ANALYSIS OF FOLDED ROCKS

Practical Structural Analysis of

Deformed Rocks in the Context of
Exploration and Mining
Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Primary Folds ............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Tectonic Folds...........................................................................................................................3

2 Characterisation of Folded Rocks...................................................................................................7

2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................7
2.2 Fold Morphology and Terminology............................................................................................7
2.2.1 Fold Classification........................................................................................................9
2.2.2 Deformation Nomenclature Associated with Folded Rocks.......................................12
2.3 Fold Evolution .........................................................................................................................15
2.4 Fold Development in Zones of High Strain .............................................................................20

3 Cleavage and Lineation Development ..........................................................................................24

3.1 Axial Planar Foliations.............................................................................................................28
3.2 Linear Elements ......................................................................................................................29

4 Structural Relationships for Aiding Mapping and Interpretation of Folded Rocks ..................37
4.1 Relationships Between Folded Layering and Cleavage..........................................................37
4.2 Fold Vergence.........................................................................................................................39
4.3 Younging and Structural Facing..............................................................................................40

5 Controls on Mineralisation.............................................................................................................44
5.1 Flexural slip folding .................................................................................................................44
5.2 Fluid Flow During Cleavage Development..............................................................................45
5.3 Mineralisation during Formation of Zones of High Extension Associated with Folding...........49
5.4 Shear-Assisted Folding Processes and Controls on Mineralisation .......................................54

Analysis of Folded Rocks

List of Tables

Table 2.2.1_1 – Fold Classification by Dip of the Axial Surface 10

Table 2.2.1_2 – Fold Classification in Terms of Fold Axis Plunge 11

List of Figures

Figure 1.1_1 – Soft Sediment Folding of Bedding 1

Figure 1.1_2 – Soft Sediment Folding in a Marl from Chelopech, Bulgaria 2
Figure 1.1_3 – Soft Sediment Folding in a Marl from Chelopech, Bulgaria 2
Figure 1.1_4 – Flow folds with wavelengths of several metres in a rhyolite lava from the Silver Hills Volcanics, Australia 3
Figure 12_1 - Diagram to show a rollover antiform developed in the hangingwall block of a curved extensional fault 3
Figure 1.2_2 – Example of a fault-propagation fold on a thrust in the Mulgarrie deposit, Western Australia 4
Figure 1.2_3 – Photograph of a thrust-generated fault-propagation fold in the Golden Age reef, Western Australia 4
Figure 1.2_4 - Fold geometry defined by complex fibre geometries 5
Figure 1.2_5 – Fold Geometry Defined by a Drag-Folded Pegmatite Vein Adjacent to a Fault 5
Figure 1.2_6 – Trends of Tectonic Foliation around the Ardara Pluton, Donegal, Ireland 6
Figure 1.2_7 – Macroscale folds of sedimentary country rocks surrounding salt diapers in the Great Kavir, Iran 6
Figure 2.2_1 – Components comprising the geometry of a fold 8
Figure 2.2_2 – Diagrams to illustrate the relationship between a fold, its axial plane, and the plunge of the fold axis 8
Figure 2.2.1_1 – Features Associated with Folding 9
Figure 2.2.1_2 – Fold classification based interlimb angle, dip of the fold axial surface, and fold axis plunge 10
Figure 2.2.1_3 – Variation in fold plunge direction for a single fold 11
Figure 2.2.1_4 – Nomenclature for dome and basin folding 12
Figure 2.2.2_1 – Structural nomenclature for a simple fold 13
Figure 2.2.2_2 – Structural notation for the description of fold axes 13
Figure 2.2.2_3 – Ductile Structural Features Associated with a Single Deformation Event 14
Figure 2.2.2_4 – Ductile deformation features associated with two phases of folding 14
Figure 2.3_1 – Diagram to illustrate the progressive development of a fold 15
Figure 2.3_2 – Diagram to illustrate the progressive development of fold 16
Figure 2.3_3 – Strongly asymmetric folds 17
Figure 2.3_4 – Asymmetric differentiated crenulations of bedding from the Hodgkinson Province, Australia. 17
Figure 2.3_5 – Strongly asymmetric differentiated crenulation cleavage 18
Figure 2.3_6 – Diagram to illustrate the different senses of shear operating on opposite limbs of a fold 18
Figure 2.3_7 – Schematic diagram to illustrate the process of reactivation 19
Figure 2.4_1 – Sheath/condom fold development 20
Figure 2.4_2 – Sectional view of a sheath fold developed in calcsilicate rocks from the Overhang Jaspilite, Australia 20
Figure 2.4_3 – Domal surface of a sheath fold developed in calcsilicate rocks from the Overhang Jaspilite, Australia 21
Figure 2.4_4 – Example of mylonitised porphyry 22

Analysis of Folded Rocks

Figure 2.4_5 – Mylonite exposure that looks morphologically similar to sedimentary layering 22
Figure 2.4_6 – Mylonitic dyke in contact with greywacke host rocks 23
Figure 2.4_7 – Mylonitic lineation 23
Figure 3_1 – Subvertical slaty cleavage cross-cutting inclined bedding 24
Figure 3_2 – Crenulation cleavage cutting lithological layering 25
Figure 3_3 – Seamy dissolution cleavage developed in a marl due to pressure solution 25
Figure 3_4 – Stylolitic cleavage developed in a quartz vein 26
Figure 3_5 – Schistosity in amphibolite-grade rocks of the Robertson River Metamorphics, Australia 26
Figure 3_6 – Differentiated cleavage wrapping an altered andalusite porphyroblast 27
Figure 3_7 – Gneissic foliation developed in granite gneisses of the Leeuwin Metamorphic Complex, Western Australia 27
Figure 3.1_1 – Anastomosing axial planar cleavage 28
Figure 3.2_1 – Intense stretching lineation developed in schists in the Pakaka area of the Moto goldfield, DRC 29
Figure 3.2_2 – Parallel fold axes and intersection lineations 30
Figure 3.2_3 – Lineation defined by fold axes and boudins 30
Figure 3.2_4 – Extension lineation defined by oxidised pyrite on a cleavage plane 31
Figure 3.2_5 – Folded extension lineation on a folded cleavage surface in the Wassa open pit, Ghana 31
Figure 3.2_6 – Extension lineation in siliceous rocks 32
Figure 3.2_7 – Extension lineation defined by the preferential alignment of andalusite porphyroblasts 32
Figure 3.2_8 – Extension lineation defined by prolate pyrite framboids on a cleavage surface in the Prestea open pit 33
Figure 3.2_9 – Folded cherty layering in the Mt Majestic area, Tanami Desert, Australia 33
Figure 3.2_10 – Oxidised pyrite from the Fortnum area in the Glengarry Basin, Western Australia 34
Figure 3.2_11 – Bedding-cleavage intersection and crenulation cleavage intersection lineations 34
Figure 3.2_12 – Crenulation intersection lineations developed on a cleavage surface in graphite-rich rocks 35
Figure 3.2_13 – Mullion structures 35
Figure 3.2_14 – Mullion structures 36
Figure 3.2_15 – Fibrous lineations wrapping a stretched pebble from the Mt Majestic area, Tanami desert, Australia 36
Figure 4.1_1 – Vergence relationships involving cleavage in folded rocks 37
Figure 4.1_2 – Vergence relationships as defined by parasitic fold geometries and cleavage-layering asymmetries 38
Figure 4.1_3 – Relationships of Parasitic Folds to the Larger-Scale ‘Parent’ Structure 39
Figure 4.3_1 – Diagram to illustrate an outcrop with upward younging and upward structural facing 41
Figure 4.3_3 – Use of facing relationships to determine overturning of sedimentary package 42
Figure 4.3_4 – Diagram to illustrate the relationship of structural facing and sedimentary younging 42
Figure 4.3_5 – Fold terminology incorporating fold geometry and sedimentary younging 43
Figure 5.1_1 – Diagram to illustrate layer-parallel slip during flexural slip folding 44
Figure 5.1_2 – Localisation of carbonate in the space formed in a fold hinge due to flexural slip folding 45
Figure 5.1_3 – Sulphidation of a banded iron formation that has been localised in the fold hinges 45
Figure 5.2_1 – Two examples of slaty cleavage from the Fiery Creek Slate Belt in north Queensland, Australia 46
Figure 5.2_2 – Sulphide porphyroblasts parallel to a tectonic foliation 47
Figure 5.2_3 – Preferred alignment of pyrrhotite within a cleavage in a handspecimen from the Gimlet South Mine,
Western Australia 47
Figure 5.2_4 – Sulphide porphyroblasts parallel to an axial planar foliation 47
Figure 5.2_5 – Pyrite-rich cleavage seams cross-cutting quartz veins in the Kanowna Belle deposit, Western Australia 48
Figure 5.2_6 – Preferred alignment of gold parallel to a late foliation in the Sunrise Mine, Western Australia. 48
Figure 5.2_7 – Schematic diagram to show linkage of saddle reefs by reverse faults 49

