European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering

ISSN: 1964-8189 (Print) 2116-7214 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tece20

Influence of ceramic waste on the fresh properties

and compressive strength of concrete

Salman Siddique, Sandeep Shrivastava & Sandeep Chaudhary

To cite this article: Salman Siddique, Sandeep Shrivastava & Sandeep Chaudhary
(2017): Influence of ceramic waste on the fresh properties and compressive
strength of concrete, European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, DOI:
10.1080/19648189.2016.1275985

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2016.1275985

Published online: 04 Jan 2017.

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European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2016.1275985

Influence of ceramic waste on the fresh properties and compressive

strength of concrete
Salman Siddique , Sandeep Shrivastava* and Sandeep Chaudhary

Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan,

India
(Received 5 June 2016; accepted 20 December 2016)

This study investigated bone china ceramic waste as fine aggregates and its effect on
the fresh state properties of concrete. The workability, fresh density, bleeding, air
content and compressive strength were examined to assess the effect of bone china
ceramic fine aggregate on the properties of concrete. The water absorption of bone
china aggregate incorporated into concrete mixtures is also discussed. In the fresh
state, the concrete mixtures prepared using 100% bone china aggregate showed 2.1%
bleeding water loss. The incorporation of 100% bone china aggregates as fine
aggregate reduced the fresh air content by 7%. Comparable values were obtained for
compressive strength on incorporation of bone china aggregate as fine aggregate.
Keywords: concrete; ceramic waste; waste management; fresh properties

1. Introduction
Whiteware ceramic industries are broadly divided into two groups. The first group
consists of industries producing technical ceramics such as electrical insulators, tiles and
sanitary ware, and the second group consists of industries manufacturing products such
as tableware and porcelain. Tableware bone china ceramic wastes are generated from
discarded and defective products rejected during quality checks.
One of the most common methods to utilise industrial by-products and wastes
involve their integration into process of manufacturing building materials. In the field of
building material manufacturing, concrete production with alternative materials has
undergone rapid advancements (Chaïd, Kenaï, Zeroub, & Jauberthie, 2015; Corinaldesi,
Nardinocchi, & Donnini, 2016; Gupta, Chaudhary, & Sharma, 2014; Kırgız, 2016; Mo,
Mohd Anor, Alengaram, Jumaat, & Rao, 2016). Such advancements have led to
methods and practices that have a positive effect on the environment, such as the min-
imisation of mining activity for natural aggregates and the minimisation of the dumping
of industrial wastes and by-products into landfills.
This study investigated the viability of integrating bone china ceramic waste as fine
aggregate into concrete production, particularly focusing on the fresh state properties of
concrete. Several studies have investigated the use of technical ceramic waste as fine or
coarse aggregates; however, very few studies have discussed the effect of ceramic
aggregate on the fresh state properties of concrete.

*Corresponding author. Email: sshrivastava.ce@mnit.ac.in

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

2 S. Siddique et al.

In this study, the effects of replacing natural sand in concrete with fine bone china
aggregate on the performance of the fresh state properties of concrete, such as workabil-
ity, bleeding, air content, fresh density and compressive strength, were examined.

