Cem Unit 3

Unit - III
TIMBER
3.1 Introduction
Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part
of the trunk and branches of a tree. It can also be defined as a
natural polymeric material which practically does not age.
Wood as a building material falls in two major classes - natural

and man-made. With the advances in science and technology,
wood in its natural form as timber, lumber, etc. is being rapidly
replaced by composite wood materials in which natural wood is
just a basic ingredient of a matrix or a laminate. The latter are
found to be more useful and adaptable as they may be treated
chemically, thermally or otherwise as per requirements. Some
examples are plywood, fibreboards, chipboards, compressed
wood, impregnated wood, etc.
Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred over

many other building materials. It is easily available (this won’t be
true after some years) and easy to transport and handle, has more
thermal insulation, sound absorption and electrical resistance as
compared to steel and concrete. It is the ideal material to be used
in sea water. Wood is a good absorber of shocks and so is
suitable for construction work in hilly areas which are more
prone to earthquakes.
Finally, since wood can be easily worked, repairs and alterations

to wood work can also be done easily. Owing to the above
mentioned advantages, wood is very widely used in buildings as
doors, windows, frames, temporary partition walls, etc. and in
roof trusses and ceilings apart from formwork.
Timber, Bamboo and Glass - Unit III
Fig. 3.1: Tree and Cross section of an exogenous tree
Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 2

3.2 Classification of timber
The terms timber and wood are often used synonymously, but
they have distinct meanings in the building industry. Wood is the
hard, fibrous material that makes up the tree under the bark,
whereas timber may be defined as a wood which retains its
natural physical structure and chemical composition and is
suitable for various engineering works. Following is the
classification of timber as per IS: 399, except the classification of
timber based on grading which is given in IS: 6534.
On the basis of its position:
Standing timber:- implies a living tree.

Rough timber:- forms a part of the felled tree.
Lumber are logs of timber sawn into planks, posts, etc.
On the Basis of Grading (IS:6534)
All grading specifications are clearly distinguished between

structural or stress grading, and commercial or utility grading
based on Indian Standard classification.
Structural grading: It is also known as stress grading. However,

there is a small distinction between the two. Structural grading
refers to the principle by which the material is graded on the basis
of visible defects which have known effects on the strength
properties of the material.

Stress grading refers to the principle by which the material is

graded by consideration of maximum principle stresses to which
it can be subjected.
Structural grading is further divided as:
1. Grading based on known effects of defects and estimating

accumulative value.
2. Machine grading.
Commercial Grading:- also known as yard grading or utility

grading refers to the principle by which the material is graded by
consideration of usefulness of the material and price factors.
Commercial grading is further divided in the following classes:
Grade A: This classification is based on dimensions and general

appearance. The dimensions of lengths, widths and thicknesses of
converted materials are measured. This system is prevalent is
Kerala and Mysore.
Grade B: This classification is based on the best ultimate use of

the material. Such a system is mostly in Andhra Pradesh and
some parts of Tamil Nadu. Here, each grade is further divided
into A, B and C classes to indicate occurrence of defects. Only
two lengths are recognized, long (L) which is 5m and above, and
short(S) that is under 5m. Each log is stamped such as BAL
(Beam, A-class, long), PBS (Plank, B-class, short), etc. Some
times another letter is also added indicating the species, e.g. T for
teak.

Grade C: This classification is based on qualitative evaluation of

defects and rough estimate of out-turn of utilizable material. It is
prevalent in Madhya Pradesh.
Grade D: This classification is based on evaluation of units of

defects and fixing the permissible number of standard volume of
area or the material in each grade. This system is prevalent in
Bombay region and is increasingly adopted in Indian Standards
and is recognized internationally.
On The Basis of Modulus of Elasticity:-
The species of timber recommended for constructional purpose

are classified as
Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 12.5 kN/mm2
Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 9.8 kN/mm2

and below 12.5 kN/mm2
Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 5.6 kN/mm2

and below 9.8 kN/mm2
On Basis of Availability:-
According to availability, timber can be of three grades, namely

X, Y and Z.
X—Most common, 1415 m3 or more per year
Y—Common, 355 m3 to 1415 m3 per year
Z—Less common, below 355 m3 per year

This is based upon the figures supplied by the forest departments.
On the Basis of Durability:-
Test specimens of size 600 × 50 × 50 mm are buried in the

ground to half their lengths. The condition of the specimen at
various intervals of time are noted and from these observations
their average life is calculated. Timbers are classified based upon
such observations as of:
high durability:-average life of 120 months and over.
Moderate durability:-average life of less than 120 months but of

60 months or more.
Low durability:- average life of less than 60 months.
On basis of Seasoning Characteristics
Timbers are classified depending upon their behaviour to

cracking and splitting during normal air-seasoning practice under
three categories.
Highly refractory(class A) are slow and difficult to season-free

from defects.
Moderately refractory(class B) may be seasoned free from

surface defects, etc. if some protection is given against rapid
drying.
Non Refractory (class C) These can be rapidly seasoned free

from defects.

On the Basis of Treatability:-
This classification is based upon the resistance offered by the

heartwood of a species to
preservatives under a working pressure of 1.05 N/mm2 as
(a) Easily treatable.
(b) Treatable but complete preservation not easily obtained.
(c) Only partially treatable.
(d) Refractory to treatment.
(e) Very refractory to treatment, penetration of preservative being

practically nil from the sides and ends.
3.3 Structure of Timber:
A tree can be divided into three portions, crown—composed of

branches and leaves, trunk, and roots. The trunk accounts for
about 80 per cent of the total bulk of wood.
The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small

magnification is called macro structure, and that apparent only at
great magnifications, the micro structure. Macro structure of the
timber can be studied by cutting the trunk in three directions.In
the cross-sectional and radial ducts, the following main parts of a
tree, e.g. bark, cambium, sap wood, heart wood and pith, become
readily apparent. Each of the components has a specific function.
The bark protects the wood against mechanical damage. Its inner
layer, called bast conveys the nutrients from the crown
downwards and stores them. The function of cambium is to grow

wood cells on the inside and smaller bast cells on the outside.
The sapwood assists in the life process of tree by storing up
starch and conducting sap. The cells in the sap wood are active.
The heart wood gives a strong and firm support to the tree. With
the growth of tree, the cells in the inner older portion of trunk
gradually become inactive and lifeless, but do not decay. This
portion of the trunk is called heart wood. At the centre of the
cross-section is the pith, a small area occupied by friable tissues
consisting of thin walled, loosely connected cells called pith. In a
felled tree, it easily crumbles and rots. In the cross-sectional
direction, nutrients pass from bast to the heart through groups of
cells running at right angles to the cambium layers and are
referred to as medullary rays.
3.4 Characteristics of Good Timber:-
The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength,

durability and finished appearance.
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.