Analysis of Folded Rocks

Figure 5.3_1 – Localisation of mineralisation in sheath folds that are elongate parallel to the extension lineation 50
Figure 5.3_2 – Localisation of mineralisation within tensional sites developed in a competent layer 51
Figure 5.3_3 – Gold localised in the neck of a boudinaged quartz vein from the Callie deposit, Tanami Desert 52
Figure 5.3_4 – Sulphides in tensional fractures 52
Figure 5.3_5 – Localisation of sulphides during boudinage 53
Figure 5.3_6 – Localisation of sulphides and gold during boudinage 53
Figure 5.3_7 – Structural control of gold deposition within and adjacent to a pyrite grain 54
Figure 5.4_1 – Formation of planar orebodies parallel to a fold axial plane during progressive deformation 55
Figure 5.4_2 – Operation of two senses of shear on the limb of a fold during progressive deformation 56
Figure 5.4_3 – Localisation of mineralisation due to the interaction of opposing senses of shear 57

Analysis of Folded Rocks

1 INTRODUCTION
Folds are the most familiar, and commonly the most spectacular, manifestation of bulk
heterogeneous deformation in rocks. They occur at all scales from the microscopic to the
scale of the whole lithosphere. Folds form under a range of conditions in igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. A necessity for identification of folds is the presence
of some planar layering that can define the fold geometry. Massive rocks with no planar
layering can undergo the same deformation processes at the same conditions but a lack of
marker horizons means that the processes of folding may not be identified.

Folds commonly occur in conjunction with cleavages. Cleavages and folds form in
response to applied stresses and show coeval evolution as the deformation progresses. It
is common to see rocks that show several stages of folding and cleavage development.
Cleavages that form at the same time as folds will show develop in an axial planar
orientation that broadly bisects the fold hinge. However, the angle between the cleavage
and the folded layer will be variable depending on fold shape.

Features that are commonly folded include bedding, tectonic foliations and igneous
intrusions. Successive stages of folding can lead to complex fold geometries and the
rocks are said to contain superposed folds.

1.1 Primary Folds

The majority of fold geometries are produced in response to tectonic stresses that deform
the rocks. However, it is not uncommon to encounter primary folds that are produced in
response to such things as soft sediment deformation (e.g. slumping) in sediments
(Figures 1.1_1, 1.1_2 and 1.1_3) and flow folds that form in lavas (Figure 1.1_4) and
crystallising magmas.

Figure 1.1_1
Soft Sediment Folding of Bedding

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 1

 Figure 1.1_2
Soft Sediment Folding in a Marl from Chelopech, Bulgaria

Figure 1.1_3
Soft Sediment Folding in a Marl from Chelopech, Bulgaria

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 2

 Figure 1.1_4
Flow folds with wavelengths of several metres in a rhyolite lava from the Silver Hills Volcanics

Central Queensland, Australia.

1.2 Tectonic Folds

Tectonic folds develop in response to an applied stress and form in many structural
environments and virtually all tectonic regimes. They are dominantly products of
contractional deformation associated with mountain building processes (orogenesis) in
convergent plate margin environments. Less common folds will develop in extensional
environments as the hangingwall block or upper plate undergo necessary deformation to
accommodate shape changes on faults or volume changes induced by extension. One
such example is that of rollover antiforms that form in hangingwall blocks that move down
on curved faults.

Folds are common in association with faults. Examples are:-

Rollover antiforms on normal faults (Figure 1.2_1)

Fault propagation folds on thrust (reverse) faults (Figures 1.2_2 and 1.2_3)

Curved fibre geometries due to variation in extension direction in a fault (Figure 1.2_4)

Drag folds

Figure 1.2_1
Diagram to show a rollover antiform developed in the hangingwall block of a curved extensional fault

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 3

 Figure 1.2_2
Example of a fault-propagation fold (outlined in white) on a thrust (orange) in the
Mulgarrie deposit, Western Australia

Figure 1.2_3
Photograph of a thrust-generated fault-propagation fold (above the lens cap) in the Golden Age reef,
Wiluna, Western Australia

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 4

 Figure 1.2_4
Fold geometry defined by complex fibre geometries.

The curved fibres lie on a fault plane and are a product of a very complex fault opening and movement history.

Figure 1.2_5
Fold Geometry Defined by a Drag-Folded Pegmatite Vein Adjacent to a Fault

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 5

 Other folds occur in response to volume changes during the processes of igneous and
diapiric emplacement (Figures 1.2_6 and 1.2_7). In this case the folds are products of
volume compensation processes. The folds form above and adjacent to the bodies being
emplaced and often have very curviplanar axial planes. Movement of material as the folds
evolve equates to a mass transfer process that allow space to be created for such bodies
as igneous intrusions and salt diapirs.

Figure 1.2_6
Trends of Tectonic Foliation around the Ardara Pluton, Donegal, Ireland

Kilometre-scale folds are evident on the western side of the pluton.

