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    Loading Effects and Two-Port Networks Week 5 - 6

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    منتصر الجعبري
    This document discusses loading effects and two-port networks. It provides examples of how inserting a measurement instrument into a system can introduce loading errors by modifying the system. It discusses equivalent circuits using Thévenin and Norton models to represent two-port networks, with input and output ports that relate effort and flow variables. Two-port networks can model sensors and transducers, with mechanical, thermal or fluidic inputs represented by equivalent circuits. Process loading occurs when measuring a system modifies its operation, such as inserting a thermometer changing the temperature being measured.

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    Loading Effects and Two-Port Networks Week 5 - 6

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    منتصر الجعبري
    204 views31 pages
    This document discusses loading effects and two-port networks. It provides examples of how inserting a measurement instrument into a system can introduce loading errors by modifying the system. It discusses equivalent circuits using Thévenin and Norton models to represent two-port networks, with input and output ports that relate effort and flow variables. Two-port networks can model sensors and transducers, with mechanical, thermal or fluidic inputs represented by equivalent circuits. Process loading occurs when measuring a system modifies its operation, such as inserting a thermometer changing the temperature being measured.

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    This document discusses loading effects and two-port networks. It provides examples of how inserting a measurement instrument into a system can introduce loading errors by modifying the system. It discusses equivalent circuits using Thévenin and Norton models to represent two-port networks, with input and output ports that relate effort and flow variables. Two-port networks can model sensors and transducers, with mechanical, thermal or fluidic inputs represented by equivalent circuits. Process loading occurs when measuring a system modifies its operation, such as inserting a thermometer changing the temperature being measured.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    204 views31 pages

    Loading Effects and Two-Port Networks Week 5 - 6

    Uploaded by

    منتصر الجعبري
    This document discusses loading effects and two-port networks. It provides examples of how inserting a measurement instrument into a system can introduce loading errors by modifying the system. It discusses equivalent circuits using Thévenin and Norton models to represent two-port networks, with input and output ports that relate effort and flow variables. Two-port networks can model sensors and transducers, with mechanical, thermal or fluidic inputs represented by equivalent circuits. Process loading occurs when measuring a system modifies its operation, such as inserting a thermometer changing the temperature being measured.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    of 31

    Loading Effects and

    Two-port Networks

    Chapter 5 from the book:


    principles of measurements
    loading
    When we insert an instrument into the position to measure a quantity, an error
    in the measurement may occur due to loading effect.

    Examples:

    inserting an ammeter into a circuit to measure the current changes the value of
    the current due to the ammeters own resistance which changes the total
    resistance of the circuit.

    Also inserting a thermometer at room temperature into a hot water to measure


    its temperature changes the temperature of the water which leads to error in
    the temperature measurement.
    Loading Effects and Two-port
    Networks
     One element of the system may modify the characteristics
    of the previous one (for example by drawing current).
     Electrical loading
     Thévenin equivalent circuit
     Norton equivalent circuit
     Two-port networks
    Electrical Loading

    in order to get maximum voltage transfer from the network to the load, the load
    impedance should be far greater than the Thévenin impedance for the network. In
    order to get maximum power transfer from network to load, the load impedance
    should be equal to the network impedance
    Therefore, the effect of connecting a load across the network yields a loading
    error of magnitude
    Loading Error  E  V Th L
     ZL 
     ETh 1  
     Z Th  Z L 
    Example
    Loading a voltmeter

    Assume that a voltmeter of resistance Rm is connected across the shown active


    circuit to measure the voltage between terminals A and B.

    Therefore, the reading indicated by the


    instrument (voltmeter) is

    Rm
     Rm 
    Vm    ETh
     Rm  RTh 

    Voltage before the meter


    Active Voltmeter was connected
    network
    6
    This means that the error in the reading is

    Error  ETh  Vm
     Rm 
     ETh 1  
     Z Th  Rm 
    and the accuracy of the voltmeter is

    Vm
    Accuracy   100%
    ETh
     Rm 
       100%
     Z Th  Rm 
    Note that if Rm is very large, the error goes to zero and the accuracy goes to
    100%
    7
    potentiometric sensor for measuring displacements d
    Impedance equivalent, short
    circuit voltage source
    Impedance equivalent, open
    circuit load

    V s  iR P  1  x   E th
    E th
     R P  1  x   E th
    RP x

    E th V s x
    equivalent

    Nonlinear
    equivalent
    equivalent

    The maximum value of this error occurs when

    N
    0
    x

    i.e., we can reduce the error by selecting RL to be too much greater than Rp

    Note that the system is directly sensitive to the voltage source. At the same
    time, we have not exceed the maximum power dissipation. How??????
    dv L
    v s
    dx
     Rp
    N  15 %  2%
    RL
    Rp
     15 2
    5000
     R p  666.6, either 250 or 500
    dv L
    v s  R p  666.6, either 250 or 500
    dx
    v s2
    power  5
    RP

     v s  power  R P

    v s  5  250, or v s  5  500

    v s  50, or 35.335
    dv L
    v s
    dx
    vs
    max sensitivity=
    x
    50 35.355
     or
    25 25
     2 or 1.4
    Norton
    • Any Thevenin equivalent circuit is in turn equivalent to a
    current source in parallel with a resistor.
    • A current source in parallel with a resistor is called a
    Norton equivalent circuit.
    • Finding a Norton equivalent circuit requires essentially
    the same process as finding a Thevenin equivalent circuit.
    Solution

    i n  K 1PTrue  a1
    v indicator  v cable
    i  in 
    Zn
    Zn
    i  in
    Z n  R indicator  R cable

    v indicator  i  R indicator Pmeas  K 2v indicator  a2

     Zn 
    Pmeas  K2   K 1PTrue  a1   R indicator   a2 Error=-55.8313
     Z n  R indicator  Rcable 
    Generalised effort and flow
    Cross variable (Effort)
    voltage variables An effort variable drives
    Through variable (flow)
    current
    force velocity a flow variable through
    torque angular velocity an impedance
    pressure difference volume flow rate
    temperature difference heat flow rate

    The product ( Cross x Through ) represents power in watts.


    The ratio (Cross /Through) represents impedance.
    Equivalent circuit for a mechanical
    system
    Equivalent circuit for a mechanical
    system
    Equivalent circuit for a mechanical
    system
    mechanical electrirical
    mass electrical inductance
    damping constant electrical resistance
    1/stiffness electrical capacitance
    thermal resistance electrical resistance
    thermal capacitance electrical capacitance.
    Two-port networks
    1. The electrical output of a sensing element such as a thermocouple
    or piezoelectric crystal can be represented by a Thévenin or Norton
    equivalent circuit. The sensor has therefore two output terminals
    which allow both voltage and current flow to be specified; this is
    referred to as an electrical output port.
    2. The sensing element will have a mechanical, thermal or fluidic
    input; these can be represented by equivalent circuits which show
    the relation between the corresponding effort and flow variables.
    Thus the input to a mechanical or thermal sensor can be represented
    by two input terminals which allow both the effort and flow
    variables to be specified; this is either a mechanical or a thermal
    input port.
    Two-port networks
    Two-port networks
    Process loading
    Under steady-state conditions we have the
    following force balance equations:
    Process loading
    Process loading
    Bilateral transducers

     Self study

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