7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.
3.5 Seasoning of Timber:-
Timber cut from freshly felled trees is too wet for normal use and
is dimensionally unsuitable. Seasoning is the process of reducing
the moisture content (drying) of timber in order to prevent the
timber from possible fermentation and making it suitable for use.
It can also be defined as the process of drying the wood to a
moisture content approximately equal to the average humidity of
the surroundings, where it is to be permanently fixed. Very rapid
seasoning after removal of bark should be avoided since it causes
case hardening and thus increases resistance to penetration of
preservatives. Some of the objects of seasoning wood are as
follows:
1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in structure.
2. Increase strength, durability and workability.
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
4. Make it suitable for painting.
5. Reduce its weight.

3.6 Methods of seasoning:
Timber can be seasoned naturally or artificially.
Natural or air seasoning:- The log of wood is sawn into planks

of convenient sizes and stacked under a covered shed in cross-
wise direction in alternate layers so as to permit free circulation
of air. The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood
and the size of planks. The rate of drying is however very slow.
Air seasoning reduces the moisture content of the wood to 12–15
per cent. It is used very extensively in drying ties and the large
size structural timbers.
Artificial Seasoning:- The prevalent methods of artificial

seasoning are as follows:
Water seasoning:-The logs of wood are kept completely

immersed in running stream of water, with their larger ends
pointing upstream. Consequently the sap, sugar, and gum are
leached out and are replaced by water. The logs are then kept out
in air to dry. It is a quick process but the elastic properties and
strength of the wood are reduced.
Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam

spray is a very quick but expensive process of seasoning.
Kiln Seasoning is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large

scale to any moisture content.
The scantlings are arranged for free circulation of heated air with
some moisture or superheated steam. The circulating air takes up

moisture required from wood and seasons it. Two types of kilns,
the progressive and the compartment are in use. For most
successful kiln-seasoning the timber should be brought to as high
a temperature as it will stand without injury before drying is
begun; otherwise the moisture in the hot outer fibers of the wood
will tend to flow towards the cooler interior. With kiln drying
there is a little loss in strength of timber, usually less than 10 per
cent. Also, the wood is more thoroughly and evenly dried, thus
reducing the hygroscopicity of the wood.
Chemical seasoning:- An aqueous solution of certain chemicals

have lower vapour pressures than that of pure water. If the outer
layers of timber are treated with such chemicals the vapour
pressure will reduce and a vapour pressure gradient is setup. The
interior of timber, containing no salts, retains its original vapour
pressure and, therefore, tends to dry as rapidly as if there had
been no treatment. The result is to flatten the moisture gradient
curves, to reduce the slope of the curves, and consequently to
reduce the internal stresses induced during drying. Since it is
these stresses which are responsible for defects such as checks,
etc. a chemically treated timber will exhibit fewer defects.
Common salt or urea are generally used; the latter is preferred as
the corrosive action of common salt is a drawback.
Electric Seasoning-:The logs are placed in such a way that their

two ends touch the electrodes. Current is passed through the
setup, being a bad conductor, wood resists the flow of current,
generating heat in the process, which results in its drying. The
drawback is that the wood may split.

Mc Neill’s Process has no adverse effects; it is the best method

although most expensive. The timber is stacked in a chamber
with free air space (l/3rd of its capacity) and containing products
of combustion of fuels in the fire place. The time required for
complete seasoning is 15 to 60 days.
3.7 Defects on Timber:-
Defects can occur in timber at various stages, principally during

the growing period and during the conversion and seasoning
process. The defects in the wood are due to irregularities in the
character of grains. Defects affect the quality, reduce the quantity
of useful wood, reduce the strength, spoil the appearance and
favour its decay.
Defects due to abnormal growth:
Following are some of the important defects commonly found in

wood due to abnormal growth or rupture of tissues due to natural
forces.
Checks is a longitudinal crack which is usually normal to the

annual rings. These adversely affect the durability of timber
because they readily admit moisture and air.
Shakes are longitudinal separations in the wood between the

annual rings. These lengthwise separations reduce the allowable
shear strength without much effect on compressive and tensile
values. The separations make the wood undesirable when
appearance is important. Both the shakes and checks if present

near the neutral plane of a beam they may materially weaken its
resistance to horisontal shear.
Heart shakes occurs due to shrinkage of heart wood, when tree is

over matured. Cracks start from pith and run towards sap wood.
These are wider at centre and diminish outwards.
Cup shakes appears as curved split which partly or wholly

separates annual rings from one another. It is caused due to
excessive frost action on the sap present in the tree, especially
when the tree is young.
Star shakes are radial splits or cracks wide at circumference and

diminishing towards the centre of the tree. This defect may arise
from severe frost and fierce heat of sun. Star shakes appear as the
wood dries below the fibre saturation point. It is a senous fault
leading to separated log when sawn.
Ringdall is characterised by swelling caused by the growth of

layers of sapwood over wounds after the branch has been cut off
in an irregular manner. The newly developed layers do not unite
properly with the old rot, thereby leaving cavities, from where
decay starts.
Knots are bases of twigs or branches buried by cambial activity

of the mother branch. The root of the branch is embedded in the
stem, with the formation of annual rings at right angles to those
of the stem. The knots interrupt the basic grain direction of the
wood, resulting in a reduction of its strength. In addition these
affect the appearance of the wood.
A dead knot can be separated from the body of the wood,

whereas live knot cannot be. Knots reduce the strength of the
timber and affect workability and cleavability as fibres get
curved. Knots are classified on the basis of size, form, quality and
occurrence. Size Pin knot (under 12 mm), small knot (12–20
mm), medium knot (20–40 mm) and large knot (over 40 mm).
Form Round knot and spike knot (a round knot exposed by

sawing lengthwise).
Quality Sound knot—as hard and solid as the surrounding wood,

decayed knot—contains advanced decay and is softer than the
surrounding wood, encased knot—the annual rings fail to grow
into the fibres of the surrounding wood, tight knot—a knot so
securely fastened that it holds its position in the finished product.
Occurrence Single knot—when wood fibres deflect around one

knot, cluster knot—when wood fibres deflect about two or more
knots as a unit and, branch knot—two or more knots radiating
from a common centre.
End splits are caused by greater evaporation of sap at the end

grains of log and can be reduced by painting the exposed end
grains with a water proof paint or capping the exposed end with
hoop iron bandage.
Twisted fibers are caused by wind constantly turning the trunk of

young tree in one direction.

