Laboratory Manual

SIGNAL & NETWORK LAB

(COURSE CODE: ECC205)

ELECTRONICS MAIN LAB – I &II

(Room No: 231 & Room No: 225)

Department of Electronics Engineering

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (ISM), DHNABAD
 List of Experiments

Sl No. Name of the Experiment Page No

01. Verification of the Superposition’s Theorem. 1-4

02. Verification of the Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem. 5-9

03. Study of Z and Y parameters and their equivalent circuits. 10-15

04. Study of Resonant circuit. 16-20

05. Generation of different types of signals. 21-25

To perform basic operations on continuous and discrete time

06. signal such as time shifting, scaling, reversal, addition, 26-33
subtraction and multiplication.

To study the linear convolution of two given sequences.

07. To study the Circular convolution of two given sequences. 34-37
To study the correlation of a given sequence.

08. To study the Fourier series of a given function. 38-41

Experiment No-1: Verification of the Superposition’s Theorem.

Aim: To verify the superposition theorem and find load current for the given circuit.
R4
V3
R2
R5
R1 R3
RL IL
V1 V2

Fig. 1: Circuit for analysis of Superposition theorem.

Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Apparatus Range Quantity
1 3 Channel DC Power Supply (0-30V) 1
2 Multimeter (0-10mA) 1
3 Resistors R1=R2=1K,R3=470,R4=R5=330, 6
RL=100
4 Bread Board --- 1
5 Connecting Wires --- ---

Superposition Theorem:
The superposition theorem is very useful for finding the voltages and currents
in a circuit with two or more sources of supply, and is usually easier to use than
Kirchhoff’s law equations. One supply is selected, and the circuit is redrawn to
show the other supply (or supplies) short-circuited (leaving only the internal
resistance of each supply). The voltage and current caused by the first supply can
then be calculated, using V = RI methods together with the rules for combining
series and parallel resistors. Each supply is treated in turn in the same way, and
finally the voltages and currents caused by each supply are added.
Hence, this theorem may be state as follows: “In a linear bilateral network containing more than
one source, the voltage across or current through any branch or source is the algebraic sum of
all the individual voltage or currents caused by the separate independent source acting alone
and replacing other sources by their respective internal resistances.”

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Linearity Property:
 It is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect.
 A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.
 Basic properties for a linear function:
1. Homogeneity (scaling) property:
If a function is defined as V = I R
then by scaling property → kV=kIR
2. Additive property:
If V1 and V2 are 2 functions such that
V1 = I1 R and V2 = I2 R, then by additive property
→ v = (I1 + I2) R = V1 + V2
Steps to Solve Circuits using Superposition Theorem:
1. To find the current/ voltage in any branch, take one source at a
time and replace the rest of the sources by their internal
resistances (if given).
2. Calculate the current/voltage by any method
(mesh/nodal/KVL/KCL).
3. Now calculate the current/ voltage in the same branch by taking
the other source in the circuit and replacing rest of the sources by
their internal resistances.
4. Repeat steps 1,2 till all the sources have been considered.
5. Total current/voltage in the given branch= algebraic sum of all
the currents/voltages in the branch due to all the current sources.
6. Replacing the V or I sources when internal R not given:
a. Replace V sources by Short Circuit if their internal R is
not given. Fig. 2: Voltage and Current Source
b. Replace I sources by Open Circuit if their internal R is
not given.
Procedure:
1. Theoretical Calculation:
 Solve the given circuit theoretically and fill the observation table.
2. Simulation:
 Simulate the same circuit using standard circuit simulation software and note down the
simulated results.
3. Experiment:
a. Give the connections as per the diagram.
b. Set a particular voltage value using DC Power Supply & note down the ammeter
reading for given circuit.
c. Perform steps a, and b for circuits in Figs. 3, 4, & 5 and note down the reading.
d. Verify superposition theorem.

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4. Calculate the error.

R4

R2 SC

R5
R1 R3
RL I1
V1 SC

Fig. 3: Circuit with V1 source only, other sources are short circuit (SC).
R4

R2 SC

R5
R1 R3
RL I2
SC
V2

Fig. 4: Circuit with V2 source only, other sources are short circuit (SC).
R4

R2 V3

R5
R1 R3
RL I3
SC
SC

Fig. 5: Circuit with V3 source only, other sources are short circuits (SC).

3
Observation Table:
Theoretical Results Table:
DC Power Supply Ammeter Reading (I)
Channel-1 Channel-2 Channel-3 (mA)
Figure 1 V1 V2 V3 IL
Figure 3 V1 0V 0V I1
Figure 4 0V V2 0V I2
Figure 5 0V 0V V3 I3

Simulation Results Table:

DC Power Supply Ammeter Reading (I)
Channel-1 Channel-2 Channel-3 (mA)
Figure 1 V1 V2 V3 IL
Figure 3 V1 0V 0V I1
Figure 4 0V V2 0V I2
Figure 5 0V 0V V3 I3

Experimental Results Table:

DC Power Supply Ammeter Reading (I)
Channel-1 Channel-2 Channel-3 (mA)
Figure 1 V1 V2 V3 IL
Figure 3 V1 0V 0V I1
Figure 4 0V V2 0V I2
Figure 5 0V 0V V3 I3

Result and Inference:

Precautions and Sources of error:

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4
Experiment No-2: Verification of the Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem.