2. Literature review
Few studies have investigated the effect of the fine form of ceramic aggregate on the
fresh state properties of concrete.
The focus and scope of few experimental studies evaluating the properties of cera-
mic aggregate concrete, which are referred to in this article, are briefly presented. The
studies reviewed are limited to the fresh state properties and compressive strength of
ceramic concrete. Other studies focusing primarily on the durability aspects of ceramic
concrete are beyond the scope of this paper.
Senthamarai and Manoharan (2005) tested the effects of six different concrete
mixtures with a defined water-to-cement ratio, with one mixture containing traditional
concrete and another containing 100% coarse-recycled ceramic (electrical insulator)
aggregates, on the workability and compressive strength of concrete.
Guerra, Vivar, Llamas, Juan, and Moran (2009) examined the effect of the incorpo-
ration of 3, 5, 7 and 9% coarse-recycled sanitary ware aggregates on the compressive
strength of concrete.
Torkittikul and Arnon (2010) investigated the effects of 100% recycled earthenware
ceramic aggregates as fine aggregates on the workability and compressive strength of
concrete containing Portland cement and fly ash cement.
Medina, Frías, and Sánchez de Rojas (2012) explored the effect of sanitary ware-
based coarse-recycled aggregates employed as a natural coarse aggregate replacement
on the workability, fresh density and compressive strength of concrete.
Halicka, Ogrodnik, and Zegardlo (2013) examined the workability and compressive
strength of concrete mixtures containing 100% fine and coarse sanitary ware ceramic-
recycled aggregate employed as a natural aggregate replacement.
Alves, Vieira, de Brito, and Correia (2014) analysed the effects of substituting natu-
ral fine aggregate by 20, 50 and 100% recycled fine sanitary ware aggregate on the
workability, fresh density and compressive strength of ceramic concrete.

2.1. Aggregate properties

Senthamarai and Manoharan (2005) reported that water absorption and the bulk density
were lower for ceramic aggregate than for coarse natural aggregates (.7% vs. 1.2% and
2.5 kg/dm3 vs. 2.7 kg/dm3, respectively).
Guerra et al. (2009) reported that the bulk density of ceramic aggregate was lower
than that of natural aggregates.
Torkittikul and Arnon (2010) indicated that water absorption was 1.25% for fine
ceramic aggregate and 1.0% for natural sand. Furthermore, they observed that specific
gravity was lower for fine ceramic aggregate (2.31) than for natural sand (2.58).
Medina et al. (2012) reported that water absorption was higher for coarse sanitary
ware aggregate (.6%) than for natural coarse aggregate (.2%). Moreover, the bulk
density was higher for natural aggregate (2630 kg/m3) than for sanitary ware aggregate
(2390 kg/m3).
Halicka et al. (2013) reported that water absorption and the bulk density of sanitary
ware aggregate were 1.53% and 2640.30 kg/m3, respectively.
 European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 3

Alves et al. (2014) reported that water absorption was .2% for fine sanitary ware
aggregate and .6% for natural fine aggregate.

2.2. Concrete properties

The reviewed authors reported the following results for the properties of concrete
containing ceramic waste aggregate.

2.2.1. Workability
Senthamarai and Manoharan (2005) investigated the effects of replacing natural coarse
aggregate with ceramic electrical insulator-based coarse-recycled aggregate on the fresh
state properties of structural concrete mixtures. Six different water-to-cement ratios were
used. A constant water content was maintained. The slump increased with an increase
in the coarse-recycled ceramic aggregate content.
Torkittikul and Arnon (2010) observed that at 100% replacement of natural aggre-
gate, slump values were close to zero in the case of Portland cement concrete. However,
when fly ash concrete was used, slump values were nearly equal to those of control
concrete mixtures at all replacement ratios.
Medina et al. (2012) found that workability decreased with an increase in the substi-
tution level of natural aggregate with coarse ceramic aggregate. The reduction in worka-
bility was linearly correlated with a coefficient of .9878 when the substitution increased
from 0 to 25%.
Halicka et al. (2013) examined the workability of concrete mixtures containing
100% fine and coarse ceramic-recycled aggregate as a replacement for natural aggregate.
They observed that concrete mixtures containing recycled ceramic aggregate had lower
workability than the control mixture maintained at a constant water content.
Alves et al. (2014) examined the effects of fine-recycled ceramic aggregate on the
workability of concrete. They reported that for fixed workability, the water-to-cement
ratio required for the 100% fine-recycled ceramic aggregate concrete mixture was higher
than that required for the control concrete mixture. Furthermore, the water requirement
decreased significantly for a concrete mixture containing 50% fine-recycled ceramic
aggregate.