Figure 1.2_7
Macroscale folds of sedimentary country rocks surrounding salt diapirs in the Great Kavir, Iran

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 6

2 CHARACTERISATION OF FOLDED ROCKS
2.1 Introduction
Mineralisation is commonly hosted in rocks that have undergone one or more stages of
deformation. Consequently, the formation of mineral deposits commonly shows a close
spatial and temporal relationship to folds in the host rocks. In many cases the
mineralisation also defines fold geometries, from the scale of large deposits down to the
microscale. Consequently, production and exploration geologists must feel comfortable in
the interpretation of geometries in folded rocks and be familiar with the role that folds play
in the mineralising process. This necessitates the ability to confidently document the
folded rocks, which requires determination of the shape, orientation, style, age and position
of the folds in question.

Some zones of folded rock will only be expressed by sporadic outcrops. This may disguise
the overall scale of large folds as their exposure may be restricted to small outcrops.
However, the characteristics of large folds can be inferred from outcrop- and hand
specimen-scale relationships

The analysis of folded rocks necessitates the use of a consistent terminology to describe
fold morphology and a consistent terminology to ascribe different the different structural
ages to fold-related elements. The first portion of this course looks at the classification of
folds and fold properties, and uses a deformation nomenclature that puts fold elements in
an age context with other ductile structures such as cleavages and lineations.

In addition to the information described above, there are three pieces of information that
are critical to structural analysis of folded rocks:-

Orientation relationships of bedding and other surfaces (e.g. foliations) and of

lineations

Fold vergence

Younging and structural facing

2.2 Fold Morphology and Terminology

Folds can be documented in terms of style and orientation. The orientation of a fold is
documented by measuring its axial plane and the plunge of the fold axis (Figures 2.2_1
and 2.2_2). The fold axis represents the line of intersection of the axial plane and the
folded surface at the hinge of the fold. In essence, a fold axis is a special form of
intersection lineation. The fold axis is parallel to intersection lineations formed by
the intersection of the cleavage and folded surface on the limbs of the fold.

The fold axis orientation is measured as a plunge and plunge direction. The plunge is
measured in a vertical plane that contains the fold axis. The angle between a
horizontal line and the fold axis in the vertical plane is the fold plunge. It is important to
note the fold plunge is measured in a vertical plane containing the fold axis, NOT in
the axial plane. For upright folds with subvertical axial planes the axial plane cleavage will
be approximately the same as the vertical plane containing the fold axis. However,
depending on the orientation of the fold, the difference in orientation between the axial
plane and the vertical plane containing the fold axis can be marked (Figure 2.2_2).

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 7

 Figure 2.2_1
Components comprising the geometry of a fold

Figure 2.2_2
Diagrams to illustrate the relationship between a fold, its axial plane, and the plunge of the fold axis

Further information can be obtained such as the orientation of the form surface of folded
layers.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 8

2.2.1 Fold Classification
Folds can be classified by their shape, orientation and symmetry/asymmetry. The best
idea of fold geometry is obtained by viewing the structure in a plane that is perpendicular to
the fold axis. This plane is termed the profile plane of the fold (Figure 2.2_1).

Folds can be classified in terms of:

Interlimb angle (Figure 2.2.1_1)

Dip of the axial surface (Figure 2.2.1_2)

Fold axis plunge (Figure 2.2.1_2)

Amplitude and wavelength (Figure 2.2_1)

Symmetry/asymmetry – M, Z, or S geometries (Figure 2.2.1_1)

Figure 2.2.1_1
Features Associated with Folding

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 9

 Figure 2.2.1_2
Fold classification based interlimb angle, dip of the fold axial surface, and fold axis plunge

Fold classification by dip of the axial surface is based on subdivision of the dip into several
categories (Table 2.2.1_1).

Table 2.2.1_1
Fold Classification by Dip of the Axial Surface

Dip of Axial Surface Fold Classification

90º - 80º Upright
80º - 60º Steeply inclined
60º - 30º Moderately inclined
30º - 10º Gently inclined
10º - 0 Recumbent

Fold classification by plunge of the fold axis is based on subdivision into several categories
(Table 2.2.1_2).

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 10

 Table 2.2.1_1
Fold Classification in Terms of Fold Axis Plunge

Plunge of Fold Axis Fold Classification

0 Horizontal
0 - 10º Gently plunging
30º - 60º Moderately plunging
60º - 80º Steeply plunging
90º Vertical

Fold classification can be done in terms of the shape of the folds based on the relative
length of their limbs (Figure 2.2.1_1). Symmetric folds occur in fold hinges and are termed
M folds. Asymmetric folds occur on the limbs of relatively larger-scale folds and are
defined as S or Z folds depending on their asymmetric appearance.

When describing folds it is important to document both the orientation and the shapes of
the folds, including their asymmetry. Fold shape is important as it may be helpful in
correlating folds in isolated outcrops. Folds formed in the same deformation event may
have a consistent shape that is recognisable from outcrop to outcrop whereas folds formed
in different deformation events may have obviously different shapes.

The three-dimensional aspect of folds is also important with regard to fold documentation.
Some folds are cylindrical, which means they have straight, parallel hingelines and the
same size and shape of profile along the length of the fold axis. Other folds vary markedly
and individual folds may show plunges in opposing directions along the plunge direction of
the fold axis (Figure 2.2.1_3). Such folds are termed doubly plunging folds and can be
products of zones of high strain or due to an overprinting deformation that has deformed
folds that were originally cylindrical. Dome and basin geometries are common at all scales
and some of the terminology associated with these are given in Figure 2.2.1_4. In the
case of high strain zones the fold axes rotate toward parallelism with the
extension/stretching lineation and develop domal and sheath geometries. These high
strain geometries are covered in Section 2.4: Fold development in zones of high strain.

Figure 2.2.1_3
Variation in fold plunge direction for a single fold

Such folds are termed non-cylindrical. The asymmetries of parasitic folds are also shown.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 11

 Figure 2.2.1_4
Nomenclature for dome and basin folding

2.2.2 Deformation Nomenclature Associated with Folded Rocks

The resolution of a deformation history in rocks that have endured more than a couple of
events can often be daunting, especially when they produce complex overprinting
geometries. Consequently, the use of a coherent deformation terminology is important. This
section describes a systematic manner for describing folds produced in complexly deformed
rocks. This terminology is useful in that it and indicates overprinting between the different
fold phases and the relationship to structures such as foliations. Essentially, if you can count
you can use this terminology.

Three forms of lineations can be produced during folding deformation; intersection

lineations, fold axes (which are a special form of intersection lineation), and stretching
lineations. The terminology described below is restricted to that for fold axes. A
comprehensive treatment of deformation nomenclature for ductilely deformed rocks is given
in the module DEFORMATION HISTORY AND KINEMATIC ANALYSIS.

Fold axes are just a special type of intersection lineation that is located on the hinge line of
a fold.

Fold axes are denoted by the letter ‘F’ and are described with a subscript and a
superscript.

The superscript is the number of the oldest surface that is folded and the subscript is the
number of the youngest surface that folds it.

For example, if Surface A (SA) is the folded and Surface B (SB) is the axial plane of the
event that has caused the folding, then the line of Fold axis is called FAB.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 12

 Similarly, if D2 folds S1, then S2 is the axial plane cleavage that is produced. Where S2
intersects S1 along the hinge of the fold the Fold axis is termed F12.

