INTRODUCTION

Timber is another name for wood, whether still standing in the form of trees or felled and
turned into boards for construction. Some people may also refer to it as lumber, or
differentiate between unprocessed wood and lumber as cut wood packaged for commercial
sale. The timber industry around the world is huge, providing wood for a variety of products
from paper to particleboard.

People have been referring to timber since at least the seventh century, although "lumber" is
a relatively recent word, dating to the settlement of America in the 1600s. Early citizens in
the Massachusetts Bay Colony started to refer to sawed planks as lumber, setting them apart
from the raw wood that still had to be processed before it could be used. Incidentally, the
"timbers" in nautical slang are an important structural component of a ship's frame.

Before timber is felled, it must be assessed by foresters, who determine how valuable it is
and whether or not it is safe to harvest. In many regions of the world, a harvest plan must be
filed with a government agency, indicating intent to fell trees in a particular region. If the
plan is approved, a logging company sends in loggers and support staff to fell the trees and
prepare them for shipment to an offsite mill. In some cases, a mill may be established in the
forest, if there is a lot of wood that needs to be processed.

Timber is categorized as either softwood or hardwood. Softwood is obtained from

coniferous trees and hardwood comes from broad-leaved trees. Softwood and hardwood are
botanical terms and do not necessarily refer to the density or hardness of the wood. For
example Balsa, which is known to be soft and used for building lightweight models, is a
hardwood whereas Douglas Fir is a softwood with good durability and high strength
properties. Softwood is commonly used for timber structures (Figure 1) as it is readily
available, easily worked, of relatively low cost and its fast rate of growth gives a continuous
supply from regenerated forest areas. Hardwoods are typically used for exposed structures
and claddings where durability and particular aesthetic characteristics, such as color or grain
pattern, are required.

Using timber throughout a building is a good choice as timber is:

Natural
Timber is one of the few natural building material. This has a lot of advantages. Generally,
timber is not toxic, does not leak chemical vapour into the building and is safe to handle and
touch. It also means that as timber ages, it does so naturally and doesnt break down into
environmentally damaging materials.

Renewable
People have been building with timber for thousands of years. Timber is continually being
grown in our forests and plantations. As long as new trees are planted to replace those
harvested, timber will continue to be available.

Low in production energy

It takes very little energy to convert the wood in trees to the timber used in building. This
means that the embodied energy in timber is very low, the lowest of almost all common
building materials.

Good Insulator
In reducing the amount of energy used to heat and operate a building, insulation is very
important. Timber is a natural insulator and can reduce energy needs especially when it is
used in windows, doors and floors.

Easy to Work

Timber is versatile and can be used in a wide variety of ways. Being light, it is easy to install
and can be worked with simple equipment. This reduces the energy needed for construction.

CLASSIFICATION OFTIMBER
 The terms timber and wood are often used synonymously, but they have distinct
meanings in the building industry. Wood is the hard, fibrous material that makes up the
tree under the bark, whereas timber may be defined as a wood which retains its natural
physical structure and chemical composition and is suitable for various engineering
works. Following is the classification of timber as per IS: 399, except the classification
of timber based on grading which is given in IS:6534.

On the Basis of itsPosition

Standing Timber implies a living tree.

Rough Timber forms a part of the felled tree.

Converted Timber or Lumber are logs of timber sawn into planks, posts, etc

On the Basis of Grading

All grading specifications are clearly distinguished between structural or stress
grading, and
commercial or utility grading based on Indian Standard classification.

StructuralGrading
Structural grading is also known as stress grading. However, there is a small distinction
between the two. Structural grading refers to the principle by which the material is
graded on the basis of visible defects which have known effects on the strength
properties of the material. Stress grading refers to the principle by which the material is
graded by consideration of maximum principle stresses to which it can be subjected.
Structural grading is further divided as:
1. Grading based on known effects of defects and estimating accumulativevalue.
2. Machine grading.

CommercialGrading
Commercial grading also known as yard grading or utility grading refers to the principle
by which the material is graded by consideration of usefulness of the material and price
factors.