2.2.2. Compressive strength

Senthamarai and Manoharan (2005) studied the compressive strength at 28 days for
100% recycled coarse ceramic aggregate in concrete using six different water-to-cement
ratios. They concluded that the compressive strength of ceramic aggregate concrete was
not considerably altered from that of conventional concrete.
Guerra et al. (2009) reported that compared to the control concrete sample, concrete
samples containing natural coarse aggregates replaced with 5, 7 and 9% recycled
ceramic aggregate showed enhanced compressive strength at all curing ages.
Torkittikul and Arnon (2010) reported that the compressive strength of 50% ceramic
aggregate Portland concrete was nearly equal to that of control concrete specimens.
They concluded that the fly ash mixture containing 100% recycled ceramic aggregate
had the highest compressive strength among the fly ash concrete mixtures.
Medina et al. (2012) found that the compressive strength of coarse-recycled ceramic
aggregate was higher than that of control concrete. The compressive strength increased
4 S. Siddique et al.

by 12% at 28 days. When recycled ceramic aggregate was utilised in the mixture, its
compressive strength was higher than that of control concrete at all ages.
Halicka et al. (2013) investigated the concrete mixture containing both fine and
coarse ceramic aggregate after exposure to a high temperature (1000 °C). The perfor-
mance of concrete containing ceramic aggregate was more satisfactory than that of
conventional concrete. High-alumina cement was used because of the expected
resistance to high temperatures.
Alves et al. (2014) examined the effects of using 20, 50 and 100% fine ceramic
aggregate in concrete. The compressive strength was found to be almost 32.5, 33.5 and
42.5% lower than that of the reference concrete mix at 28 days, respectively. The
increase in the effective water-to-cement ratio contributed to the reduction in the
strength.

3. Experimental details
3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (43 grade) conforming to the specifications of BIS: 8112
(1989) was used. Table 1 lists the physical and chemical characteristics of the cement.

3.1.2. Aggregates
4.75 mm passing river sand was used as the fine aggregate. Roller-milled bone china
waste was used as a replacement for natural sand and granite-based coarse aggregates
were used in this study. Bone china waste was collected from a local pottery and table-
ware-based industry. The physical properties of fine aggregate and bone china aggregate
were assessed according to the specifications of BIS: 383 (2016) and are listed in
Table 2. The grain size distribution of fine bone china aggregate is shown in Figure 1.
Bone china aggregate contained 13% particles finer than 300 μm compared with natural
sand containing 9% particles.
Auramix 400 polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer was used in this study.

Table 1. Physical and chemical characteristics of cement.

Analysis Values obtained
Physical characteristics
Consistency (%) 28
Initial setting time (min) 130
Final setting time (min) 245
Specific gravity 3.16
Chemical characteristics
CaO (%) 62.34
SiO2 (%) 20.14
Al2O3 (%) 4.65
Fe2O3 (%) 3.29
SO3 (%) 2.42
MgO (%) 2.23
K2O (%) .72
LOI (%) 1.96
 European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 5

Table 2. Aggregate properties.

Property Natural sand Bone china aggregate Coarse aggregate
Specific gravity 2.67 2.40 2.74
Water absorption (%) 1.0 2.5 .5
Fineness modulus 2.91 2.73 6.71

Gradation Curve
100

90

80
Material Sample
70
Percentage Fine

60
upper range of gradation band
50

40
lower range of gradation band
30

20

10

0
0.10 1.00 10.00
SIEVE SIZE

Figure 1. Particle size distribution curve of bone china aggregates.