Upsets are caused by the crushing of fibres running transversely

during the growth of the tree due to strong winds and unskilled
felling consequently resulting in discontinuity of fibres.
Foxiness is a sign of decay appearing in the form of yellow or

red tinge or discolouration of overmatured trees.
Rupture is caused due to injury or impact.
Defects Due to Conversion:
Conversion is the term used to describe the process whereby the

felled tree is converted into marketable sizes of timber.
Conversion defects are basically due to unsound practice in
milling or attempts to economise during conversion of timber. A
wane occurs in timber which contains, on one or more faces, part
of the bark or the rounded periphery of the trunk. This reduces
the cross sectional area, with consequent reduction in strength in
the parts affected. Excessive slope of grains may also be classed
as a conversion defect when conversion has not been done
parallel to the axis of the trunk.
Defects due to Seasoning:-
These defects are directly caused by the movement which occurs

in timber due to changes in moisture content. Excessive or
uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking
during seasoning can all produce distortions in timber. These
defects result in loosening of fixings or disruption of decoration,
or both. The common types of seasoning defects are:

Checks - longitudinal separation of fibres not extending

throughout the cross-section of wood;
Splitting - separation of fibres extending through a piece of

timber from one face to another;
Warpage - consists of cupping, twisting and bowing.
3.8 Diseases Of timber:
Dry Rot:
It is decomposition of felled timber caused by the action of

various fungi. The fungus reduces fibres to fine powder as shown
in Fig. 4.5 and the timber looses its strength. This disease is
highly infectious and causes tremendous destruction. It occurs
when the timber is imperfectly seasoned and placed in a moist,
warm and confined atmosphere having no free access of air.
Fungus rapidly dies when exposed to air or sunlight. The best
remedy is to cu away the affected part and paint the remaining
part.
Wet Rot:
When timber is subjected to alternate wet and dry conditions,

decomposition of tissues takes place. This is not caused by fungal
attack. In a living tree, it is set up by the access of water through
wounds in the bark and causes the decomposition of sap and
fibres of the tree. This may also occur when timber is seasoned
by exposing it to moisture. To avoid wet rot, well seasoned
timber is used with preservatives and paints.

Decay of Timber:
Timber does not deteriorate by natural, physical or chemical

changes or by pure ageing. It is, however, affected by destructive
elements, such as weathering, chemical attack, fungi, insects or
rodents. The most crucial amongst these are fungi, insects and
rodents and are described as follows.
Decay due to fungal and bacterial attack:
Wood is essentially an organic substance, made up of a skeleton

of cellulose impregnated with lignin. The organic substances are
susceptible to attack by both bacteria and fungi. Bacteria are the
smallest of living organism and do not cause any serious damage
to timber, except for some discolourations. Fungi are a system of
plant organism which live in and attack timber causing rot and
decay.
The method by which bacteria decompose wood is probably

similar in nature to a fungal attack. Fungi reproduce through
minute particles called spores, millions of which are produced at
the fruiting stage. These spores send out mycelia, which in turn
destroy the wood tissue by secretions of solvent chemicals and
enzymes. After a considerable proportion of the cell wall has
been destroyed by mycelia, the wood becomes brittle and weak.
The basic requirements for the existence of fungi are moisture,

suitable temperature and food supplies. The wood itself forms the
food supply and optimum temperature conditions are in the range
of 18°C to 30°C. Some fungi like Merulius lacrymans and Poria
incrassata provide moisture by themselves and seem to thrive
even in fairly dry wood leading to what is technically known as

dry rot. The various symptoms of incipient decay are
discolouration, abnormal mottled appearance, roughness of
surface and presence of soft spots of intense discolouration.
Control of fungi and bacterial attack :
One of the prime requirements in the control of fungal attack is

the dryness of timber. The timber should not be subjected to
alternate wet and dry conditions. When this is unavoidable, a
proper preservative treatment should be made. Felled trees should
be air-dried as rapidly as possible and sawn timber should be
kiln-seasoned properly in accordance with good air-seasoning
practice. Thereafter, they should be protected from rain and other
sources of moisture. It should be ensured that adequate
ventilation is there around the timber to prevent fungal attack.
Also, no timber used in a structure should contain sapwood
which is more susceptible to fungal attack because of the food
supplies stored in its parenchyma.
Damage due to insects:
Termites:- Termites, or white ants as they are inappropriately

called, are the most destructive of all insect agencies. They are
small, social insects which form vast colonies and possess
differentiated casts to carry on specialized functions in the social
structure. They completely excavate the wood at the centre
leaving the outer shell intact. They also attack furniture and wood
work in houses and railway sleepers, etc.

Beetles:- are small insects and they cause rapid decay of timber
by converting them into fine powder. Usually, the outer shell of
timber remains intact and hence the timber looks sound from
outside until it fails completely.
Powder post beetle attack sapwood of hardwoods with large

pores. The eggs are laid in the pores and the larva that comes out
eats through the wood, leaving a very fine powder. Even
seasoned timber containing sapwood is not immune to attack of
these small beetles.
Long horn beetles are 6 mm to 20 mm in size. They derive their

name from long curved antennae. They normally do not attack
seasoned wood and mainly thrive on timber in the forest yard.
They can attack any type of wood, though they prefer sapwood.
Their bore holes are elliptical in cross-section.
Ambrosia Beetles are very common and attack structural timber,

furniture and other wood work in house. They are less than 6 mm
in size and attack both sapwood and heartwood. The larva bores
tunnels through the wood which are filled with the characteristic
oval-shape pellets.
Furniture Beetles are very common and attack structural timber,

furniture and other wood works in houses. They are smaller than
6 mm in size and attack both sapwood and heartwood. The larva
bores tunnels through the wood which are filled with the
characteristic oval-shaped pellets.
Death watch beetles are somewhat larger than the previous one
and the tunnels made by these are also bigger and filled with bun-
shaped pellets. They normally attack timber infested with fungi