Aim: To verify the Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem for the given circuit.

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 RPS (regulated power supply) (0-30V) 2
2 Multimeter --- 1
3 Resistors R1=220Ω,R2=390Ω, 6
R3= R5=1K,R4=220Ω,RL=100Ω
4 Bread Board --- 1
5 Connecting Wires --- Required

Thevenin’s Theorem:
Statement:
General Idea: In circuit theory, Thevenin’s theorem for linear electrical networks states that any
combination of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is electrically
equivalent to a single voltage source Vth in series with a single series resistor Rth. Those sources
mentioned above can be either independent or dependent.

Fig. -1 General circuit to Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in series with a source voltage. Hence, this
theorem may be stated as follows: “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances
can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the
load”.

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 Steps to Solve Circuits using Thevenin’s Theorem:
Thevenin’s Theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the load resistance from the original
circuit and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit composed of a single voltage source and
series resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected to this “Thevenin equivalent circuit”
and calculations carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a simple series circuit:
Calculation of Vth and Rth
 Vth is determined by calculating the voltage between open terminals A and B.
 Rth is determined by shorting the voltage source and open the current source, then calculating
the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open terminals A and B.

Example of Thevenin’s Theorem

Fig.2 Example of Thevenin’s theorem

In the above circuit find out the Thevenin voltage and resistance across terminals A and B.
Step-1.
Remove the resistance connected across the A-B terminal. Then calculating the open circuit
voltage across it VAB (Vth).

Fig.3 Circuit for Calculating VTH

Step-2.
By shorting the voltage source and open the current source, then find the RAB (Rth).

Fig. 4 Circuit for calculating Rth

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Step-3.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Fig. 5 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Norton’s Theorem
General Idea: Norton's theorem for linear electrical networks, known in Europe as the Mayer–
Norton theorem, states that any collection of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with
two terminals is electrically equivalent to an ideal current source, I, in parallel with a single
resistor, R. Those sources mentioned above can also either be dependent or independent sources.

Statement: Norton theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source Iss in parallel with a resistor RN, where iN is the
short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit current of the network, that is, the
current obtained by shorting the output of the network. The resistance is the resistance seen looking
into the network with all sources deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

ISS RN = RTH

Fig.7 Norton equivalent circuit.

R
+ V
_ V R I =
R

Fig. 8 Thevenin & Norton transform

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 Calculation of Iss and RN
 Iss is determined by shorting terminals A and B.
 RN is determined by shorting the voltage source and opening the current source, then calculating
the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open terminals A and B.

Example to be performed: Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent across the A-B terminal of
the given circuit.

Procedure:
Thevenin Theorem
1. Give the connections as per the diagram.
2. Remove the load resistance.
3. By connecting the voltmeter across the A-B terminal for calculating the open circuit voltage i-
e Vth.
4. By replacing all the sources present in the circuit with their internal resistance and connecting
the multimeter and find out the equivalent resistance i-e Rth across the A-B terminal.
5. Make the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the help of Vth, Rth, and load resistance as shown
in fig.4
6. By connecting the ammeter in series for calculating the current flowing in the load resistance
and for load voltage connect the voltmeter in parallel across the load resistance.
7. Verify Thevenin’s theorem.
Norton Theorem
1. Find the Norton current Iss. Calculate the output current, IAB, with a short circuit as the load
(meaning 0 resistance between A and B). This is Iss.
2. Find the Norton resistance RN. There are two methods of determining the Norton impedance
RN. (The same as Thevenin's Theorem).

Model Calculations:

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Observation Tables:
Observation table for Thevenin Theorem

Source Voltage Thevenin’s Thevenin’s Current (IL)

(Vs) Voltage Vth Resistance Rth mA
Simulation
Values
Theoretical
Values

Practical
Values

Observation table for Norton Theorem

Source Voltage Norton’s Current IN Current (IL) mA

(Vs) (mA)

Simulation Values

Theoretical Values

Practical Values

Result and Inference:

Precautions and Sources of error:

********

9
 Experiment No-3: Study of Z and Y parameters and their equivalent circuits.

3.1: Aim: Study of Z and Y parameters and their equivalent circuits through simulation and
hardware experiments.
3.2: Apparatus Required:
S.no Apparatus Range Quantity
1 3 Channel DC Power Supply (0-30V) 1
2 Multimeter (0-10mA) 1
3 Resistors R1, R2 , R3, RL 4
4 Bread Board --- 1
5 Connecting Wires --- ---

3.3: Brief Theory:

A pair of terminals between which a signal may enter or leave the network is known as a port.
If a network has one such pair of terminals it is known as One-Port Network and if such
network has two pairs of terminals is known as Two-Port Network as shown in Figure 1.

(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) One-port linear network, and (b) Two-port linear network
If we relate the voltage of one port to the current of the same port, we get the driving point
impedance. On the other hand, if we relate the current of one port to the voltage of another
port, we get transfer admittance.