The chemical composition of bone china ceramic aggregate was analysed using the
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) method. XRF analysis was performed using the Panalytical
PW-2404 spectrometer. In bone china ceramic waste, the total percentage of CaO, SiO2
and Al2O3 was nearly 76.87%. A study (Hallicka et al.) reported that the percentages of
SiO2 and Al2O3 are high in sanitary ware aggregates. As the sample used in this study
was derived from bone china ceramic waste, it was found to contain P2O5 (10.99%). Its
influence on the fresh state property of concrete will be discussed.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using the Panalytical X’pert PRO
powder diffractometer (Type-11141934). A representative XRD spectrum of bone china
ceramic is presented in Figure 2. In the XRD analysis, a 5-g sample of the bone china
ceramic aggregate was used to determine the crystalline phases, and measurements were
obtained at the 2θ of 5°–90°. The crystalline phases of tricalcium phosphate (T) and
anorthite (A) were observed with small amounts of quartz (Q), aluminosilicate (AS) and
phosphorus oxide (P). The overlapping of tricalcium phosphate and anorthite suggests a
similarity in their crystal lattice spacing. XRD results indicate that the bone china cera-
mic aggregate has a high crystalline phase content with the slight presence of the glassy
phase.
Figure 3(a) shows the bone china aggregate used in this study. A scanning electron
microscope (SEM) study of bone china ceramic was conducted to examine its
6 S. Siddique et al.

300

T
250 T

A- Anorthite
200 AS- Aluminosilicate
P- Phosphorus oxide
Intensity

Q A Q- Quartz
150 T
A A T- Tricalcium Phosphate
T A
100

A AS
Q P
50 AS
P Q
P
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2-Theta (°)

Figure 2. XRD spectrum of bone china aggregates.

microstructure, which is presented in Figure 3(b). JEOL JSM-7600F field emission

SEM (FE-SEM) was used in the image processing study. From the images, it can be
inferred that bone china ceramic is composed of the infused layers of calcium and silica.
In addition, angularity in particles can be observed with sharp cleavages and elongation.
The presence of calcium can be observed in the brighter areas of the image. The dark
areas show closed and semi-closed pores of different shapes and sizes. High water
absorption observed in bone china aggregates can be attributed to these closed pores.

3.2. Mixture proportions and experimental programme

Concrete mixes were prepared according to the Indian standard specifications of BIS:
10262 (2009). Natural sand was replaced with 0, 20, 40, 60 and 100% fine bone china
aggregate by volume. Three water-to-cement ratios [.35 (C), .45 (D) and .55 (E)] were
examined. Finally, extra water was added to compensate for water loss caused by the
high water absorption of bone china aggregate, and a high dosage of the superplasticizer
was added to maintain the workability of the concrete mix. Table 3 lists the material
mix proportions of concrete. The compaction factor was maintained within the .90–.95
range. The fresh density was determined according to the specifications of BIS: 1199
(1959). The bleeding test for water loss was conducted as per the specifications of
ASTM C 232-09, 2009. Water was collected at an interval of 15 min. Evaluation of
bleeding for water loss was conducted for 1 h. The air content was measured using the
pressure method following the specifications of BIS: 1199 (1959). In addition, the air
content was evaluated using the gravimetric method. The mechanical property
determining the compressive strength of different concrete mix specimens of a cube size
of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm was evaluated as per the specifications of BIS:
516, 1959.
 European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 7

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. (a) Bone china aggregate (b) Microstructure of bone china aggregates.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Workability
The workability of the fresh concrete mixture provides the freedom of shape advantage.
Appropriate workability enables high structural efficiency and ease of construction.
In this study, the dosage of the superplasticizer was closely monitored to maintain
the workability of concrete mixtures within a specific range. The observed compaction
factor values for each concrete mixture is listed in Table 4. The target compaction factor
value of ≥.90 was considered. The required dosage of the superplasticizer increased
with an increase in bone china aggregate in concrete. After the incorporation of bone
china aggregate into concrete, there is an increase in fine particles, which resulted in an
increase in the surface area, causing a decrease in workability. High water absorption by
the particles of bone china was compensated by adding extra water to each mixture.
Closed and semi-closed pores, as observed in the microstructure of bone china aggre-
gate, resulted in the absorption of water by the aggregates, leading to reduced free water
for particle lubrication. As shown in Figure 3(a), the particles of bone china aggregates
are angular and irregular in shape and have a rough texture, which causes increased
8 S. Siddique et al.

Table 3. Concrete mix details.