or otherwise decayed.
Carpenter ants are usually black in colour and vary in size within
the same nest. Unlike termites, they do not eat wood but merely
tunnel it out for habitation. Their food is largely nectar,
honeydew, and other sweet substances. They normally attack
slightly rotted or water softened wood but may continue into
wood which appears perfectly sound. Timbers are often riddled
with galleries before the presence of ants is detected. The frass
ejected from the workings is quite coarse and shredding.
Control of insects is much simpler than eradicating fungi. The

tunnels made by the insects help in the deep penetration of toxic
elements that are used to destroy them. Large scale fumigation is
carried out using powerful hydrocyanic acid gas, but this method
is not recommended as this gas is highly poisonous and
dangerous. The use of creosote is also not desirable because of its
odour and undesirable colour. A good insecticide which does not
damage the paint or varnish and vapourises easily is yet to be
found. The vapours should also not be dangerous to human
beings. It is found that no insecticide can fulfill all these
requirements in one application and periodic applications are
required to be effective. The best alternative is common
turpentine mixed with a small quantity of orthodichlorobenzene.
This vapour is very deadly to insects and is not poisonous to
human beings and animals.

Damage due to rodents:
Although the domestic rodents do not destroy timber in the same

sense as the organism so far considered, they are capable of
penetrating both wood and concrete. The problem of rodents is
more serious in food-handling establishments.
Control of Rodents: The guiding principle is to close all

openings or passages and making doors and windows capable of
closure in a rat-tight manner by fixing metal sheets over the
lower parts of doors.
Common timbers used for building work:
Timber can be divided into two categories - hardwoods and

softwoods. There are many types of timber under these two
categories.
Softwood and hardwood are two different types of wood. To
choose between these two types of wood one must know the
differences between them. The main differences
between Softwood and Hardwood are given below.
Table 3.1: Characteristics of softwood and hard wood
Characteristics Softwood Hardwood
Source Softwood is collected from Hardwood is obtained

conifer trees which are from deciduous trees
evergreen having needle- (loses leaves in autumn).
shaped leaves. these are They are basically
generally gymnosperms. angiosperms.

Fibre Less dense, strait fiber is In case of hardwood, the

found. fibers are quite close and
dense.
Resin quality It is resinous wood contains Non-resinous woods have

good and regular texture and enough acid.
fragrant smell.
Weight Lightweight and softer than Heavyweight and harder

hardwood. than softwood.
Colour Softwood is light in color. Normally these are dark

colored woods.
Resistance to poorer than hardwood, burn better than softwood.

fire at a high rate. Burn at a very slow rate.
Weather If they are modified or Naturally resistant to

resistance treated then these may whether having a less
become resistant to whether environmental impact.
having an environmental
impact.
Duration Less durable wood. Hardwoods are highly

durable and last for

several decades.
Ring structure Distinct annual rings are The annual rings are not
found. distinct.
Medullary rays Indistinct medullary rays. Distinct medullary rays.
Growth rate Soft wood trees grow faster The growth rate of this
than hardwood trees. type of trees is slower.
Wood Creates more branch or Have fewer shoots.

branching shoots.
Tensile and Well tensile and Good tensile and shear

shear strength comparatively weaker shear strength.
strength.
Cost Less expensive. More expensive.
Uses Paper pulp, paper, solid wood Generally flooring and

products, Woodwares like furniture. Also used for
homes and cabins and also papermaking.
for furniture.

Workability Easier to carve. Difficult to curve.
Example Black willow (Salix nigra), Sugar maple

Redwood (Sequoioideae sp). (Acer saccharum),
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
globulus).
Timbers used for building work:
• Bamboo
• Birch
• Cedar
• Cherry
• Cross-laminated
• Glulam
• Green timber
• Lime
• Mahogany
• Oak
• Pine
• Plywood
• Sapele wood
• Tulipwood
• Walnut
• Wood ash
• Spruce
• Fir

Few of the commonly used timbers are described below.
Bamboo
Bamboo is a natural organic material. It is one of the most unique
plants on earth. Bamboo is grown in abundance in many parts of
the world, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. Most
timber producing bamboos are from South Asia. The color of
bamboo timber is pale yellow to almost gold. It is an industrial
material also identified as the most promising building material.
Bamboo timber is an alternative to tropical hardwoods in recent
years. It is available in many forms.
Fig. 3.2: Bamboo Sports Hall
Advantages of Bamboo
• Bamboos are fast growing and high yielding.

• They are easily renewable.
• Bamboos quickly reach full maturity after only one or two
years.
• Bamboo timber has a unique earthy odor while being

worked.
• Bamboo timber is energy extensive, processed and
glued up imported products.
• Strong bamboo fibers have tensile strength.
• It is highly resistant to warping and cupping in ambient
humidity.
• Bamboo timber requires little fertilizer.
• Grows initially at full width.
• Bamboo timbers are used in-veneer, paper, flute,
window blinds, fishing rods, ladders, scaffolding,
carving etc.
• Disadvantages of Bamboo
• Bamboo timber is a polluting material.
• Bamboo timber requires special care.
• It is susceptible to insect attack.
• Bamboo fibers tend to split and pull out when being
cross-cut.
• Bamboo timber has been reported to cause skin irritation.
• Decay fungi are present in bamboo timber.
• The price of this timber is much higher which exceeds the
cost of domestic hardwoods sometimes.
• It is inconsistent.
Birch
Birch is a great craft-wood. It is an important source of

hardwood timber. Birch is of many types of like-yellow
birch, white birch etc. Yellow birch is commonly used
which is also known as gray birch, or swamp birch. It is
light reddish brown color. Birch gives low natural luster.

Fig. 3.3: Brich wood building.
Advantages of Birch
• Birch is economical in most cases.
• Inner birch is aromatic.
• Birch is long-lasting.
• It is usually heavy, hard and strong.
• It is always easy to work with a birch and glues and it
finishes well.
• Birch gives widely ranging appearances.
• Birch is suitable for high-quality furniture. Birch has great
durability.
• Birch is used for creating strong plywood.
• Birch is waterproof.
• Birch can easily support a large structure.

• It is used in- boxes, crates, skateboards, furniture, and

other wood items.
• Birch gives wavy fine texture.
Disadvantages of Birch
• Birch is perishable, readily rot and decay.
• Birch is susceptible to insect attack.
• Birch can cause tear-outs during machine operations.
• Birch is reported as “sensitizer” which includes
respiratory irritation.
• Birch is slow-growing.
• Birch is harder than other hardwoods.
Cedar
Cedar is a timber of high quality. It comes from several different
trees known as cedars. Where both strength and appearance of
the exposed wood beams are important, cedar is the only savior
and perfect fit for this. It is used in for-landscape, park, garden
structure. Its moderate strength and softness make it unique.
Cedar offers the advantage of the natural advantage. Basically, it
is a workable material.