Commercial grading is further divided in the following classes:

Grade A: This classification is based on dimensions and general appearance. The

dimensions of lengths, widths and thicknesses of converted materials are measured.
This system is prevalent is Kerala and Mysore.
Grade B: This classification is based on the best ultimate use of the material. Such a
system is mostly in Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. Here, each grade is
further divided into A, B and C classes to indicate occurrence of defects. Only two
lengths are recognized, long (L) which is 5m and above, and short(S) that is under 5m.
Each log is stamped such as BAL (Beam, A-class, long), PBS (Plank, B-class, short),
etc. Some times another letter is also added indicating the species, e.g. T for teak.
Grade C: This classification is based on qualitative evaluation of defects and rough
estimate of out- turn of utilizable material. It is prevalent in Madhya Pradesh.
Grade D: This classification is based on evaluation of units of defects and fixing the
permissible number of standard volume of area or the material in each grade. This
system is prevalent in Bombay region and is increasingly adopted in Indian Standards
and is recognized internationally.

On the Basis of Modulus ofElasticity

The species of timber recommended for constructional purpose are
classified as Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 12.5
kN/mm2

Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 9.8 kN/mm2 and below

12.5 kN/mm2 Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 5.6 kN/mm 2
and below 9.8 kN/mm2
 On the Basis ofDurability
Test specimens of size 600 x 50 x 50 mm are buried in the ground to half their lengths.
The condition of the specimen at various intervals of time are noted and from these
observations their average life is calculated. Timbers are classified based upon such
observations as of:
High durability average life of 120 months and over.
Moderate durability average life of less than 120 months but of 60 months or more.
Low durability average life of less than 60 months.

On the Basis of SeasoningCharacteristics

Timbers are classified depending upon their behaviour to cracking and splitting during
normal air- seasoning practice under three categories.
Highly refractory (Class A) are slow and difficult to season-free from defect.
Moderately refractory (Class B) may be seasoned free from surface defects, etc. if
some protection is given against rapid drying.
Non-refractory (Class CJ): These can be rapidly seasoned free from defects.

On the Basis ofTreat-ability

This classification is based upon the resistance offered by the heartwood of a
species to preservatives under a working pressure of 1.05 N/mm2 as
(a) Easilytreatable.
(b) Treatable but complete preservation not easilyobtained.
(c) Only partiallytreatable.
(d) Refractory totreatment.
(e) Very refractory to treatment, penetration of preservative being practically nil
from the sides andends.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOODTIMBER
The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and finished
appearance.

1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is thestrength.

2. Compact medullaryrays.

3. Darkcolor.

4. Uniformtexture.

5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cutsurface.

6. When struck sonorous sound isproduced.

7. Free from the defects intimber.

8. Heavyweight.

9. No woolliness at fresh cutsurface.

 Use of Timber in Building and Construction industry

Timber or wood is a versatile building material that can be used for structural
applications such as beams, walls, flooring, formwork and large timber

Environmental

o renewable, sustainable resource that store carbon dioxide

o the manufacture process of wood products requires smaller amounts of

energy and it can be reused or recycled

o low embodied energy

o maximize Green Star Energy rating credits

Design Advantages

o timber materials have aesthetic appeal

o cost effective alternative to other major building material choices

o versatile and can be used in various contemporary uses and

applications

o engineered wood products create structures that are strong, visually

appealing and unique

Product Performance

o provides acoustic, thermal and strength performance

o in a fire situation, timber performs in a measurable, predictable way

allowing designers the ability to create strong, durable, fire resistant
timber constructions
PLYWOOD

A wood panel glued under pressure from an odd number (usually 3 to 13) of
layers/piles of veneers is known as plywood. The outer most veneer sheets in a
plywood panel are called/faces. The interior ply/plies which have their grain
directions parallel to that of the faces are termed as core/center.

Other piles which have grain directions perpendicular to that in the face are
termed as cross bands.

Plywood may be classified upon direction of grains in the plies and on the type of
adhesive used. Normally the alternate plies are oriented at 30 or 60 in star
plywood. The faces are arranged with the grain at 45 to that of the centers in
diagonal plywood. When the plies are bonded together with water-soluble glues
such as casein glue, interior grade plywood is obtained and when bonded with
phenol formaldehyde adhesive it is identified as exterior grade plywood which is
completely water proof.
 Types of Plywood

1. MR Grade
The important features of MR grade plywood are listed below.
It is Interior grade plywood, suitable for indooruse.