Another example: If D3 folds bedding (S0), then the Fold axis is called F03.

Because Fold axes are just a special type of intersection lineation that is located on the
hinge line of a fold, they are parallel to intersection lineations produced during the same
event.

For example, F03 is parallel to L03, F01 is parallel to L01 and so on.

This terminology is demonstrated in Figures 2.2.2_1, 2.2.2_2, 2.2.2_3 and 2.2.2_4.

Figure 2.2.2_1
Structural nomenclature for a simple fold

Figure 2.2.2_2
Structural notation for the description of fold axes

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 13

 Figure 2.2.2_3
Ductile Structural Features Associated with a Single Deformation Event

Figure 2.2.2_4
Ductile deformation features associated with two phases of folding

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 14

2.3 Fold Evolution
The folds that we see in outcrop represent the final state of strain that the rocks achieved
before being exposed. Depending on the strain history, the folds will vary from gentle
flexures right through to extremely tight structures, commonly with complex geometries.
Folds initiate as open, relatively symmetric structures. As deformation progresses the folds
tighten and a sense of asymmetry develops (Figures 2.3_1 and 2.3_2). This asymmetry
may become very pronounced to the point where the outcrop is dominated by extremely
attenuated long limbs of folds separated by less strained short limb regions (Figure 2.3_3).
It is much less common to see symmetric folds preserved in rocks that have experienced
protracted and intense strain histories.

Figure 2.3_1
Diagram to illustrate the progressive development of a fold

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 15

 Figure 2.3_2
Diagram to illustrate the progressive development of fold

The photos show the ongoing tightening of the folds along with associated intensification of cleavage and increasing
asymmetry to the fold geometries. Photos are from the Bogoso-Prestea trend, southern Ghana.

Crenulations develop in the same manner as the mesoscale folds and represent
microscale manifestations of the same strain state. Crenulations will typically duplicate the
same geometry as that of the portion of the fold they are located on. With increasing strain
the crenulations become progressively more asymmetric to the point where the long limbs
differentiate and are comprised of phyllosilicate-rich domains parallel to the fold axial plane
(Figures 2.3_4 and 2.3_5). Once throughgoing differentiation zones have developed they
accommodate much of the shearing strain that allows the movement necessary for
ongoing fold development (Figure 2.3_6).

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 16

 Figure 2.3_3
Strongly asymmetric folds

Example of an advanced stage of folding where the short limbs of the asymmetric folds have been preserved and the long
limbs have accommodated significant shearing strain resulting in pronounced attenuation of the fold long limbs.
From the Wassa deposit, Ghana.

Figure 2.3_4
Asymmetric differentiated crenulations of bedding from the Hodgkinson Province,

North Queensland, Australia.

A very important process that operates during fold development is that of reactivation.
Reactivation is a process involving accommodation of a sense of shear on inclined layering
that is the opposite to that on the macroscale fold limb. This opposite sense of shear is
accommodated by layering that is in a favourable orientation relative to the far field stress
and typically happens when the folded layering has been rotated to a moderate angle to
σ1. Thus, at intermediate stages of fold development it is common for the axial planar
cleavage to accommodate a synthetic sense of shear and to aid fold development while
adjacent layers will accommodate an opposite sense of shear and may even unfold some
pre-folded layers. As the folds tighten, the layers that were in favourable orientations for
accommodating reactivation are progressively rotated toward the orientation of the axial
plane cleavage, which accommodates a synthetic sense of shear. Consequently,
reactivation is then over-ridden by synthetic shearing as the previously reactivated layers
attain unfavourable orientations for accommodating the antithetic shear.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 17

 Figure 2.3_5
Strongly asymmetric differentiated crenulation cleavage

Garnet porphyroblasts (black) in the hinge regions of asymmetric differentiated crenulations. The cleavage is defined by
seams of mica that represent the mica-rich limbs of the crenulations. These limbs are zones of shearing strain and the
quartz-rich crenulation hinges are zones of shortening and minor shearing strain.
Form the Robertson River Metamorphics, north Queensland, Australia.

Figure 2.3_6
Diagram to illustrate the different senses of shear operating on opposite limbs of a fold

The fold is formed by shearing on the differentiated crenulation cleavage, which has different asymmetries on
opposite limbs of the fold.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 18

 Reactivation is potentially very important for mineralisation because it operates with an
opposite sense to the overall bulk movement sense on the fold limb (Figure 2.3_7). Thus,
there will be areas in the evolving fold where two opposing movement senses will compete
and produce zones that are under tensional strain. If large variations in layer competency
are present there is potential to cause brecciation and facilitate fluid inflow.

Figure 2.3_7
Schematic diagram to illustrate the process of reactivation

Reactivation involves the accommodation of an antithetic sense of shear along the layering being folded.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 19

2.4 Fold Development in Zones of High Strain
High strain zones are characterised by significant intensification of the synchronously-
formed foliation. Folds become progressively tighter and early-formed structures become
markedly attenuated. The large changes in shape of the rocks being deformed commonly
results in changes in volume as well due to shear-enhanced dissolution of material. Shape
changes are also accommodated by marked extension, which occurs dominantly in the
orientation of the extension/stretching lineation. In these zones, structures such as fold
axes and early-formed lineations undergo progressive rotation toward the orientation of the
extension/stretching lineation. This produces sheath (or condom) folds, which are domal to
extremely attenuated conical fold structures that are elongate in the orientation of the
stretching lineation (Figures 2.4_1, 2.4_2 and 2.4_3).

Figure 2.4_1
Sheath/condom fold development

Development of a tubular sheath (or condom) fold in a zone of intense shearing strain. The fold axis rotates from lying
at a high angle to the stretching direction to being subparallel to it.

Figure 2.4_2
Sectional view of a sheath fold developed in calcsilicate rocks from the Overhang Jaspilite

Mt Isa Inlier, NW Queensland, Australia

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 20

 Figure 2.4_3
Domal surface of a sheath fold developed in calcsilicate rocks from the Overhang Jaspilite

Mt Isa Inlier, NW Queensland, Australia

The rocks that undergo the highest strains evolve into mylonites. The term ‘mylonite’
refers to a deformation texture rather than a type of rock and so should not be used as a
rock name within a stratigraphic sequence.

Mylonites are foliated and lineated rocks that show evidence for intense ductile
deformation. They can occur in any rock type and can form zones from millimeters to
several kilometres in width. Mylonites are recognizable by their small grain size and
strongly developed, unusually regular and planar foliations (Figures 2.4_4 and 2.4_5). The
high strain rates responsible for formation of mylonites are such that the deformed grains
are unable to recrystallise and grow to greater sizes.