Fig. 3.4: Cedar wood structure.
Advantages of Cedar
• It is weather resistant.
• Cedar gives a natural wood look.
• Cedar is light in weight.
• It works easily.
• It is dimensionally stable.
• Cedar has long-time durability.
• Cedar has exceptional resistance to insects and decay.
• It is smooth to the touch.
• It has a high quality of consistency.
• It exhibits fairly prominent growth.
• Cedar shows high resistance to warping and twisting.
• Cedar helps to reduce noise in specific areas.
• It is sustainable.
• It is used in-cladding, decking, roofing, fencing.
Disadvantages of Cedar
• Cedar dust may be irritant.
• Cedar has low strength.
• Cedar can cause splintering during some operations.
Cherry
Cherry timber is grown as a tree plantation timber. Among
different types of cherry timbers, black cherry timber is the
largest of the native cherries and the only of commercial value. It
is found throughout the Eastern United Nations. In cherry timber,
the grain is generally straight. It is a hardwood. It has medium
density and moderately durable. And used for small pieces of
furnitures-veneers, handles, cabinets, scientific instruments etc.
Fig. 3.5: Cherry Timber

Advantages of Cherry
• Cherry timber is firm and strong.
• It has a fine and uniform texture.
• It works well and finishes smoothly.
• Cherry timber can contain pith flecks and gum pockets.
• It has a good workability.
• Cherry timber is easy to machine, nail, and glue.
• It is an excellent timber for turning and carving.
• It has good bending properties.
• It has low stiffness.
• Cherry timber is shock resistance.
• The best feature is it is used for high-end applications like
furniture, cabinet making. Boat making and musical
instruments.
Disadvantages of Cherry
• It is highly prized.
• Cherry timber is sensitive to UV.
• It can tear on cross-grain.
• Cherry timber doesn’t have a grand dimension.
• If stained, it gives blotchy results.
• The sawdust of cherry timber has been associated with
respiratory effects such as wheezing.
Mahogany
Mahogany is a high-quality timber. It is grown commercially
almost in every continent. Mahogany is widely used in the
furniture and cabinet building industry. It is made into plywoods
and all kinds of trim. It displays hard grain. It is one of the softer
of all the hardwoods that are commonly in use. It is moderate
natural luster. The color of mahogany timber darkens with age.

The texture is medium and uniform. The price of this timber is in

mid-range.
Fig. 3.6: Furniture made of Mahogany
Advantages of Mahogany
• Mahogany timber is very stable.
• It is resistant to termites.
• It is very easy to work with tools in mahogany timber.
• It cuts and machines easily.
• Mahogany timber sandy very easily.
• It turns glues, stains, and finishes well.
• It can bend without splintering or shattering.
• It possesses a slightly flexible quality.
• Mahogany timber can resist warping and twist for many
years.
• It is long lasting, strong and beautiful.

• It contains high density.

• Each piece of timber is long.
• Mahogany timber is used for-veneers, musicals
instruments, carving etc.
Disadvantages of Mahogany
• Mahogany timber is vulnerable to insects.
• It can tear out or chip during machining.
• It is reported as “sensitizer”.
• When mahogany timber gets in touch with water, a strong
mahogany color comes up.
• Slight dulling of cutters can occur in this timber.
• Mahogany timber includes respiratory irritation in eye,
skin which includes boil, nausea, dizziness, asthma type
symptoms etc.
• It is vulnerable.
Oak
Oak timber is a type of hardwood from the oak tree. It has been
used as timber for thousands of years. It is straight grained. It is
used for light construction most of the time. Oak timber is used
for -homeware, wine barrels, firewood etc.

Fig. 3.7: Construction of staircase using oak
Advantages of Oak
• Oak timber is exceedingly strong.
• It is durable.
• It has a long living nature.
• Oak timber is used for cladding.
• Oak timber is resistant to fungal attack.
• It takes glues, nails, and screws well.
• It is lighter in weight.
• Oak timber is resistant to decay.
• Oak timber is extremely resistant to preservative
treatment.
• It is workable with machine or hand tools.

Disadvantages of Oak
• Oak timber is heavy.
• It is hard.
• It has low-moisture content.
• Oak timber is unsuitable for external use.
• It is difficult for oak timber to treat acid content.
• Oak timber reacts with iron, galvanized or copper nails.
Walnut
Walnut is a premium timber. It is a specialist hardwood. The
grain is straight but it can be irregular. Walnut timber is really
decorative. It carries a lot of design for the interior. It has
moderate natural luster. Walnut timber is moderately durable. It
is medium density.
Fig. 3.8: Walnut Timber
Advantages of Walnut
• Walnut gives vivid highlight to the grain.
• It works well with machine and hand tools.

• Walnut timber is good for turning and carving.

• The right glues and polishes can be successfully done in
walnut timber.
• It stains and finishes well.
• Walnut timber responds well to steam bending.
• It has a good dimensional stability.
• It is shocking resistant.
• It has a fine texture.
• Overall walnut has a good strength.
• It has low stiffness.
Disadvantages of Walnut
• Walnut is hard.
• It has been reported as a “sensitizer”.
• It includes eye and skin irritation.
• Walnut timber is high in the prices for a domestic species.
• It is susceptible to insect attack. Planer tear out can
sometimes be a problem in walnut timber. It has a faint,
mild odor while being worked.
• It has a medium maintenance movement.
• Walnut timber has difficulty to treat acid contents.
• Walnut timber finds the problem with density.
• It is not termite resistant.
• It is hard.
Fir
Fir is one of the world’s best-known timber species. It is a
premier building product for a wide range of applications. It is a
softwood species. Fir has a very straight grain. Fir has become
the standard woods of choice for timber framing. Fir timber is
used tin-housing, framing, flooring, lining fascias, bargeboards,
and pergolas.

Fig. 3.9: Fir timber used for construction
Advantages of Fir
• Fir timber ranges in color.
• Fir machines and turns well.
• Fir is moderately durable.
• It is permeable.
• It is moderately resistant to decay.
• Fir timber has a low shock resistance.
• It has a good strength.
• Fir can be satisfactorily bonded using the standard
procedure.
Disadvantages of Fir
• Fir timber lacks tensile strength.
• It is extremely difficult to treat.
• Fir timber is very stiff.