Fine Compressive
bone Water/ strength (MPa)
Fine Coarse china cement Admixture
Mix Cement aggregate aggregate (%) ratio (%) 7 days 28 days
C C0 1 2.12 2.84 0 .35 .5 27.0 38.0
C20 1 2.07 2.84 20 .35 1 33.3 44.0
C40 1 2.02 2.84 40 .35 1 31.5 42.0
C60 1 1.98 2.84 60 .35 1 30.0 41.0
C80 1 1.93 2.84 80 .35 2.2 31.0 40.0
C100 1 1.88 2.84 100 .35 2.4 28.0 38.0
D D0 1 2.12 2.84 0 .45 .1 25.0 33.0
D20 1 2.07 2.84 20 .45 .1 30.0 37.0
D40 1 2.02 2.84 40 .45 .15 28.0 35.0
D60 1 1.98 2.84 60 .45 .15 28.0 35.0
D80 1 1.93 2.84 80 .45 .2 26.5 33.0
D100 1 1.88 2.84 100 .45 .2 25.5 35.0
E E0 1 2.12 2.84 0 .55 0 17.5 23.0
E20 1 2.07 2.84 20 .55 0 20.0 29.0
E40 1 2.02 2.84 40 .55 0 20.6 26.0
E60 1 1.98 2.84 60 .55 .05 21.5 26.0
E80 1 1.93 2.84 80 .55 .1 20.0 24.0
E100 1 1.88 2.84 100 .55 .1 19.5 24.0

Table 4. Compaction factor values of concrete mix series.

Mix Compaction factor
C0 .93
C20 .93
C40 .92
C60 .92
C80 .92
C100 .92
D0 .94
D20 .93
D40 .93
D60 .93
D80 .93
D100 .93
E0 .96
E20 .95
E40 .94
E60 .94
E80 .94
E100 .93

friction that restricts the workability of the fresh concrete mixture. When bone china
aggregate is used, the presence of P2O5 plays a role in workability; however, bone china
aggregate is chemically composed of only 10.99% P2O5, and its desiccating nature
enhances the need for water in concrete mixtures. Despite this nature of P2O5, its low
quantity in bone china aggregate controls excessive water absorption. The presence of
 European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 9

P2O5 is one of the probable causes of low workability observed when the percentage
replacement of natural sand with bone china aggregate is increased. In addition, the
rough and angular surface of bone china aggregate results in a high surface area, leading
to an increase in the paste content required to cover the aggregate surface, causing
difficulty in achieving the desired workability.

4.2. Fresh density

The effect of bone china aggregate on the fresh density of the concrete mixtures of all
series is illustrated in Figure 4. The fresh density of control mixtures was 2490, 2450
and 2410 kg/m3 for C0, D0 and E0, respectively. Almost comparable increase in the
fresh density of concrete mixtures was observed after the incorporation of bone china
aggregate. Depending on the content of bone china aggregate, the fresh density of bone
china concrete mixtures varied between 2.01 and 8.03% for series C; between 2.45 and
6.12% for series D; and between 1.04 and 7.26% for series E compared with that of
particular control mixtures. Specific gravity is comparable between natural sand and
bone china aggregates, and the percentage of fine particles is higher in bone china
aggregate resulting in a dense matrix, which leads to the higher fresh density of con-
crete mixtures. As shown in Figure 4, the fresh density of concrete mixtures increased
by an average value of 7% when 100% bone china aggregate were used. The addition
of higher doses of superplasticizer into fresh concrete mixtures containing bone china
aggregate resulted in better consolidation due to lower viscosity that causes an increase
in fresh density of concrete.

0.35 (C)
0.45 (D)
2700 0.55 (E)

2650
Fresh density (kg/m )
3

2600

2550

2500

2450

2400

0 20 40 60 80 100
Bone china aggregate(%)

Figure 4. Fresh density of concrete mixes containing bone china aggregate.