Mylonites contain porhyroclasts, which are remnants of resistant mineral grains that are of
a larger size than the grains in the matrix (Figure 2.4_6). The planar fabric of mylonites is
called a mylonitic foliation and commonly shows an intense linear fabric on its surface
(Figure 2.4_7). The high strains commonly result in refolding and sheath fold formation of
the mylonitic fabric during a protracted progressive deformation. In addition to tubular
sheath folds, the lineation may define fold geometries due to formation under high strain
conditions and then deformation by the same strain field as the deformation progresses.
Linear fabrics are usually best developed in polymineralic rocks where intense grain size
reduction has taken place.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 21

 Figure 2.4_4
Example of mylonitised porphyry

Mylonitic quartz-feldspar porphyry from the Porphyry deposit in the Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia. Extremely high
strain is evident in the grey bands that have evolved to ultramylonites.

Figure 2.4_5
Mylonite exposure that looks morphologically similar to sedimentary layering

Laminar mylonitic foliation in an underground exposure in the Quarters mine, Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia.
This rock was originally misinterpreted as comprising a sedimentary sequence.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 22

 Figure 2.4_6
Mylonitic dyke in contact with greywacke host rocks

The top figure shows the dyke-metasediment contact, with the dyke being the lighter material. The lower figure shows the
mylonitic lineation developed along the contact surface of the dyke. The dyke exhibits a porphyroclastic texture due to the
preservation of feldspars that have a greater grainsize than the matrix. From the Annan River, north Queensland, Australia.

Figure 2.4_7
Mylonitic lineation

Well developed mylonitic lineation on the mylonitic foliation of a sample from Wassa mine, Ghana

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 23

3 CLEAVAGE AND LINEATION DEVELOPMENT
Penetrative planar rock fabrics are structures that are developed during deformation and
the formation of folds. Cleavages need not be in direct spatial association with folds but
may be pervasively distributed through the rock mass. In many cases a cleavage will be
developed in rocks that lack any other planar structures, e.g. a cleavage that affects an
igneous intrusion. Cleavage intensity is commonly heterogeneous on various scales and
shear zones represent zones of cleavage intensification.

A number of morphologically different cleavage types have been defined. In non-

metamorphosed to low grade metamorphic rocks we note:-

Slaty cleavage (Figure 3_1)

Crenulation cleavage (Figure 3_2)

Fracture cleavage

Pressure solution cleavage (Figures 3_3 and 3_4)

In higher grade metamorphic rocks we note:-

Schistosity (Figure 3_5)

Differentiated crenulation cleavage (Figure 3_6)

Gneissic foliation (Figure 3_7)

Mylonitic foliation

Figure 3_1
Subvertical slaty cleavage cross-cutting inclined bedding

The keen-eyed geologist has determined that the cleavage-bedding relationship indicates an antiform to the right of the
photograph. From the northern Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 24

 Figure 3_2
Crenulation cleavage cutting lithological layering

Lithological layering is parallel to the short edge of the photo. From the Robertson River Metamorphics,
Queensland, Australia.

Figure 3_3
Seamy dissolution cleavage developed in a marl due to pressure solution

The cleavage is parallel to the long edge of the photo. From Chelopech, Bulgaria.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 25

 Figure 3_4
Stylolitic cleavage developed in a quartz vein

Figure 3_5
Schistosity in amphibolite-grade rocks of the Robertson River Metamorphics

North Queensland, Australia

These fabrics are the result of grain-scale deformation processes. In the context of folding,
the orientation patterns of cleavages and the intensity of development reflect the state of
strain of the folded layers. The orientation of the cleavage generally coincides closely with
the plane of maximum flattening (i.e. the X-Y plane of the finite strain ellipsoid) although it
never equates exactly to this. In detail the cleavage planes anastomose such that the
average orientation of the cleavage approximates the X-Y plane.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 26

 Figure 3_6
Differentiated cleavage wrapping an altered andalusite porphyroblast

This cleavage has evolved from a differentiated crenulation cleavage comprising mica-rich limb zones separating quartz-rich
hinge zones. Progressive deformation has destroyed many of the microfold geometries in the quartz-rich zones and
produced a well developed differentiated cleavage.

Figure 3_7
Gneissic foliation developed in granite gneisses of the Leeuwin Metamorphic Complex,
Augusta, Western Australia

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 27

 Cleavages evolve through the deformation, dissolution and recrystallisation of groundmass
minerals. As the rock deforms, the constituent minerals undergo deformation of their
lattice. For easily deformable minerals such as quartz, the deformation manifests as a
large number of dislocations. Minerals such as phyllosilicates will undergo some
deformation but a large portion of it can be accommodated by slippage on the 001
crystallographic planes. Consequently, micas will not accumulate strain to the extent that
quartz will. Grains such as quartz will develop dislocation density gradients as deformation
progresses. These dislocation density gradients in turn produce chemical potential
gradients that lead to preferential dissolution of the quartz. This commonly occurs adjacent
to micas that have accommodated the strain by shearing along the crystal lattice. As
grains dissolve and recrystallise, they take on shape-preferred orientations that constitute
the cleavage.

3.1 Axial Planar Foliations

Folds typically host a cleavage that is approximately parallel to their axial plane. In many
cases the cleavage is not strictly axial planar to the fold but fans around the fold in a
convergent or divergent pattern. This geometry arises due to the variation in competency
of the different layers that are folded. The variation in cleavage orientation is also noted at
the layer-scale, where cleavages refract through different horizons with orientations that
are a function of different mechanical properties (Figure 3.1_1). In the common case of
asymmetric fold profiles the cleavage will be most commonly be closer in orientation to the
limb that shows the most intense strain.

Figure 3.1_1
Anastomosing axial planar cleavage

The cleavage is axial plane to a fold in a turbiditic sequence in the Hodgkinson Province, north Queensland, Australia.
Marked refraction of the cleavage occurs across boundaries separating layers of different competency.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 28

3.2 Linear Elements
A wide range of linear structural elements develop in conjunction with folding. These linear
features represent a variety of deformation responses to the folded layers and thus have
different geometric and kinematic significance. Careful study and documentation of these
linear elements is important as it can give crucial information on the geometry, orientation
pattern, rheology and state of strain of the fold system. Folded lineations can be used to
unravel complex deformation histories and fold geometries and to gain insight into
kinematic models of folds formation and of the evolution of mineralised systems.

Linear structures include:-

Intersection lineations (Figures 3.2_1 and 3.2_2)

Fold axes (Figures 3.2_2 and 3.2_3)

Extension or stretching lineations (Figures 3.2.4, 3.2_5, 3.2_6, 3.2_7 and 3.2_8)
including the preferred orientation of stretched pebbles (Figure 3.2_9) and quartz
pressure fringes (Figure 3.2_10)

Crenulation lineations (Figures 3.2_11 and 3.2_12).

Mullions (Figures 3.2_13 and 3.2_14)

Boudins and boudin necks (Figure 3.2_3)

Fibrous mineral lineations (Figure 3.2_15)

Rodding

Figure 3.2_1
Intense stretching lineation developed in schists in the Pakaka area of the Moto goldfield, DRC

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 29

 Figure 3.2_2
Parallel fold axes and intersection lineations

Intense lineation defined by steeply plunging fold axes and parallel intersection lineations in the Bunkers pit,
The Granites goldfield, Northern Territory, Australia

Figure 3.2_3
Lineation defined by fold axes and boudins

Steeply plunging fold axis in the Bunkers pit, The Granites goldfield, Northern Territory, Australia.
The folded cherty layer has been boudinaged and the boudins plunge parallel to the fold axis.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 30

 Figure 3.2_4
Extension lineation defined by oxidised pyrite on a cleavage plane

Bedding makes an intersection lineation on the plane and dips from upper right to lower left.