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Two-port circuit for realizing: (a) Z-parameter, and (b) Y-parameter
In general, a two-port network is composed of linear, bilateral elements and no independent
sources. The voltage and current at port 1 are V1 and I1 and at port 2 are V2 and I2. The position
of V1 and V2 and the directions of I1 and I2 are customarily selected as shown in Figure 2. Out
of four variables, only two are independent. The other two are expressed in terms of the
dependent variable of network parameters.
In this experiment, we have to study Z and Y parameters and their equivalent circuits with and
without resistive load.
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 Z-Parameter: Y-Parameter:
 Z-parameter is also called an  Y-Parameter is also called an
impedance parameter or open circuit admittance parameter or short
parameter and the unit is ohm(Ω). circuit parameter and the unit is
 The black box can be replaced with mho(Ʊ).
a z-parameter.  The black box can be replaced with
 Consider I1 and I2 as independent a Y-parameter.
variables, whereas, V1 and V2 as the  Consider V1 and V2 as independent
dependent variables. variables, whereas, I1 and I2 as the
Therefore, dependent variables.
I  I  Therefore,
V1  f  1  and V2  f  1  V  V 
 I2   I2  I1  f  1  and I 2  f  1 
Equation can also be written as:  V2   V2 
 V1   I1  Equation can also be written as:
  f    I1   V1 
 V2   I2    f  
Deducing the above equation gives:  I2   V2 
V1=Z11 I1 +Z12 I2 …… (1) Deducing the above equation gives:
V2=Z21 I1 +Z22 I2 …… (2) I1= Y11 V1 +Y12 V2 …… (3)
I2= Y21 V1 +Y22 V2 …… (4)
The matrix form of equation (1) and (2) is:
The matrix form of equation (3) and (4) is:
V1   Z11 Z12   I1 
V    Z Z 22   I 2 
 I1  Y11 Y12  V1 
 2   21  I   Y Y  V 
Voltage Impedance Current  2   21 22   2 
Matrix Matrix Matrix Current Admittance Voltage
Matrix Matrix Matrix

3.4: Determination of Z and Y parameters of a given circuit:

Figure 3: Circuit diagram for realizing Z and Y parameter

For determining Z and Y parameters, use equations (1) and (2) for the Z parameter following
equations (3) and (4) for the Y parameter:

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 Z-Parameter: Y-Parameter:
 For evaluating Z11 and Z21, make I2  For evaluating Y11 and Y21, make V2
= 0 or open-circuit the output port. = 0 or short-circuit the output port.
V1 Open-circuit driving point - I1 Short-circuit driving point -
Z11  Input impedance Y11  Input admittance
I1 I2 0
V1 V2  0

V2 Open-circuit forward I2 Short -circuit forward

Z 21  transfer impedance Y21  transfer admittance
I1 I2 0 V1 V2  0

 For evaluating Z12 and Z22, make I1  For evaluating Y12 and Y22, make V1
= 0 or open circuit the input port. = 0 or short-circuit the input port.
V1 Open-circuit reverse I1 Short -circuit reverse
Z12  transfer impedance Y12  transfer admittance
I2 I1  0 V2 V1  0

V2 Open-circuit driving point I2

Z 22  Output impedance Y22 
Short -circuit driving point
Output admittance
I2 I1  0
V2 V1  0

3.5: REALIZATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF Z AND Y PARAMETERS:

Z-Parameter: Y-Parameter:
 From equation (1) and (2):  From equation (3) and (4):
V1=Z11 I1 +Z12 I2 I1= Y11 V1 +Y12 V2
V1-Z11 I1-Z12 I2 =0 ……… (5) I1-Y11 V1 -Y12 V2 =0 …… (7)

& V2=Z21 I1 +Z22 I2 & I2= Y21 V1 +Y22 V2

V2-Z21 I1-Z22 I2=0 ……… (6) I2-Y21 V1-Y22 V2 =0 …… (8)

 As equation (5) and (6) satisfies  As equation (7) and (8) satisfies
KVL equation, therefore, KCL equation, therefore,

(a) (b)
Figure 4: Equivalent circuits of a given circuit in terms of (a) Z parameter, and (b) Y parameter
.

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3.6: VERIFYING THE GIVEN CIRCUIT AND ITS EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR Z AND
Y PARAMETERS:

Figure 5: Circuit diagram for realizing Z and Y parameter

Procedure:
Z parameters can be analyzed directly by making an open circuit in one port and applying a certain
voltage to the other port. On the other hand, to verify the Y parameter with resistive load, one has
to short circuit one port and by applying the current source to the other terminal. Since we cannot
directly apply the current source to the above circuit, therefore, we have to convert the above
circuit into a parallel network by using a star to delta converter formula as:
R1 R2  R1 R3  R2 R3
RA  (9)
R3
R2 R3  R2 R1  R3 R1
RB  (10)
R1
R3 R1  R3 R2  R1 R2
RC  (11)
R2

Z-Parameter: Y-Parameter:
 Given Circuit:  Using equations (9), (10), and (11),
Obtained circuit for analysing Y
parameter:

 Using equation (5) and (6), equivalent

circuit can be drawn as:
 Using equations (7) and (8), an
equivalent circuit can be drawn as:

13
3.7: Steps to verify Z and Y parameters with and without load:
7. To find the Z and Y parameter, either open circuit or short circuit the input or output port of
a given network.
8. Analyze its equivalent network.
9. Now, attach a load resistance at the output port and a Voltage/Current source at the input
port.
10. Determine the current flowing across the load for both networks (Z and Y equivalent
networks) and compare the current flowing in the load when a load is connected to a given
circuit and when a load is connected to its equivalent circuit.