3.9 Ply Wood
Plywood is an engineered wood sheet material made up of fine

layers or flimsy strands of wood veneers attached together
placing wood grains 90 degrees to one another. It is one type of
manufactured board which can be described as a mixture of
Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) and Chip Board (Particle
Board). It is a complex material and attaches resin and fiber
sheets of wood.
Plywood has become popular through this decade because it’s

relatively low moisture content which makes various tasks easy
to perform with this. Mostly for outdoor uses plywood has
become very important to use. The renowned British powerboat
company uses plywood for the construction of Motor Torpedo
Boats and Motor Gun Boats. Ply wood is generally available
thickness of 1/4”, 1/2", 3/4".
Types of Plywood
Following are the different types of Plywood.
• Softwood Plywood
• Hardwood Plywood
• Tropical Plywood
• Aircraft Plywood
• Decorative Plywood
• Flexible Plywood
• Marine Plywood

A brief description of these types of plywood is given below
Softwood Plywood
Softwood Plywood which is also known as spruce-pine-fir or

SPF because it’s from spruce, pine, and fir. Though it can be
made from cedar (Cedrus sp), douglas fir (Pseudotsugan
menziesii). If made from spruce (Picea sp) the prominent grains
are coated by a system so that this kind of plywood becomes
more effective as hard as concrete and used for shuttering strands
and construction.
Hardwood Plywood
Hardwood Plywood is made from angiosperms. This type of

plywood is identified by its firmness, hardness on surface,
inflexibility, resistance quality. This can be used to bear heavy
weight.
Tropical Plywood
Different types of timbers of tropical area are mixed to make this

type of plywood. Though previously it was only collected from
the Asian region, now also from Africa and America it is
collected. Tropical plywood popular for some special qualities
like
• Strength
• Density
• Evenness
• Inflexibility
• Resistance quality
• Thickness

South Asia being tropical region manufactures plywood most.

Countries like Japan, Thailand, Taiwan, Korea, Dubai and even
in America, England this type is used. The bad impact of this
type is that for extreme production of this type deforestration is
becoming a great problem to some countries like Malaysia,
Philippines, Indonesia because of this countries export plywood
worldwide. Specially Malaysian plywood is known as Malaysian
board in Bangladesh and huge popular among bangladeshies
because of its higher thickness.
Aircraft Plywood
Woods from Mahogany (Swietenia Macrophylla), Spruce (Picea

sp.), Birch (Betula sp.) are used to make Aircraft Plywood. The
African mahogany gives usable structural aircraft plywood.
Among birch trees European birch is good. This type is famous
for strength. This type is also made from Mahogany, Spruce,
Birch but the special quality is that this is resistant to heat.
Decorative Plywood
Decorative plywood is also called overlaid plywood. Usually
made from woods of ash( Fraxinus sp), oak (Quercus sp.), Red
oak (Quercus rubra), birch, Maple (Acer sp), mahogany,
Philippine mahogany also called seraya, rosewood ( Dalbergia
sisso).
Flexible Plywood
As the name goes Flexible Plywood is used for making flexible
furniture or structures. The furniture of eighteen century were
mostly of curved structures. These are made from Baltic Birch (
Betula sp).

Marine Plywood
The type of plywood which can be used in moisture, humid, wet

environment is called marine plywood. Even it can be used in
moisture for long period. The layers of marine plywood bear too
small core gap to feel that doesn’t permit the wood to fix water
inside the gaps. It is also fungal resistant.
3.10 Plyboard:
Plyboard is a wood based panel, made of a core of softwood

stripes that are glued together. These stripes are usually 28 mm
wide placed edge to edge that is sandwiched between two veneers
of either softwood or hardwood glued under high pressure.
Actually Plyboard is a local term given to Blockboard.
3.11 Uses of Plyboard:
An extremely versatile product, plyboard is used for a wide range

of structural, interior and exterior applications - from formwork
through to internal paneling. Plyboard is an assemblage of wood
veneers bonded together to produce a flat sheet.
Grades of plywood:
• “A” Grade. Sanded smooth, paintable.

• “B” Grade. Solid surface with some repairs, usually
football-shaped patches and/or wood filler.
• “C” Grade. Tight knots to 1-1/2 inches.
• “D” Grade. Knots and knotholes up to 2-1/2 inches.

Fig. 3.10: Ply board and Plywood
3.12 Bamboo as a Building Material:

Bamboo as a building material has high compressive strength and
low weight has been one of the most used building material as
support for concrete, especially in those locations where it is
found in abundance.
Bamboo as a building material is used for the construction of

scaffolding, bridges and structures, houses.
Fig. 3.11: Bridge built using Bamboo

Due to a distinctive rhizome-dependent system, bamboos are one

of the fastest-growing plants in the world and their growth is
three times faster than most other species of plants. They are
renewable and extremely versatile resource with multi-purpose
usage. Among many uses of bamboo, Housing is one of the
major areas applications especially in the wake of residential
shortages around the globe.
Bamboo as a building material is conventionally associated with

the region of Southeast Asia and South America where climate is
best suitable for its cultivation. In many of the nations, bamboo is
used to hold up suspension bridges or simply make places of
dwelling.
Various Structural Shapes of Bamboo as a Building Material
Bamboos are treated in such a way that they assume desired

shapes and structures while they grow:
1. Squared cross-section can be obtained by compressing

the growing stalk of bamboo within a square section.
2. Arch shapes of bamboo can also be created by
compressing the bamboo’s growth into the desired shape.
This would cost lesser than it would to get the same form
with normal timber.
3. Curved and Flat shapes of bamboo are achieved through
traditional techniques like applying heat and pressure.