Figure 3.2_5
Folded extension lineation on a folded cleavage surface in the Wassa open pit, Ghana

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 31

 Figure 3.2_6
Extension lineation in siliceous rocks

Extension lineation defined by elongate pock marks in metasedimentary rocks from the Dead Bullock Soak area,
Tanami Desert, Northern Territory, Australia

Figure 3.2_7
Extension lineation defined by the preferential alignment of andalusite porphyroblasts

Tanami desert, Northern Territory, Australia

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 32

 Figure 3.2_8
Extension lineation defined by prolate pyrite framboids on a cleavage surface in the Prestea open pit,
Ghana

Figure 3.2_9
Folded cherty layering in the Mt Majestic area, Tanami Desert

Northern Territory, Australia

Pebbles in the intervening horizon have been stretched such that their long axes are subparallel to the fold axes, suggesting
very high strain.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 33

 Figure 3.2_10
Oxidised pyrite from the Fortnum area in the Glengarry Basin, Western Australia

The preferred alignment of quartz pressure fringes, on the pyrites, define a stretching lineation in the cleavage.

Figure 3.2_11
Bedding-cleavage intersection and crenulation cleavage intersection lineations

The two different forms of lineations are developed on a cleavage surface in graphite-rich metasedimentary rocks in the
Prestea open pit, Ghana. Bedding has produced an intersection lineation at a low angle to the long edge of the photo. An
overprinting crenulation has produced a crenulation intersection lineation that trends from the end of the pen down to the
lower left.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 34

 Figure 3.2_12
Crenulation intersection lineations developed on a cleavage surface in graphite-rich rocks

The most obvious lineation trends at a low angle to the long edge of the photo and a finer-scale one is evident between these,
dipping moderately from upper left to lower right. The sample is from the Prestea open pit, Ghana

Figure 3.2_13
Mullion structures

Mullion structure developed in a sandy layer in turbitditic rocks from the Hodgkinson Province near Laura, north Queensland,
Australia. The mullions have developed on perturbations represented by primary convolute laminations. Long lost wedding
ring for scale.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 35

 Figure 3.2_14
Mullion structures

Mullion structure developed in a sandy layer in turbitditic rocks from the Hodgkinson Province near Laura, north Queensland,
Australia. The mullions have developed on perturbations represented by primary convolute laminations. Long lost wedding
ring for scale.

Figure 3.2_15
Fibrous lineations wrapping a stretched pebble from the Mt Majestic area, Tanami Desert

Northern Territory, Australia

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 36

4 STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS FOR AIDING MAPPING AND
INTERPRETATION OF FOLDED ROCKS
4.1 Relationships Between Folded Layering and Cleavage

When folds form they will commonly develop a coeval axial planar cleavage. Even in
the uncommon occurrence of there being no measurable cleavage, the axis of
bisection of the fold limbs can give a crude approximation to the axial plane.

Cleavages form at a high angle to the layering being folded. As folding progresses,
the cleavage remains near-perpendicular to the folded layering in the hinge of the
folds (Figures 4.1_1 and 4.1_2). On the fold limbs there will be a much smaller
angle between cleavage and layering. This allows the geologist to determine where
on the fold he is i.e. on a limb or in a hinge.

If the cleavage dips at a lower angle than the layering being folded, the layering at
that location is overturned (Figure 4.1_1).

Fold axes are parallel to intersection lineations between the cleavage and folded
layering on the fold limbs. Measuring the orientation of the intersection lineation
effectively measures the orientation of the fold axis.

The presence of M, S or Z folds allows the geologist to determine where in the fold
profile he is located. S and Z folds occur on fold limbs and M folds occur in hinges.
The asymmetry of the folds (S or Z) is used to indicate the direction to the next large
fold hinge and is termed a vergence relationship (Figures 4.1_2 and 4.1_3).

Figure 4.1_1
Vergence relationships involving cleavage in folded rocks

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 37

 Figure 4.1_2
Vergence relationships as defined by parasitic fold geometries and cleavage-layering asymmetries.

The top diagram in the top figure shows how the angle between the cleavage and folded layering changes around the fold.
The asymmetry can be described in terms of the folded layering because this changes orientation. On the right-hand limbs of
the synform the layering lies clockwise of cleavage. On the left-hand limb of the synform the bedding lies anticlockwise of the
cleavage. Directions to the major antiform are shown in the lower diagrams: A) parasitic fold geometries and B) foliation-
layering asymmetries. In both cased the asymmetric geometries indicate the presence of a larger-scale antiform to the right
of the outcrops as view.
The bottom diagram shos S, Z and M asymmetries intersected in diamond core. Note the tight fold hinge between the Z and
S asymmetry folds

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 38

 Figure 4.1_3
Relationships of Parasitic Folds to the Larger-Scale ‘Parent’ Structure

4.2 Fold Vergence

Large folds have relatively display relatively smaller-scale folding layering termed parasitic
folds (Figure 2.2.1_1). These folds have axial planar cleavages and axes with orientations
that approximate those of the large-scale structures.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 39

 Vergence makes use of the geometries of the smaller-scale folds and their angular
relationship to the cleavage. Folds on opposite limbs of the structure have the same
shapes but opposite asymmetries i.e. they are similar to mirror images of each other. By
noting whether or not the folds have an S or a Z asymmetry, a prediction can be made as
to where the hinge of the next major antiform or synform is. The asymmetry of the Z and S
folds will change across the hinge of the major structure, making the asymmetry of
parasitic folds an important mapping tool. The parasitic folds change in asymmetry across
the hinge the folds. In the hinge the parasitic folds will develop M geometries. The change
in asymmetry of the parasitic folds is termed a change in vergence and the parasitic folds
are said to verge toward the fold hinges.

In conjunction with the asymmetry of the parasitic folds, the angular relationship between
axial planar cleavage and the folded layering can also be used. This is a powerful tool,
particularly in the absence of parasitic structures. In the hinges of the folds the cleavage
will be at a high angle to the layering that is folded. On the limbs the cleavage will be
closer in orientation to the folded layering and the angular relationship between the
cleavage and the layering will reverse across the fold hinge.

Comparisons of fold asymmetry must be made by looking in the same direction down
the plunge of the fold axes. In the absence of parasitic fold axes, the comparison of
vergence relationships must be made by looking in the same direction down the
plunge of the intersection lineation because this will be parallel to the fold axes.

4.3 Younging and Structural Facing

Sedimentary layering can yield information pertaining to fold geometries when it contains
younging criteria. Younging criteria can be used in conjunction with vergence relationships
to give structural facing information. Younging is defined as the direction is which a
layer or sequence decreases in age (Figures 4.3_1 and 4.3_2). If the layering has
been folded, this orientation will vary around the fold.