3.8: Observation Table:

Port Voltages/Current without load for analyzing Z parameter:
Theoretical Values Practical Values
I1 = 0 V1 = _ V2 = _ I2 = _ I1 = 0 V1 = _ V2 = _ I2 = _
I2 = 0 V1 = _ V2 = _ I1 = _ I2 = 0 V1 = _ V2 = _ I1 = _

Port Voltages/Current without load for analyzing Y parameter:

Theoretical Values Practical Values
V1 = 0 V2 = _ I2 = _ I1 = _ V1 = 0 V2 = _ I2 = _ I1 = _
V2 = 0 V1 = _ I2 = _ I1 = _ V2 = 0 V1 = _ I2 = _ I1 = _

Z parameters without load:

Z parameters Theoretical Practical Error percentage
Z11
Z12
Z21
Z22

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 Y parameters without load:
Y parameters Theoretical Practical Simulation
Y11
Y12
Y21
Y22

Current across load resistance for different input voltages:

Z parameter Y parameter
V1 I2 of a I2 of an Percentage I1 I2 of a I2 of an Percentage
given equivalent change given equivalent change
circuit circuit circuit circuit
10 V 5A
15 V 10 A
20 V 15 A

Result and Inference:

Precautions and Sources of error:

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15
Experiment No-4: Study of Resonant circuit.

Aim: To study the series and parallel RLC resonant circuit.

Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Apparatus Range Quantity
1 3 Channel DC Power Supply (0-30V), (0-30V),(0-5V) 1
2. Function Generator ----- 1
2 Multimeter ---- 1
3 Resistor R=100Ω 1
4 Inductor L=10mH 1
5 Capacitor C=104 (.1 µF) 1
6 Bread Board --- 1
7 Connecting Wires --- ---

Resonance phenomenon:
Any system having at least a pair of complex conjugate poles has a natural frequency of
oscillations. If the frequency of the system resonates and the system driving force coincides with
the natural frequency of oscillation, the system resonates and the system response becomes
maximum. This phenomenon is known as resonance and the frequency at which this phenomenon
occurs is known as resonant frequency.

Applications:
Resonant circuits are useful for constructing filters as their transfer function can be highly
frequency selective. They are used in many applications such as selecting the desired stations in
radio and TV receivers.

Series Resonance:
Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 1 in the frequency domain.

Figure 1: The series resonant circuit

16
The input impedance is
1
𝑍 = 𝐻(𝜔) = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 +
𝑗𝜔𝐶
or

1
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝜔𝐿 − ) (1)
𝜔𝐶

Resonance results when the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero, or
1
𝐼𝑚𝑔(𝑍) = 𝜔𝐿 − =0
𝜔𝐶
The value of 𝜔 that satisfies this condition is called the resonant frequency 𝜔0 .

𝟏
𝝎𝟎 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔
√𝑳𝑪
Since 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 ,

𝟏
𝒇𝟎 = 𝑯𝒛 (2)
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

Bandwidth of a Series RLC Resonant Circuit

Here bandwidth is the half power bandwidth because it is the width of frequency band between
the half power frequencies. Therefore, half power bandwidth of the RLC circuit is the range of
frequencies for which the power dissipated in R is greater than or equal to half the maximum
power. It is given by

𝑹 (3)
𝑩𝑾 = 𝝎𝟐 −𝝎𝟏 =
𝑳

where 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are half power frequencies.

Figure 2: The frequency response for the series RLC circuit

17
Q-Factor in R-L-C Series Circuit

The sharpness of the resonance in a resonant circuit is measured quantitatively by the quality factor
Q. It is regarded as a measure of the energy storage property of a circuit in relation to its energy
dissipation property. Quality factor is dimensionless.

𝝎𝟎 𝑳 𝟏 𝑳 (4)
𝑸 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = √
𝑹 𝑹 𝑪

Parallel Resonance:

The basic parallel RLC circuit is shown in Figure 3. Parallel RLC circuit is the dual of the series
RLC circuit.

Figure 3: The parallel resonant circuit

The admittance is
1 1
𝑌 = 𝐻(𝜔) = + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 +
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿
Or
1 1
𝑌= + 𝑗 (𝜔𝐶 − )
𝑅 𝜔𝐿

Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of Y is zero,

1
𝜔𝐶 − =0
𝜔𝐿

𝟏
𝝎𝟎 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔
√𝑳𝑪

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Bandwidth of a Parallel RLC Circuit

By the definition the bandwidth is given by

𝟏
𝑩𝑾 = 𝝎𝟐 −𝝎𝟏 =
𝑹𝑪 (5)

Q-Factor in R-L-C Parallel Circuit

Q factor for the parallel resonant circuit is given by

𝑹 𝑪 (6)
𝑸= = 𝑹√
𝝎𝟎 𝑳 𝑳

The relationship between the bandwidth and quality factor is given by

𝝎𝟎
𝑩𝑾 = (7)
𝑸

Figure 4: The frequency response for the parallel resonant circuit

19
Procedure:

1. Theoretical Calculation:
 Solve the given RLC circuit theoretically and find the resonance frequency, bandwidth
and quality factor from the equations (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6) for series and parallel
circuit.