Fig. 3.12: Bamboo bent in curved shape
Methods of Working on Bamboo

For a bamboo to be used as a building material, it must be
worked on to create desired shape, bend and length to be used for
structural or other purposes.
Following are the different works involved with use of

bamboo:
1. Splitting
2. Shaping
3. Bending
Splitting of Bamboo
The bamboo canes are split into halves or quarter sections using a
knife ideal for the job and setting them apart by a wedge. About
four or eight segments can be acquired which are used as canes,
strips or battens. Canes can be peeled to make strings and ropes

up to the age of 18 months.
Fig.3. 13: Splitting of a bamboo cane Fig. 3.14: Splitting bamboo with a knife frame
Shaping of Bamboo
Even though bamboos are naturally circular in form but if they

are grown in a box of square shape they acquire a shape as
desired.
Fig. 3.15: Bamboo in box shape
Bending of Bamboo
Bamboos can be bent while they are freshly cut by heating them
above the temperature of 150° C. Bamboo will retain this shape
even after cooling and drying off.
Fig. 3.16: Bamboo being subjected to bending
Preservation of Bamboo
A thorough treatment of Bamboo is required to protect it against

insects and rot before it is put into use. Commonly a mixture of
Borax and Boric acid are utilized for this purpose. Another
procedure generally employed is to boil cut bamboo to remove
the starches that draw insects.
Bamboo as a Building Material
Utilization of Bamboo for construction is achieved by a

structural frame technique which is related to same approach
applied in usual timber frame design and construction.
In the case bamboo, floor, walls and roof are interconnected and
often rely on the other for overall stability. Bamboo has played a
vital role in the growth of enterprises and the rural
transformation.

Bamboo for Foundations

There is very limited use of bamboo as foundation material
because when in contact with moisture laden surface they decay
fast. However, this issue can be tackled to quite an extent though
proper treatment using appropriate chemicals.
The various types of foundations constructed with bamboo are:
a) Bamboo which is in direct contact with ground surface.
b) Bamboo fixed to rock or preformed concrete footings
c) Composite bamboo or concrete columns
d) Bamboo piles
Fig. 3.17: Bamboo used in foundations
Fig. 3.18: Bamboo used for column section

Bamboos are used in various shapes and forms to build

foundation. Some of the common shapes of bamboos are:
a) Flattened bamboo shape which is acquired by splitting freshly

cut bamboo stalks and then rolling and flattening them.
b) Bamboo mats as thin as 5-6mm or 10-15mm in size are woven

according to design prerequisite. Phenolic resins are used in
structures employing bamboo mats.
c) Bamboo plastic composite is a pioneering technology in which

bamboo fiber as raw material is blended with plastic as the core
material. These mats are highly resistant to moisture and
structurally more stable.
Walls Construction with Bamboo as a Building Material
Bamboo is extensively used for construction of walls and

partitions. Posts and beams are the main elements normally
constructed with bamboo provide structural framework for walls.
They positioned in a way to be able to withstand forces of nature.
An infill is used between framing elements to add strength and
stability to the walls.

Fig. 3.19: Bamboo as building material in various forms
Roofing with Bamboo as a Building Material
Bamboo is one of the best roofing materials and provides ample

sturdiness to the structure. It is a proven shield against forces of
nature or animals and are considerably light weighted which
makes them easy to install. The bamboo roofs encompass
purlins, rafters and trusses.

Fig. 3.20: Bamboo used for roofing
Scaffolding with Bamboo as a Building Material
Due to advantageous properties of bearing heavy load bamboos

are considered as one of the highly-endorsed materials for
scaffolding even for tall structures.
For the construction of scaffolding, cane extensions are obtained

by lashing cane ends using several ropes. The ties are positioned
in such a way that forces acting vertically downwards lodge the
nodes in the lashing.
This technique has immense significance since the joints can be

re-aligned in the right degree.

Fig. 3.21: Bamboo used for scaffolding
3.13 Advantages of Bamboo as a Building Material
The various advantages of bamboo are as mentioned below:
1. Tensile strength: Bamboo has higher tensile strength

than steel because its fibers run axially.
2. Fire Resistance: Capability of bamboo to resist fire is
very high and it can withstand temperature up to 4000 C.
This is due to the presence of high value of silicate acid
and water.
3. Elasticity: Bamboo is widely preferred in earthquake
prone regions due to its elastic features.
4. Weight of bamboo: Bamboos due to their low weight are
easily displaced or installed making it very easier for
transportation and construction.
5. Unlike other building materials like cement and asbestos,
bamboo poses no danger to health.
6. They are cost effective and easy to use.
7. They are especially in great demand in earthquake prone

areas.
3.14 Disadvantages of Bamboo
Bamboos come with their own set of drawbacks such as:
1. They require preservation

2. Shrinkage: Bamboo shrinks much greater than any other
type of timber especially when it loses water.
3. Durability: Bamboo should be sufficiently treated against
insect or fungus attack before being utilized for building
purposes.
4. Jointing: Despite prevalence of various techniques of
jointing, structural reliability of bamboo is questionable.
3.15 GLASS
There are various types of glass used in construction for different

purposes. Engineering properties and uses of these glass is
discussed in this article.
Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent

and brittle in nature. It is manufactured by fusion process. In this
process sand is fused with lime, soda and some other admixtures
and then cooled rapidly. Glass is used in construction purpose
and architectural purpose in engineering.

Fig. 3.22: Glazed Building
3.16 Engineering Properties of Glass
1. Transparency
2. Strength
3. Workability
4. Transmittance
5. U value
6. Recycle property
1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the
vision of outside world through it. The transparency of glass can
be from both sides or from one side only. In one side
transparency, glass behaves like mirror from the other side.

2. Strength of Glass
Strength of glass depends on modulus of rupture value of glass.
In general glass is a brittle material but by adding admixtures and
laminates we can make it as more strong.
3. Workability of Glass
A glass can be molded into any shape or it can be blown during
melting. So, workability of glass is superior property of glass.
4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the
property of visible transmittance.
5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass.
If a glass is said to be insulated unit then it should have lower u
value.
6. Recycle Property of Glass

Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw
material in construction industry.
3.17 Types of Glass and their Uses
The types of glass used in construction are:
1. Float glass
2. Shatterproof glass
3. Laminated glass
4. Extra clean glass
5. Chromatic glass
6. Tinted glass
7. Toughened glass
8. Glass blocks
9. Glass wool
10. Insulated glazed units

1. Float Glass
Float glass is made of sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is
also called as soda lime glass. It is clear and flat so, it causes
glare. These glasses are available from 2mm to 20mm thickness
ranges. They have a weight range of 6 to 36 kg/m2. These are
used as shop fronts, public places etc.
Fig. 3.23: Float Glass
2. Shatterproof Glass
Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc.
Some type of plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in its making
process. So, it cannot form sharp edged pieces when it breaks.
Fig. 3.24: Shatterproof Glass

3. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is the combination of layers of normal glass. So,

it has more weight than normal glass. It has more thickness and is
UV proof and soundproof. These are used for aquariums, bridges
etc.
Fig. 3.25: Laminated glass used in Building