The term MR (moisture resistant) can be a bit confusing in this regard. But
customers should note that 'moisture resistant' does not mean 'waterproof'. It
only means that the the plywood is capable of resisting humidity andmoisture.

The most common use of MR plywood is for making home and office furniture.

2. BWR Grade
The important features of BWR plywood are listed below.

It is exterior grade plywood that can be used for indoor, semi-outdoor and
outdooruse.

BWR is waterproof plywood. It can resist water better than the Interior
grade MR (Moisture resistant)plywood.

Particle Board
Particle Boards are a relatively new type of engineered wood product that are made
from glueing together small chips and saw-dust and firmly pressing them together to
make boards or sheets. With particle board furniture becoming more commonly
available in the market it is useful to know how it compares with other types of
engineered woods such as plywood and with solid wood.

Laminates

Decorative Laminates (a blend of paper and plastic resins) are hard and brittle sheets
having a thickness of around 1 mm, and are widely used as an overlay over wood,
 such as in the case of laminated table tops, wood panels, or other wooden furniture.
The sheets have a decorative surface (made using decorative printed paper) and are
manufactured in a wide variety of co-lours, design patterns and textures.

Sawmill Process

Sawmills are facilities that process logs into lumber. While modern mills are mostly automated, the
fundamental sawmill process has changed little over the past several hundred years. Lumber mill
operations are typically grouped into the steps listed below, although they may not occur in the
identical order

Trees are felled and trunks are bucked into manageable lengths at the harvest site.

A logging truck, train, or log drive transports logs to the sawmill facility

Logs are scaled before entering the mill, either in transport or just outside the facility. This
involves measuring, inspecting for defects, and identifying the tree species for the purpose of
tracking the volume of salable wood.

A system of conveyors, cranes, and other material handling equipment moves the log into the
mill. A debark er then strips the bark
.
The logs may then be decked, or sorted by parameters such as species, size, or intended
end use.

A band saw cuts small sections from the edges of the log's profile, as shown in the video
below.

A head saw (also known as a gang saw) breaks the log into cants and fl itches. Cants are
unfinished logs that require further processing, while fl itches are unfinished planks
.

Cants are then broken down into multiple fl itches using a re-saw, a type of large band saw.

An edger trims irregular edges to produce squared lumber. The fl-itch ends are trimmed to
standard lumber lengths.

A kiln or air-drying process removes naturally occurring moisture from the planks. A planer
smooths the lumber surface to a uniform width and thickness. The lumber is then inspected,
tagged, and shipped to market.
Sawmill Types

Sawmills may be classified by the type of wood they convert or the end product they
produce.

Softwood mills convert softwood into lumber and other finished products.
Softwood refers to timber from gymnosperm trees and does not necessarily denote a
"softer" material. Cedar, pine, redwood, and fir are common softwood trees.
Softwoods are commonly used in furniture and outdoor building materials.

Hardwood mills process ash, oak, maple, birch, and other angiosperm trees.
Hardwood is preferred for woodworking, is often used in furniture-making, and is
more expensive than softwood. Some hardwoods, such as mahogany and cherry, are
prized for their attractive aesthetic qualities.

Stud mills are specialized mills that produce studs, which are vertical support
members found in most building walls.

Pulp mills produce fiberboard by using specialized processes and equipment.

Fiberboard is used in furniture-making or shipped to paper mills for further
processing. Pulp mills debark pulpwood logs and grind them into small chips. The
chips are rendered into a porridge-like pulp through steam treatment or digestion
using chemical processes. Dried pulp is then cut, stacked, and shipped as fiberboard.

Portable Sawmills

Portable or mobile sawmills are self-contained mills used by landowners or small

sawing businesses. The prototypical mobile sawmill consists of a bandsaw, conveyor,
hydraulic motion components, and a human-operated controller. The apparatus is
typically designed to rest on a trailer for towing to a timber site.