2. Simulation:
 Simulate the given RLC circuit using standard circuit simulation software
 Find the value of current for the theoretical resonance frequency value.
 Then take suitable intervals of frequencies so as to take ten readings above the
resonance frequency and ten below.
 For these frequencies find the value of current from the ammeter available in the
software.
 Note down the simulated results according to the observation table.
 Draw the frequency response graph as per the readings of the observation table with
frequency on x axis and current on the y axis.
 Find the value of bandwidth from the equation (3) and quality factor from the equation
(7).

3. Experiment:
e. On the breadboard, build the RLC circuit as shown in figure 1and 3.
f. Supply AC voltage to the circuit from the function generator.
g. Connect multimeter and calculate the value of current for theoretical resonance
frequency value.
h. Then take same set of frequencies as taken in simulation.
i. For these frequencies find the value of current through multimeter.
j. Note down these values according to the observation table.
k. Draw the frequency response graph as per the readings of the observation table with
frequency on x axis and current on the y axis.
l. Find the value of bandwidth from the equation (3) and quality factor from the equation
(7).

********

20
EXPERIMENT No: 5 Generation of different types of signals.

AIM: To generate different types of signals like sinusoidal signal, unit impulse, unit step, unit
ramp signal, Exponential signal etc.

REQUIREMENTS: Computer, MATLAB software.

THEORY:
A Signal is the function of one or more independent variables that carries some information to
represent a physical phenomenon. Some examples of signals are human voice, electrocardiogram,
sign language, videos etc. It is classified into the two categories such as Continuous time signal
and discrete time signal. A continuous-time signal is a signal that can be defined at every instant
of time. A continuous-time signal contains values for all real numbers along the x-axis. It is
denoted by x(t).Signals that can be defined at discrete instant of time is called discrete time signal.
Basically discrete time signals can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal. It is denoted
as x(n).Let us see how the basic signals can be represented in Continuous and Discrete Time
Domain.

1. SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL

All continuous-time sinusoidal signals are periodic. The discrete-time sinusoidal sequences may
or may not be periodic. They depend on the value of ω. For a discrete time, signal to be periodic,
the angular frequency ω must be a rational multiple of 2π.

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete -Time Signal

(a) (b)

A continuous and discrete sinusoidal signal is shown in the figure above.

Here A, ω and φ have their usual meaning and n is the integer.
 A is the amplitude of the signal.
 ω = 2πf, the angular frequency.
 f is the frequency of signal in Hz.
 Φ is the phase angle in radians.
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2. EXPONENTIAL SIGNAL
An exponential signal or exponential function is a function that literally represents an
exponentially increasing or decreasing series.
If b < 0 i.e. -ve then g(t) = Ae-bt. The shape is called decaying exponential.
If b > 0 i.e. +ve then g(t) = Aebt. The shape is called raising exponential
A real exponential signal is defined as

Where both "A" and "b" are real. Depending on the value of "b" the signals will be different.
If "b" is positive the signal g(t) is a growing exponential and if "b" is negative, then the signal g
(t) is a decaying exponential. For b=0, signal g(t) will be constant.

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete -Time Signal

(a) (b)
The figures above show the graphical representation of continuous and discrete time Exponential
function.

3. UNIT STEP SIGNAL

The step signal or step function is that type of standard signal which exists only for positive time,
and it is zero for negative time. In other words, a signal x(t) is said to be step signal if and only if
it exists for t > 0 and zero for t < 0. The step signal is an important signal used for analysis of many
systems.
If a step signal has unity magnitude, then it is known as unit step signal or unit step function. The
unit step signal which is defined for every instant of time is known as continuous-time unit step
signal. The continuous-time unit step signal is denoted by u(t). The unit step signal which is
defined only at discrete instants of time is known as discrete-time unit step signal and it is denoted
by u(n).

22
Continuous and discrete time unit step signal is defined as:

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete -Time Signal

(a) (b)

The figures above show the graphical representation of continuous and discrete step function.

4. UNIT IMPULSE SIGNAL

It is denoted as δ(t) and δ(n) in continuous and discrete time domain and can be defined as:
A signal that has zero amplitude everywhere except at t = 0. At the origin (t = 0) the amplitude of
impulse signal is infinity so that the area under the curve is unity. The unit impulse signal is the
most widely used standard signal used in the analysis of signals and systems. The continuous-time
impulse signal is also called Dirac Delta Signal and discrete-time signal is called unit sample
sequence. The graphical representation of impulse signal is shown below.

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete -Time Signal

(a) (b)

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5. UNIT RAMP SIGNAL

A ramp function or ramp signal is a type of standard signal which starts at 𝑡 = 0 and increases
linearly with time. The unit ramp function has unit slop. The continuous-time unit ramp signal is
that function which starts at 𝑡 = 0 and increases linearly with time. It is denoted by
r(t). Mathematically, the continuous-time unit ramp signal is defined as follows
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
From the above equation, it is clear that the ramp signal is a signal whose magnitude varies
linearly. The discrete time unit ramp signal is that function which starts from n = 0 and increases
linearly. It is denoted by r(n). It is signal whose amplitude varies linearly with time n.
𝑟(𝑛) = 𝑛𝑢(𝑛)
Continuous and discrete time unit ramp signal is defined as:

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete -Time Signal

(a) (b)
The figures above show the graphical representation of continuous and discrete ramp function.