10 S. Siddique et al.

4.3. Bleeding
After the placement and proper vibration of concrete, heavier particles tend to settle
down and occupy the bottom of the mould, which leads to water being displaced to the
top. This phenomenon of water rising to the top is called bleeding. Bleeding provides a
crucial indication regarding the pumpability of a concrete mixture, because significant
bleeding promotes high segregation, which increases friction. Higher or longer bleeding
can cause the formation of weak joints and void spaces between aggregates and rebar.
The amount of bleeding depends upon the proportions of mixtures and fines content
(cement, sand and fly ash) and the dosage of the superplasticizer. An increase in the
water content of concrete mixtures also results in higher amount of bleed water.
The effect of bone china aggregate on the bleeding of concrete is presented in
Figure 5. The total water loss caused by bleeding was .16% for the control mixture C0,
.13% for D0 and .87% for E0. The total water content in the control concrete mixture
E0 was higher than that in C0 and D0, leading to high water loss from bleeding. The
bleeding in all three bone china ceramic concrete mixtures containing 100% bone china
aggregates was 2.09, 1.68 and 2.1%, respectively. On incorporation of 100% bone china
aggregate into concrete, a higher volume of total water was added to the mixture to
compensate for the water absorption of bone china aggregates, resulting in an increased
bleeding of the water content. An increase in the bone china aggregate content in con-
crete resulted in an increased water loss through bleeding. The internal water absorbed
by bone china aggregate is gradually released back into the concrete mixture, which
causes an increase in the bleeding of the water content. Corominas and Etxeberria
(2014) observed similar behaviour for ceramic aggregate. In addition, high dosages of
the superplasticizer used to produce the desired workability in bone china ceramic con-
crete mixtures resulted in high water loss due to bleeding. The higher dosage of the
superplasticizer also caused a delay in the setting time, resulting in the longer duration
of bleeding. Further, the bone china aggregates are finer and lighter than those in natural

0 .3 5 ( C )
0 .4 5 ( D )
0 .5 5 ( E )

2.0

1.5
Water loss (%)

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Bone china aggregate (%)

Figure 5. Bleeding water loss vs. bone china aggregate content in concrete.
 European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 11

sand. This leads to the formation of laitance on the top surface of freshly mixed bone
china ceramic concrete, causing an increase in the amount of water from bleeding.

4.4. Air content

The amount of entrained air in the form of bubbles is determined and expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of concrete. The entrained air increases the volume of
the paste by inclusion of microscopic air bubbles, improving the workability of fresh
concrete mixtures. This test should be performed on a non-vibrated sample, because it
reduces the air content of the sample.
The observed values of the air content measured using the pressure meter method
for concrete mixtures are presented in Figure 6. The air content increases with an
increase in the water-to-cement ratio, because a high quantity of total water increases
the formation of air pockets or bubbles in fresh concrete mixtures. Compared with C0,
an increase of 9.1 and 15.5% was observed in the concrete mixtures D0 and E0, respec-
tively. A decrease in the air content was observed when the percentage of bone china
aggregate was increased. Among all series of concrete mixtures, concrete containing
100% bone china aggregates had the lowest air content. The air content of concrete
mixtures containing 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% bone china aggregates decreased by 1.3,
3.9, 4.74, 5.6 and 9.1% for concrete series C; 3.9, 7.9, 8.7, 10.7 and 11.8% for concrete
series D; and 5.9, 7.5, 8.6, 11.2 and 13.8% for concrete series E, respectively. The pres-
ence of a higher percentage of finer particles in bone china aggregate concrete mixtures
reduced the air content. The higher dosage of the superplasticizer also reduced the air
content, as the low viscosity led to the escape of air from fresh mixed bone china
ceramic concrete. Increased bleeding from bone china ceramic concrete mixtures also

2.7 0.35
0.45
2.6 0.55
Air content by pressure method (%)

2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Bone china aggregate (%)

Figure 6. Air content (%) at various replacement levels of bone china aggregates.
12 S. Siddique et al.