Structural facing is defined as the direction, perpendicular to the fold axis and in the
plane of the cleavage, in which a sequence youngs (Figures 4.3_1 and 4.3_2).
Structural facing information can be critical for determining whether or not fold limbs are
overturned in areas of restricted outcrop. Because structural facing is determined in the
plane of the cleavage, its orientation will be constant for folds those folds that the cleavage
is the axial plane to. For some overturned limbs we will note upward younging but
downward facing. This indicates that the ‘normal’ sense of younging is actually a response
of overturning of the fold.

To reiterate: Younging is determined in a direction perpendicular to the bedding and

facing is determined in a direction perpendicular to the fold axis in the plane of the
cleavage (Figure 4.3_4).

Sedimentary younging data is also used in conjunction with fold geometries to provide a
terminology for fold shapes. This terminology allows the geologist to distinguish between two
separate folds with similar geometry but with layering that youngs in two different directions.
For example, an antiform in one location may have the youngest strata in the core of the fold,
whereas an antiform in another location may have the oldest rocks in its core. This has
resulted in the terminology of anticlines and synclines shown in Figure 4.3_5.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 40

 Figure 4.3_1
Diagram to illustrate an outcrop with upward younging and upward structural facing

Figure 4.3_2
Diagram to illustrate an outcrop with upward younging but downward facing

Such an outcrop could be interpreted as right-way-up in the absence of structural facing, when the layer is in fact overturned.
This is shown in context in Figure 4.3_3.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 41

 Figure 4.3_3
Use of facing relationships to determine overturning of sedimentary package

Note that the younging is locally right-way-up (i.e. upward) on the right-hand limb. However, structural facing is consistently
downward, indicating that the layer is overturned overall. This structure would be termed a synformal anticline because it is a
synform and the layering youngs outward away from the core of the fold.

Figure 4.3_4
Diagram to illustrate the relationship of structural facing and sedimentary younging

Note that the structural facing is determined in the cleavage in the direction that the sequence youngs. This direction is at
right angles to the fold axis and the intersection lineation, which are parallel..

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 42

 Figure 4.3_5
Fold terminology incorporating fold geometry and sedimentary younging

Fold terminology incorporating fold geometry and sedimentary younging. In areas where there is doubt as to the direction of
younging it is best to describe the folds as antiforms or synforms i.e in terms of geometry alone.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 43

5 CONTROLS ON MINERALISATION
5.1 Flexural slip folding
Fold development can occur by slip on the layers being folded or by slip along the
synchronously developing cleavage. In the former case the individual layers flex and slide
over each other and folding progresses via flexural slip (Figure .1_1). In this case there is
little capacity for solving volume problems by dissolution and space is created at the
hinges. This space creation provides a locus for fluid ingress and hydrothermal mineral
deposition (Figure 5.1_2 and 5.1_3). Flexural slip occurs at high crustal levels where
cleavage development and coeval phyllosilicate growth to form cleavages is restricted. It is
also more likely to occur at the early stages of folding.

Figure 5.1_1
Diagram to illustrate layer-parallel slip during flexural slip folding

Volume problems occur in the hinge regions, resulting in the formatio of space that can be infilled by hydrothermal minerals.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 44

 Figure 5.1_2
Localisation of carbonate in the space formed in a fold hinge due to flexural slip folding

From Subenso, Ghana.

Figure 5.1_3
Sulphidation of a banded iron formation that has been localised in the fold hinges

Localisation of sulphidation in the fold hinges is probably due to focussing of hydrothermal fluids into the fold hinge during
flexural slip folding.

5.2 Fluid Flow During Cleavage Development

Cleavage-assisted folding is much more common and occurs in conjunction with
phyllosilicate growth and the deformation and recrystallisation of other grains. This form of
folding also tends to occur in preference to flexural slip as the deformation progresses
because it becomes geometrically more difficult to form the folds as they become tight.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 45

 Cleavages develop by grain boundary adjustment accompanied by the growth of
phyllosilicates. In sandy rocks, this commonly results in spaced alternations of
phyllosilicate-rich and quartz-rich rocks (P- and Q-domains respectively). In low-porosity
sedimentary rocks such as shales and turbitidites at low to medium pressures, cleavage
development tends to increase permeability by grain-scale dilatancy and the development
of fracture arrays.

Slaty cleavage development has been suggested as involving substantial mass transfer,
sometimes on the scale of up to kilometres. Slaty cleavage development involves the
formation of subparallel, closely-spaced, relatively silica-poor and mica-rich bands that
have pronounced elongation (Figure 5.2_1). Loss of silica and feldspar are the main
processes during cleavage development and involve the movement of large volumes of
fluid. Water:rock ratios in zones of high strain have been suggested as being as high as
1000 -10,000.

Figure 5.2_1
Two examples of slaty cleavage from the Fiery Creek Slate Belt in north Queensland, Australia

At low-to moderate metamorphic grades the development cleavage shows a coeval control
of sulphide deposition and growth. Cleavage planes appear to play the role of dissolution
planes, fluid conduits, and local sites of deposition. It is common to see a preferred
alignment of sulphide grains (Figures 5.2_2, 5.2_3, 5.2_4 and 5.2_5), and less commonly,
gold (Figure .2_6), within the cleavage and this relationship is commonly used as evidence
that sulphide deposition and cleavage formation have taken place synchronously.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 46

 Figure 5.2_2
Sulphide porphyroblasts parallel to a tectonic foliation

Preferred alignment of arsenopyrite grains in a turbidite from the Callie mine in the Northern Territory, Australia.
The arsenopyrite is elongate parallel to the cleavage. Bedding is subparallel to the long edge of the photo.

Figure 5.2_3
Preferred alignment of pyrrhotite within a cleavage in a handspecimen from the
Gimlet South Mine, Western Australia

Figure 5.2_4
Sulphide porphyroblasts parallel to an axial planar foliation

Preferred alignment of pyrrhotite grains in the axial planar foliation to mesoscale folds from the Callie deposit,
Northern Territory, Australia.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 47

 Figure 5.2_5
Pyrite-rich cleavage seams cross-cutting quartz veins in the Kanowna Belle deposit, Western Australia

Figure 5.2_6
Preferred alignment of gold (bright white-yellow) parallel to a late foliation in the
Sunrise Mine, Western Australia

Syndeformational gold and base metal deposits commonly occur in thick turbidite terranes
that have undergone brittle-ductile or brittle deformation. Structures characteristically
involve ‘similar-style’ folds with great vertical extent (e.g. the Victorian goldfields, Australia)
and reverse faults are generally associated with anticlines. These faults provide fluid
pathways to anticlinal trapsites (Figure 5.2_7).

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 48

 Figure 5.2_7
Schematic diagram to show linkage of saddle reefs by reverse faults

The faults and the reefs are interpreted as coeval products of the deformation responsible for folding.

Mineralisation is almost invariably concentrated in anticlinal hinge zones, with adjacent

synforms being barren. In some cases, fluid flow has been strongly focussed at depth and
has resulted in linear ore zones characterised by quartz veining, but otherwise having
undergone similar deformation to the surrounding terrane. In other cases the ore fluids are
focused in major thrust or shear zones or regional extent.