6. RECTANGULAR PULSE SIGNAL

A signal that produces a rectangular shaped pulse with a width of τ (where 𝜏 = 1 for the unit
rectangular function) centred at 𝑡 = 0 is known as rectangular signal. The rectangular pulse signal
has a height of one is known as the unit pulse or gate function. Also, the rectangular function is
an even function of time. The graphical representation of a continuous and discrete time
rectangular pulse signal is shown below.
Continuous-Time Signal Discrete -Time Signal

(a) (b)
24
SOME OTHER OBJECTIVES:

(1) Use subplot to generate a cumulative loop in a single frame for all the signals.
(2) Include the discrete, continuous and stair like plots for all the signals.
(3) Generate 1.5 secs of a 50 Hz sawtooth wave with a sample rate of 10 kHz. Repeat the
computation for a square wave.
(4) Generate 2 secs of a triangular pulse with a sample rate of 10 kHz and a width of 20 msec.
Repeat the computation for a rectangular pulse.
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the major classifications of the signal?

2. What is the difference between discrete signal and digital signal?
3. State relationship between step, ramp and unit delta function?
4. What do you mean by zero phase of the signal?
5. Define periodic and aperiodic signals?
6. Compare power and energy signal?
********

25
Experiment No-6: To perform basic operations on continuous and discrete time signal
such as time shifting, scaling, reversal, addition, subtraction and multiplication.

SOFTWARE: MATLAB

THEORY:
(1)Time Shifting
Time shifting of a signal in time means that the signal may be either delayed in the time axis or
advanced in the time axis.
Continuous time signal 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 ± 𝑡0)
The above expression shows that the signal y(t) can be obtained by time shifting the signal x(t) by
t0 units. If t0 is positive in the above expression, then the shift of the signal is to the right and hence
the time shifting delays the signal. On the other hand, if t0 is negative, then the shift of the signal
is to the left and hence the shifting advances the signal in the time axis.

Discrete time signal 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 ± 𝑛0)

This equation shows that the signal y(n) can be obtained by time-shifting the signal x(n) by
𝑛0 units. If the value of 𝑛0 is positive, then the shift of the signal is to the right and the resulting
signal is the delayed version. Whereas, if the value of 𝑛0 is negative, then the shift of the signal is
to the left and it is the time advanced version of the signal.

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(2)Time Scaling

The process of multiplying a constant to the time axis of a signal is known as time scaling of the
signal. The time scaling of signal may be time compression or time expansion depending upon
the value of the constant or scaling factor.

Continuous time signal 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝛼𝑡)

If α > 1, then the signal is compressed in time by a factor α and the time scaling of the signal is
called the time compression. Whereas, if α < 1, then the signal is expanded in time by the factor α
and the time scaling is said to be time expansion.

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)

time compression

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(2𝑡)

time expansion

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡/2)

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 Discrete time signal 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑘𝑛)

𝑦 (𝑛 ) = 𝑥 (𝑛 )

compression

y(𝑛 ) = 𝑥 (2𝑛 )

expansion

y(𝑛 ) = 𝑥 (𝑛 /2)

(3)Time Reversal
The time reversal of a signal is folding of the signal about the time origin (or t = 0).
It produces its mirror image about Y-axis.

Continuous time signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)

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Discrete time signal 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛)

(4)Amplitude Scaling
The process of rescaling the amplitude of a signal, i.e., the amplitude of the signal is either
amplified or attenuated, is known as amplitude scaling.
The shape of the resulting signal remains the same as that of the original signal but the amplitude
is altered (i.e., increased or decreased).

Continuous time signal 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡)

𝑥 (𝑡 ) = Π(𝑡 )

𝑥 (𝑡 ) = 2 Π(𝑡 )

29
Discrete time signal 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑘𝑥(𝑛)

(5)Amplitude Reversal
Whenever the amplitude of a signal is multiplied by -1, then it is known as amplitude reversal.
In this case, the signal produces its mirror image about X-axis.

Continuous time signal 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(𝑡)

30
Discrete time signal 𝑥(𝑛) = −𝑥(𝑛)

(6)Addition of signal
The sum of two signals 𝑥1(𝑡) and 𝑥2(𝑡) can be obtained by adding their values at every instant.
Continuous time signal

Discrete time signal

In the discrete time case, the sum of two sequences 𝑥1(𝑛) and 𝑥2(𝑛) can be obtained by adding the
corresponding sample values. Let two discrete-time sequences are given as follows −
𝑥1(𝑛) = {2, 1, 3, 5, 2}
𝑥2(𝑛) = {1, 4, 2, 1, −3}
Then, the addition of discrete-time signals is,
𝑥1(𝑛) + 𝑥2(𝑛) = {2 + 1, 1 + 4, 3 + 2, 5 + 1, 2 − 3} = {3, 5, 5, 6, −1}
(7)Subtraction of signal
The difference of two signals 𝑥1(𝑡) and 𝑥2(𝑡) can be obtained by subtracting the values of one

31
signal (say 𝑥2(𝑡)) from another signal (say 𝑥1(𝑡)) at every instant.
Continuous time signal