Table 5. Air content by gravimetric method and percentage difference from pressure method.
Mix Air content (%) Difference between gravimetric method and pressure method (%)
C0 2.46 +6.03
C20 2.39 +4.37
C40 2.30 +3.14
C60 2.28 +3.17
C80 2.26 +3.20
C100 2.17 +2.84
D0 2.64 +4.35
D20 2.59 +6.58
D40 2.38 +2.15
D60 2.37 +2.60
D80 2.35 +3.98
D100 2.29 +2.69
E0 2.77 +3.36
E20 2.63 +4.37
E40 2.61 +5.24
E60 2.57 +4.90
E80 2.43 +2.10
E100 2.37 +2.60

lowered the air content, because the movement of water molecules by capillary action
reduced the formation of air pockets.
Similar observations were made when the air content was measured using the
gravimetric method. The results of the gravimetric method are listed in Table 5.
The values obtained using the gravimetric method were higher than those obtained
using the pressure meter method.
The percentage difference between the values obtained using two methods is also
presented in Table 5.

4.5. Compressive strength

Compared with control concrete mixtures, the variation in the compressive strength of
all the three series of bone china aggregate concrete mixtures at 28 days is presented in
Figure 7. The compressive strength of all the three series of bone china aggregate con-
crete mixtures was higher or similar to that of control mixtures at 28 days. At the curing
age of 28 days, the 20% bone china aggregate concrete mixture had the highest com-
pressive strength. The increase in the compressive strength of bone china aggregate con-
crete mixtures at 28 days varied between 0 and 15.8% for series C; 0 and 12.1% for
series D; and 4.3 and 26.0% for series E, respectively. The higher compressive strength
of concrete series containing bone china aggregate indicates that bone china aggregate
can be successfully used as fine aggregate. Compared with control concrete mixtures, a
higher fine particle percentage in bone china aggregate acted as a filler to provide a
dense matrix, leading to an increase in the compressive strength. The silica content in
bone china aggregate contributed to the higher compressive strength. Halicka et al.
(2013) observed that at a constant effective weight-to-cement ratio, the mechanical
performance of concrete containing sanitary ware ceramic aggregate exceeded that of
control concrete.
 European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 13

28

26.
0.35 (C)
26 0.45 (D)
24 0.55 (E)
22
20
Strength variation (%)

15.8
18
16

13.0

13.0
12.1

14
12 10.5
10

7.9
6.1

6.1

6.1
8

5.3

4.3

4.3
6
4
2

0
0
20 40 60 80 100
Bone china aggregate (%)

Figure 7. Compressive strength variation vs. bone china aggregate content in concrete.

5. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the test results:

• Ceramic bone china aggregates can be used as fine aggregates in concrete produc-
tion. According to the fresh state properties and compressive strength, the partial
replacement of natural sand with fine bone china aggregates can be recommended.
The desired workability can be obtained by adding a low dosage of superplasti-
cizer. In applications in which workability can be compromised, fine aggregate
can be fully replaced with bone china aggregate.
• The higher water absorption capability of bone china aggregates requires the
addition of more water to maintain the actual water-to-cement ratio.
• The finer particle size of bone china aggregate contributes to the decrease in the
air content. In addition, a higher dosage to maintain the workability of concrete
mixtures reduces the air content after the incorporation of bone china aggregate.
• The fresh density increases with an increase in the content of bone china aggre-
gate, because the higher water content and finer particles of bone china provide a
dense matrix.
• Water loss from bleeding increases after the introduction of bone china aggregate
(both partial and full) as a replacement for natural sand. Although concrete is still
in a fresh phase, the internal water absorbed by bone china aggregate is released
back into the mixture, causing an increase in bleeding.
• The compressive strength of concrete mixtures containing 60, 80 and 100% bone
china aggregates is slightly higher or equivalent to that of control concrete
mixtures at 28 days. The presence of silica and the filler action of bone china
aggregate increase the compressive strength of bone china aggregate concrete.
14 S. Siddique et al.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID
Salman Siddique http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5937-6959

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