4. Extra Clean Glass
Extra clean glass has two special properties, photocatalytic and
hydrophilic. Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and
gives beautiful appearance. Maintenance is also easy.
Fig. 3.26: Extra Clean Glass

5. Chromatic Glass
Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc. it can

control the transparent efficiency of glass and protects the interior
from daylight. The chromatic glass may be photochromic which
has light sensitive lamination, thermos-chromatic which has heat
sensitive lamination and electrochromic which has electric
lamination over it.
Fig. 3.27: Chromatic glass

6. Tinted Glass
Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass. A color producing
ingredients is mixed to the normal glass mix to produce colored
glass which does not affect other properties of glass. Different
color producing ingredients are tabulated below:
Table 3.2: Colours used for Tinted Glass

Coloring ion Color
Iron oxide Green
Sulphur Blue
Manganese dioxide Black

Cobalt Blue
Chromium Dark green
Titanium Yellowish brown
Uranium Yellow
Fig. 3.28: Coloured Glass
7. Toughened Glass
Toughened glass is strong glass which has low visibility. It is
available in all thicknesses and when it is broken it forms small
granular chunks which are dangerous. This is also called as
tempered glass. This type of glass is used for fire resistant doors,
mobile screen protectors etc.

Fig. 3.29: Toughened Glass
8. Glass Blocks
Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different
halves and they are pressed and annealed together while melting
process of glass. These are used as architectural purpose in the
construction of walls, skylights etc. They provide aesthetic
appearance when light is passed through it.
Fig. 3.30: Glass Blocks

9. Glass Wool
Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as good insulating

filler. It is fire resistant glass.
Fig. 3.31: Glass Wool
10. Insulated Glazed Units

Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two
or three layers by air or vacuum. They cannot allow heat through
it because of air between the layers and acts as good insulators.
These are also called as double glazed units.
Fig. 3.32: Insulated Glass

There are various types of glasses used in construction and the

use of these glasses depends on the purpose. Various purposes of
glass can be for use in natural lighting, doors, windows, balconies
etc.
Silica is the main constituent of glass. But it is to be added with
sodium potassium carbonate to bring down melting point. To
make it durable lime or lead oxide is also added. Manganese
oxide is added to nullify the adverse effects of unwanted iron
present in the impure silica.
The raw materials are ground and sieved. They are mixed in
specific proportion and melted in furnace. Then glass items are
manufactured by blowing, flat drawing, rolling and pressing.
Fig. 3.33: Insulated Glass used for Exterior of Building
3.18 Important Properties of Glass

1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made
transparent or translucent.
2. It can take excellent polish.
3. It is an excellent electrical insulator.
4. It is strong and brittle.
5. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
6. It is not affected by atmosphere.

7. It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
8. It is available in various beautiful colours.
9. With the advancement in technology, it is possible to
make glass lighter than cork or stronger than steel.
10. Glass panes can be cleaned easily.
3.19 Types of Glass in Construction

The glass may be broadly classified as:
1. Soda-lime glass
2. Potash lime glass
3. Potash lead glass
4. Common glass and
5. Special glasses.
1. Soda Lime Glass

It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. It is
fusible at low temperature. In the fusion condition it can be
blown or welded easily. It is colourless. It is used as window
panes and for the laboratory tubes and apparatus.
2. Potash Lime Glass

It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and calcium silicate. It
is also known as hard glass. It fuses at high temperature. It is
used in the manufacture of glass articles which have to withstand
high temperatures.
3. Potash Lead Glass

It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate. It
possesses bright lustre and great refractive power. It is used in the
manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms etc.

4. Common Glass
It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and iron
silicate. It is brown, green or yellow in colour. It is mainly used
in the manufacture of medicine bottles.
5. Special Glasses
Properties of glasses can be suitably altered by changing basic
ingredients and adding few more ingredients. It has now emerged
as versatile material to meet many special requirement in
engineering. The following is the list of some of the special
glasses:
• Fiberglass
• Foam glass
• Bullet proof glass
• Structural glass
• Glass black
• Wired glass
• Ultraviolet ray glass
• Perforated glass.

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Unit - III

Wood as a building material falls in two major classes - natural

Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred over

Finally, since wood can be easily worked, repairs and alterations

Fig. 3.1: Tree and Cross section of an exogenous tree

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 2

3.2 Classification of timber

On the basis of its position:

Standing timber:- implies a living tree.

On the Basis of Grading (IS:6534)

All grading specifications are clearly distinguished between

Structural grading: It is also known as stress grading. However,

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 3

Stress grading refers to the principle by which the material is

Structural grading is further divided as:

1. Grading based on known effects of defects and estimating

Commercial Grading:- also known as yard grading or utility

Commercial grading is further divided in the following classes:

Grade A: This classification is based on dimensions and general

Grade B: This classification is based on the best ultimate use of

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 4

Grade C: This classification is based on qualitative evaluation of

Grade D: This classification is based on evaluation of units of

On The Basis of Modulus of Elasticity:-

The species of timber recommended for constructional purpose

Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 12.5 kN/mm2

Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 9.8 kN/mm2

Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 5.6 kN/mm2

According to availability, timber can be of three grades, namely

X—Most common, 1415 m3 or more per year

Y—Common, 355 m3 to 1415 m3 per year

Z—Less common, below 355 m3 per year

This is based upon the figures supplied by the forest departments.

On the Basis of Durability:-

Test specimens of size 600 × 50 × 50 mm are buried in the

high durability:-average life of 120 months and over.

Moderate durability:-average life of less than 120 months but of

Low durability:- average life of less than 60 months.

On basis of Seasoning Characteristics

Timbers are classified depending upon their behaviour to

Highly refractory(class A) are slow and difficult to season-free

Moderately refractory(class B) may be seasoned free from

Non Refractory (class C) These can be rapidly seasoned free

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru-560059 Page 6

On the Basis of Treatability:-

This classification is based upon the resistance offered by the

preservatives under a working pressure of 1.05 N/mm2 as

(a) Easily treatable.

(b) Treatable but complete preservation not easily obtained.

(c) Only partially treatable.

(d) Refractory to treatment.

(e) Very refractory to treatment, penetration of preservative being

3.3 Structure of Timber:

A tree can be divided into three portions, crown—composed of

The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small

downwards and stores them. The function of cambium is to grow

3.4 Characteristics of Good Timber:-

The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength,

1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.