?

np ~ 2×1015cm-3 ·1015cm-3 = 2×1030 cm-6 >> ni2 = 1020 cm-6.
The np product can be very different from ni2.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-33
 EXAMPLE: Photoconductors

(h) If the light is suddenly turned off at t=0, fine n’(t) for t>0.

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛′ 𝑛𝑛′ 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

=− , ′
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜏𝜏 𝑛𝑛 𝜏𝜏
by integrating both sides
𝑡𝑡
ln(𝑛𝑛′ ) =−
𝜏𝜏

n’(t) = n’(0)e-t/τ = 1015cm-3 e-t/τ

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-34
 2.7 Thermal Generation

If n’ is negative, there are fewer

electrons than the equilibrium value.

As a result, there is a net rate of

thermal generation at the rate of |n′|/τ .

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-35
 2.8 Quasi-equilibrium and Quasi-Fermi Levels
• Whenever n’ = p’ ≠ 0, np ≠ ni2. We would like to preserve
and use the simple relations:
− ( Ec − E f ) / kT
n = Nce
− ( E f − Ev ) / kT
p = Nve
• But these equations lead to np = ni2. The solution is to introduce
two quasi-Fermi levels Efn and Efp such that
− ( Ec − E fn ) / kT
n = Nce
− ( E − E ) / kT
p = N v e fp v
Even when electrons and holes are not at equilibrium, within
each group the carriers can be at equilibrium. Electrons are
closely linked to other electrons but only loosely to holes.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-36
EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels and Low-Level Injection

Consider a Si sample with Nd=1017cm-3 and n’=p’=1015cm-3.

(a) Find Ef .
n = Nd = 1017 cm-3 = Ncexp[–(Ec– Ef)/kT]
∴ Ec– Ef = 0.15 eV. (Ef is below Ec by 0.15 eV.)

Note: n’ and p’ are much less than the majority carrier

concentration. This condition is called low-level
injection.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-37
EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels and Low-Level Injection

Now assume n′ = p′ = 1015 cm-3.

(b) Find Efn and Efp .
− ( Ec − E fn ) / kT
n = 1.01×1017cm-3 = N c e

∴ Ec–Efn = kT × ln(Nc/1.01×1017cm-3)
= 26 meV × ln(2.8×1019cm-3/1.01×1017cm-3)
= 0.15 eV

Efn is nearly identical to Ef because n ≈ n0 .

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-38
 EXAMPLE: Quasi-Fermi Levels
− ( E fp − Ev ) / kT
p= 1015 cm-3 = Nve

∴ Efp–Ev = kT × ln(Nv/1015cm-3)
= 26 meV × ln(1.04×1019cm-3/1015cm-3)
= 0.24 eV

Ec

Ef Efn

Efp
Ev

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-39
 2.9 Chapter Summary

v p = µ pE dn
J n ,diffusion = qDn
dx
vn = - µ nE
dp
J p ,diffusion = −qD p
J p ,drift = qpµ pE dx
J n ,drift = qnµ nE
kT
Dn = µn
q
kT
Dp = µp
q

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-40
 2.9 Chapter Summary
τ is the recombination lifetime.
n’ and p’ are the excess carrier concentrations.
n = n0+ n’
p = p0+ p’
Charge neutrality requires n’= p’.

rate of recombination = n’/τ = p’/τ

Efn and Efp are the quasi-Fermi levels of electrons and

holes. − ( E − E ) / kT
n = N c e c fn
− ( E − E ) / kT
p = N v e fp v

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 2-41