Discrete time signal

The difference of the two sequences 𝑥1(𝑛) and 𝑥2(𝑛) can be obtained by subtracting each sample
of one signal from the corresponding sample of the other signal.
𝑥1(𝑛) = {2, 1, 3, 5, 2}
𝑥2(𝑛) = {1, 4, 2, 1, −3}
Then, the subtraction of discrete-time signals is,
𝑥1(𝑛) - 𝑥2(𝑛) = {2 − 1, 1 − 4, 3 − 2, 5 − 1, 2 + 3}
= {1, −3, 1, 4, 5}
(8)Multiplication of signal
The product of two signals can be obtained by multiplying their values at every instant of time.
Continuous time signal

Discrete time signal

𝑥1(𝑛) = {−3, 1, 5, 1, 2}
𝑥2(𝑛) = {2, −1, 1, 3, −3}
Then, the product of these two signal is given by,
𝑥1(𝑡)𝑥2(𝑡) = {−3 × 2, 1 × (−1), 5 × 1, 1 × 3, 2 × (−3)}
⟹ 𝑥1(𝑡)𝑥2(𝑡) = {−6, −1, 5, 3, −6}

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ALGORITHM:
1. Enter the input sequence x[n].
2. Perform the operation on signal.
3. Plot x [n], y [n].

FLOWCHART

Start

Enter the input sequence

Perform the
operation of signal

Plot the waveform

RESULTS:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is difference between continuous and discrete time signal?
2. What is amplitude scaling and time scaling?
3. What is amplitude reversal and time reversal?
4. What is unit delay element?
5. What is time shifting?
6. How can you compress and expand the signal?
7. What do you mean by advancing and delaying of a signal?
8. What is the command for plotting continuous and discrete signal in MATLAB?

********

33
 Experiment No-7

AIM: 1. To study the linear convolution of two given sequences.

2. To study the Circular convolution of two given sequences.
3. To study the correlation of a given sequence.

SOFTWARE: MATLAB
THEORY: Convolution is a mathematical operation used to express the relation between input
and output of an LTI system.It has many applications in numerous areas of signal processing. The
most popular application is the determination of the output signal of a linear time-invariant system
by convolving the input signal with the impulse response of the system. Note that convolving two
signals is equivalent to multiplying the Fourier transform of the two signals.

1.LINEAR CONVOLUTION: In linear systems, convolution is used to describe the relationship

between the three signals of interest: the input signal, the impulse response, and the output signal.
In linear convolution length of the output sequence is, length (y (n)) = length (x (n)) + length (h
(n)) – 1

MATHEMATICAL FORMULA:
The linear convolution of two continuous time signals x (t) and h (t) is defined by

34
For discrete time signals x (n) and h (n), is defined by

ALGORITHM:

1.Give input sequence, x[n].

2.Give the impulse response sequence h [n].
3 Find the Convolution y [n] using Matlab command Conv.
4. Plot x [n], h [n], y [n].

FLOWCHART

35
2. CIRCULAR CONVOLUTION:

Let x1 (n) and x2 (n) are finite duration sequences both of length N with DFT’s X1(k) and X2(k).
Convolution of two given sequences x1 (n) and x2 (n) is given by the equation,

x3(n) = IDFT[X3(k)],where X3(k) = X1(k) X2(k)

ALGORITHM:
1. Read the first input sequence, x[n] and plot.
2. Read the second input sequence, h[n] and plot
3. Find the length of x[n] and y[n] , l1 and l2 respectively
4. Check if l1=l2. Proceed only if equal.
5. If l1 not equal to l2, zero padding is done to make l1=l2.
6. Initialize a loop variable for the number of output points.
7. For each output sample access the samples of y[n] in cyclic order.
8. Find the sum of products of x[n] and cyclically folded and shifted h[n] to get circular
convoluted output.
9. Display and plot the output.

3. CORRELATION: Correlation determines the degree of similarity between two signals. If the
signals are identical, then the correlation coefficient is 1; if they are totally different, the correlation
coefficient is 0, and if they are identical except that the phase is shifted by exactly 1800 (i.e.
Mirrored), then the correlation coefficient is -1.

AUTOCORRELATION: The Autocorrelation of a sequence is the correlation of a sequence with

itself. The autocorrelation of a sequence x(n) is defined by,

Where k is the shift parameter

PROPPERTIES OF AUTOCORRELATION:
1.Rxx(0) = Energy(x)
2.Autocorrelation function is symmetric. i.e. Rxx(m) = Rxx(-m)
3.The autocorrelation appears in application such as communications (matched filtering), signal
modeling (normal equation), and pattern recognition (Template matching).

ALGORITHM:

1. Enter the input sequence x[n]

2. Auto correlate the signal using xcorr (x,x)
3. Display the auto correlation result on a suitable axis

36
CROSS-CORRELATION: The cross-correlation between two sequence x(n) and y(n)is defined
by:

ALGORITHM:

1. Enter the input sequence x[n]

2. Auto correlate the signal using xcorr (x,y)
3. Display the cross-correlation result on a suitable axis

RESULTS

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the length of linearly convolved signals?