Portable sawmills were developed during the 1973 energy crisis and have gained in
popularity since the 1980s. They have a number of niche applications:

Production of rare or hard to find lumber, including trued logs for log building
and hardwood for use in furniture
Production of lumber on small woodlots or timber farms
Self-sufficient simple living adherents may use portable sawmills to produce their
own building materials

COUNTRIES WHICH EXPORT AND IMPORT TIMBER FROM

INDIA

Export by India

United States Of America

Pakistan

Kuwait

United Kingdom

Saudi Arabia

Import by India

Austria
 Indonesia

Malaysia

Tanzania

France

Problems Faced by Timber Industry in India

Inadequate and Dwindling Forest Cover:

The biggest problem of the Indian forests is the inadequate and fast dwindling forest

cover.

Low Productivity:

Productivity of Indian forests is very low as compared to some other countries. For

example, annual productivity of Indian forest is only 0.5 cubic meter per hectare

while it is 1.25 cubic meter per hectare in the USA, 1.8 cubic meter per hectare in

Japan and 3.9 cubic meter per hectare in France.

Nature of Forests and their Uneconomical Utilization:

The forests are thick, inaccessible, slow growing and lack in gregarious stands in

many parts of the country. Some of them are very thin and comprise only of thorny
bushes. These factors make their utilization uneconomical because there is a good

deal of wastage and this makes it very expensive in spite of the cheap labour available

in India.

Lack of Transport Facilities:

One of the biggest problems faced by the Indian forests is the lack of proper transport

facilities. About 16 per cent of the forest land in India is inaccessible and does not

have proper transport facilities. It must be remembered that the major product of the

forests is timber which is a cheap and bulky commodity.

Forest Fires:

Large tracts of vegetal cover are destroyed every year by forest fires. Forest fires in

India are most destructive in dry season. Insufficiency of properly trained personnel is

a big handicap.

Obsolete Methods of Lumbering and Sawing:

In most of the Indian forests, obsolete methods of lumbering, sowing etc. are

practised. This system leads to a lot of wastage and low forest productivity. Large

quantities of inferior wood which could be put to better use through seasoning and

preservation treatment remain utilized or go waste. Saw miles use old obsolete

machinery and do not get proper power supply.

Lack of Commercial Forests:

In India most of the forests are meant for protective purposes and commercial forests

are badly lacking. Growing awareness about environmental degradation has forced us
to look at forest wealth as a protective agent for environment rather than treating it as

a commercial commodity.

Remedies:

At present there is an urgent need of undertaking silvicultural operations on a large

scale. This can be done through the following measures:

.Intensive development schemes for afforestation should be adopted. High

yielding varieties should be planted in suitable areas.

 Improved techniques of logging and extraction should be used.

Proper transport facilities should be provided to remote and inaccessible forest

areas.

Saw mills should get uninterrupted power supply.

Latest techniques of seasoning and preservation are necessary to avoid wastage.

Proper arrangements to save forests from fires and plant diseases can go a long

way to solve several problems.

A thorough inventory of forest resources is necessary to make an accurate

assessment of our forest resources and make plans for their proper use.

Shifting cultivation should be discouraged and tribals depending on this type of

cultivation should be provided with alternate sources of livelihood.

People associated with forest protection should be properly trained.

TIMBER EXPORT LICENSE

PROCEDURES FOR TIMBER EXPORT LICENCE

To Open Cess Deposit Account
Exporter must be registered with MTIB ;
 Document involves: 1 copy of Timber Exporter (T/E) Registration Certificate ;
and
Deposit minimum RM200

PROCEDURES FOR PROCESSING EXPORT LICENSE

Submit the application for timber export license through on-line
(http://www.mtib.gov.my/ or http://mcs.mtib.gov.my)
Submit the following supporting documents to the MTIBs office that issuing the
export licence;

Categorie Products Documents to be

s submitted:-

Pay cess Log Grading summary

Sawn timber Kiln Dried/ Treatment c
Plywood Certificate (if any)
Moulding Quota coupon by m3 (p
Veneer (plywood/veneer/block
Particleboard/Chipboard Board)
Blockboard Packing list/ invoice
approval letter
(wherever applicable)
Diagram
(For molding only)
Without MDF Packing list/
cess invoice

License will be processed within 30 minutes after receiving a complete

application.