5.3 Mineralisation during Formation of Zones of High Extension Associated with Folding
Zone of localised high strain can be very important for the localisation of mineralisation.
High strain zones can act as fluid conduits and can be very effective in this regard if the
strain rate is great enough to facilitate brittle failure of the rock, forming fractures for the
passage of fluids. Furthermore, extensional strain plays an important role in the
localisation of hydrothermal mineral deposition. If the rocks are unable to deform enough
to accommodate the shape and volume changes created by extension, local volume
problems will occur. These may be characterised by the formation of voids, which act as
sinks to hydrothermal fluids. Opening of these voids results in pressure decrease and
effectively sucks fluid in. In cases where the tensile strength of the rock is exceeded,
hydrothermal brecciation of the rock is common, resulting in jostling of breccia fragments
and allowing open space to be sustained.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 49

 Zones of extension in ductile rocks are characterised by the formation of extension lineations.
Fold axes will rotate toward this orientation. However, if there is marked contrast in the
mechanical properties of the rocks that are folded, the axes in the less competent rocks will
undergo rotation whereas those in the more competent layers will not. This will result in
volume problems between the layers as the incompetent layers are pulled away from the
competent layers. This produces extension sites that are localised on the fold axes and
commonly define zones of sheath folding. This is shown schematically in Figure 5.3_1. An
example of an orebody that has this geometry is Elura, New South Wales, Australia.

Figure 5.3_1
Localisation of mineralisation in sheath folds that are elongate parallel to the extension lineation

Schematic diagram to illustrate rotation of fold axes toward the extension lineation during progressive deformation.
This can localise mineralisation in sheath folds parallel to the extension direction

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 50

 Mineralisation in zones of strong extensional strain will commonly define shoots parallel to
the extension lineation (Figure 5.3_2). These zones may be localised in sheath folds and
form elongate, discontinuous bodies, depending on the ability of layers in the sequence to
host folds that will rotated toward the extension lineation. Other common extensional sites
include boudin necks of all scales (Figures 5.3_3, 5.3_4, 5.3_5 and 5.3_6). It is common
to find syntectonic mineralisation hosted in boudin necks of pre-existing entities e.g. an
older vein set or pre-existing sulphides (Figure 5.3_7) and in tensional fractures
(Figure 5.3_7) that may locally define conjugate arrays (Figure 5.3_2).

Figure 5.3_2
Localisation of mineralisation within tensional sites developed in a competent layer

Sites that host mineralisation include boudin necks and conjugate extensional fractures.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 51

 Figure 5.3_3
Gold localised in the neck of a boudinaged quartz vein from the Callie deposit, Tanami Desert

Northern Territory, Australia

Figure 5.3_4
Sulphides in tensional fractures

Chalcopyrite localised in tensional sites of a quartz vein that has undergone pinch-and-swell deformation.
From Cobar, New South Wales, Australia

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 52

 Figure 5.3_5
Localisation of sulphides during boudinage

Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite are localised in boudin necks of quartz veins that have undergone boudinage.
From Cobar, New South Wales, Australia.

Figure 5.3_6
Localisation of sulphides and gold during boudinage

Gold bounded by chalcopyrite in the tensional site developed between pyrite grains from Kanowna Belle,
Eastern Goldfields Province, Western Australia.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 53

 Figure 5.3_7
Structural control of gold deposition within and adjacent to a pyrite grain

Gold hosted by tensional fractures in pyrite and in the low mean stress sites developed at the ends of the pyrite grain.
The pyrite grain is elongate in the regional tectonic foliation.
From Kanowna Belle, Eastern Goldfields Province, Western Australia.

5.4 Shear-Assisted Folding Processes and Controls on Mineralisation

Ductile folding at metamorphic grades high enough to promote foliation development is
achieved by the accommodation of shearing strain along the synchronously developed
cleavages. Cleavage formation occurs coeval with ongoing development of the folds,
which involves a progression to tighter, commonly more asymmetric shapes.

Extensional strain in the plane of the cleavage can cause development of planar orebodies
that are parallel to the axial plane of folds and link fold hinges (Figure 5.4_1) In this case
the local zones of extension along individual fold axes link up to form a planar body that is
the product of originally linear orebodies. This may be the reason that planar orebodies
contain local high grade shoots with a preferred orientation.

Progressive deformation during fold development commonly results in the interaction of

two opposing movement senses. One sense of shear is associated with synthetic shear
on the axial plane cleavage and is responsible for overall formation of the macroscale fold.
An opposing shear sense is accommodated on the layers being folded because their
orientation is favourable for accommodating antithetic shear. This process is termed
reactivation and has been covered in Section 2.3: Fold evolution. The interaction of the
opposing senses of shear is important for creating local zones of extension that focus
hydrothermal mineral deposition (e.g. Figures 5.4_1 and 5.4_2)

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 54

 Figure 5.4_1
Formation of planar orebodies parallel to a fold axial plane during progressive deformation

A B

g
din
d
Be

Bulk movement
Bulk movement of of limb relative
hinge relative to limbs to hinge

PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION

EXTENSION EXTENSION
C D

PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION

Progressive deformation associated with fold formation produces sites of low mean stress and fluid inflow in the fold hinges.
Opposite shear senses also operate and promote the formation of low mean stress sites. The opposing movement senses
are the result of interaction between the bulk movement senses producing the macroscale fold, and an antithetic sense of
shear that is resolved along folded layering due to its oblique angle to the principal stress on the fold limbs. Ongoing folding
can cause linkage of hinge zone mineralised zones resulting in a planar orebody that is parallel to the axial plane of the fold.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 55

 Figure 5.4_2
Operation of two senses of shear on the limb of a fold during progressive deformation

The black arrows show the synthetic sense of shear that is the same for that forming the macroscale fold at the bulk scale.
The Red arrows show the sense of antithetic shear operating on favourably oriented layers comprising the fold limb.
These two opposing movement senses can interact to form zones of tensional strain that may localise brecciation and
deposition of hydrothermal mineralisation.

Packages of rock that contain one or more sequences juxtaposed against another across
angular discontinuities can be prime sites for localising extensional strain (Figure 5.4_3).
This is because layers in one orientation will be able to accommodate shearing strain
associated with deformation whereas those in the adjacent sequence will not. This causes
an accumulation of extensional strain at the discontinuity and can focus fluids into the pre-
existing fault. Furthermore, the different orientations of the pervasive fabrics in different
sequences may allow the opposite senses of shear to be accommodated by layers on
either side of the fault (e.g. Figure 5.4_3). The interaction of opposing movement senses
can further enhance the extensional strain and favour ingress of hydrothermal fluids.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 56

 Figure 5.4_3
Localisation of mineralisation due to the interaction of opposing senses of shear

Opposing shear senses can create dramatic results if they occur across major lithological boundaries. The example shown is
one such hypothesis for a geometric situation analogous to that hosting the copper orebodies at Mt Isa.

Analysis of Folded Rocks Page 57