2. What is meant by discrete convolution?
3. Why linear convolution is important in DSP?
4. Write properties of linear convolution.
5. Why linear convolution is called as a periodic convolution?
6. List few applications of linear convolution in LTI system design.
7. What is Circular Convolution?
8. What do you mean by aliasing in circular convolution?
9. What is the difference between circular convolution and periodic convolution?
10. What is correlation?
11. What are the applications of Correlation?

********

37
 Experiment No-8

AIM: To study the Fourier series of a given function.

SOFTWARE: MATLAB

THEORY: Fourier series are infinite series that represent periodic functions in terms of cosines
and sines. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is called a periodic function if it is defined for all real 𝑥, except possibly
at some points, and if there is some positive number 𝑝, called a period of, such that for all 𝑥. The
smallest positive period is often called the fundamental period.

Fig 1: Periodic function of period 𝑝

They are infinite series designed to represent general periodic functions in terms of simple ones,
namely, cosines and sines. This trigonometric system is orthogonal, allowing the computation of
the coefficients of the Fourier series by use of the well-known Euler formulas. Fourier series are,
in a certain sense, more universal than the familiar Taylor series in calculus because many
discontinuous periodic functions that come up in applications can be developed in Fourier series
but do not have Taylor series expansions. It is a very powerful method to solve ordinary and partial
differential equation, particularly with periodic functions appearing as non-homogenous terms.
Fourier series can be generally written as,

Where 𝐶𝑛 is given by the fourier series analysis equation.

Which can be rewritten

38
The Fourier series of a periodic function 𝑓(𝑥) with a period 2π is defined as the trigonometric
series with the coefficient a0, an and bn, known as Fourier coefficients, determined 𝑌 with above
formulae. The individual term in Fourier series is known as HARMONICS. Every function 𝑓(𝑥)
of period 2π satisfying following conditions known as DIRICHLET’S CONDITIONS, can be
expressed in the form of fourier series.

DISCRETE TIME FOURIER SERIES:

Discrete Time Fourier series (DTFS) is any periodic discrete-time signal comprising harmonically-
related (i.e., Fourier) discrete real sinusoids or discrete complex exponentials, combined by a
weighted summation. A specific example is the inverse discrete Fourier transform (inverse DFT).

The general form of a DTFS is:

which are harmonics of a fundamental frequency 1/𝑁 for some positive integer 𝑁. The practical
range of 𝑘 is [0, 𝑁 − 1] because periodicity causes larger values to be redundant. when the 𝑥[𝑘]
coefficients are derived from an 𝑁 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ DFT and a factor of 1/𝑁 is inserted, this becomes an
inverse DFT and in that case, just the coefficients themselves are sometimes referred to as a
discrete Fourier series.

CONDITIONS:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) is bounded and single valued.

2. A 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) is called single valued if each point in the domain, it has unique value
in the range.
3. 𝑓(𝑥) has at most, a finite number of maxima and minima in the interval.
4. 𝑓(𝑥) has at most, a finite number of discontinuities in the interval.

ALGORITHM:

1. Define a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡)

2. Second enter the general analysis equation of the Fourier series expansion
3. Find the Fourier series coefficient (results can be seen in the MATLAB workspace)
4. Repeat the process of different values of 𝑁
5. Compare the waveforms

39
FLOW CHART:

Enter Periodic Signal

𝑥(𝑡)

Enter the general analysis

equation of the Fourier
series expansion

Find the Fourier series coefficient

Repeat the process of different values of 𝑁

& compare the waveforms

Stop

40
CONCLUSION:
2𝜋
Fourier series states that any periodic signal with fundamental frequency 𝜔0 is equal to 𝜔0 = 𝑇
can be converted into linear combination or infinite summation of harmonically related sinusoids.
In the given MATLAB program, we have assumed capital N = 5, so let the square wave signal is
represented by 𝑥(𝑡), hence 𝑥(𝑡) can be represented using harmonically related sinusoids using the
expression
𝑎
𝑥(𝑡) = 20 + ∑𝑁 𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin n𝜔0 t)
𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡 means that the first harmonic 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜔0 𝑡 has the same fundamental frequency that is
as that of the square wave.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a periodic function with period T=10.The Fourier series coefficients for this
2𝜋
−𝑗𝑘 𝑡
series are denoted by 𝑎𝑘 that is 𝑥(𝑡) = ∑∞𝑘=−∞ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑇 .The same function 𝑥(𝑡) can also

be considered as a periodic function with a period T’= 40. Let 𝑏𝑘 be the Fourier series
coefficients when period is taken as T. If ∑∞ ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑎𝑘 = 16, then find ∑𝑘=−∞ 𝑏𝑘 .
2. Find the Fourier series for the function (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , 𝜋−≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
3. Obtain the Fourier cosine series expansion of the periodic function defined by the
𝜋𝑡
function 𝑓(𝑡) = sin ,0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
𝑙

VIVA VOCE QUESTION:

1. What is Fourier series?

2. Who discovered Fourier series?
3. State Dirichlet’s conditions for a function to be expanded as a Fourier series.
4. Write the formulae for Fourier constants for 𝑓(𝑥) in the 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (−𝑝, 𝑝).
5. Write down the exponential form of the Fourier series representation of aperiodic signal.
6. Write down the trigonometric form of the fourier series representation of a periodic signal.
7. Find the constant 𝑎0 of the Fourier series for function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 in 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≥ 2𝜋.

********

41