Exporters should print the export license for physical inspection application.
TRANSIT OF TIMBER FROM THE PENINSULSAR OF MALAYSIA TO
SABAH
For transit applications from Peninsular of Malaysia to Sabah / Sarawak,
exporters are required to submit a Hardcopy
license application to MTIB with the following supporting document :-
i) Custom Declaration Form 3 (Movement of timber from Peninsular of Malaysia
to Sabah / Sarawak) and
ii) Other relevant supporting document (Attachment 1)

EXPORT OF RAMIN WOOD (GONYSTYLUS SPP.) AND KARAS/GAHARU

(AQUILARIA SPP./GYRINOP SPP.)
GOVERNED BY CITES COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS APPENDIX II.

MTIB is the Management Authority for the issuance of CITES Export Permit for the
export of Ramin/Karas/Gaharu wood
originating from Malaysia, orthe CITES Re-export Certificate for the re-export of
Ramin/Karas/Gaharu wood from other
countries, or the CITES Import Permit for the import of Ramin/Karas/Gaharu wood.

(All exporters are required to apply a CITES Export Permit if the export
products species are listed under CITES)

Importing timber, wooden articles, bamboo and related products

Import conditions
All imported timber, wooden articles, bamboo and related products (whether for
commercial or personal use) must comply with the import conditions as stated on the
department's

It is the responsibility of importers to ensure that their products meet the import
conditions. Failing to meet import conditions may result in delays, additional costs,
and, in some cases, the re-export or destruction of the goods at the importers expense.

The types of timber, wooden articles, bamboo, and related products page has product
definitions and links to the applicable import conditions in BICON for different types
of timber, wooden articles, bamboo and related products.

The import conditions set out in BICON include requirements for you to demonstrate
that pest risks are mitigated through the manufacturing process or through approved
departments The department verifies that bio security risks have been adequately
addressed by assessing evidence of compliance in documentation and/or by inspecting
the goods when they arrive in Australia.

LITERATURE REVIEW
The USDA Forest Service's Wood Education and Resource Center is developing an
online Training and Information Exchange designed to help people from primary and
secondary wood products industries identify opportunities for continuing education,
such as workshops and short courses, that meet their particular needs. The system will
enable users to identify their training preferences and
to search the database or use an e-mail notification system to be automatically
informed of workshops or courses that meet their criteria. Participating training
organizations will be able to register available courses online. An initial version of the
system is\ expected to be available by mid-fall for testing. The system is scheduled to
be operational by early 2008. For more information about the system or to leave a
comment about the system, contact Fred Lamb at The Wood Education and Resource
Center, located in Princeton, West Virginia, is administered by the Northeastern Area
State and Private Forestry unit of the Forest Service.Timber Industry Joins With
Greenpeace and Other
Environmental Groups To' Fight Illegal Harvesting l The timber industry and
environmentalists, two groups usually found on opposite sides of forest-related issues,
are both supporting legislation to restrict the importation of lumber and other products
from illegally harvested logs. Prior to the summer recess. Sen. Ron Wyden (D-
Oregon) and Rep. Earl Blumenauer (D-Oregon) introduced measures in the U. S.
Senate and House, respectively, to expand theLacey Act, which blocks the
import,sale, or trade of products made from certain birds and animals, to cover trees
Reportedly, the measures are supported by American Forest & Paper Association as
well as by Greenpeace, Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, World
Wildlife Fund, andDefenders of Wildlife.
Australia To Lead Effort to Monitor Forests in Asia-Pacific
I? Australia has unveiled a plan to build satellite receiving stations to help countries in
the Asia-Pacific region monitor their forest cover, carbon output, and illegal logging.
The plan was announced at a meeting of diplomats from 70 countries gathered to
discuss climate change in Sydney in July. The Australian Broadcasting Corp. reported
that Environment Ministe Malcolm Turnbull expected the countries attending the
meeting to support the plan, quoting him as saying, "Some of the largest deforesters in
the world will be there. There's no point funding the protection of the forest in
one valley when the adjoining valley is all dear-felled."
International Paper, MeadWestvaco, and Rubicon, Ltd. Transfer Seed, Nursery
Businesses to ArborGen, LLC

ArborGen, LLC, announced in August that its three owners International Paper,
MeadWestvaco, and Rubicon Limitedhad agreed to contribute their nursery and
seed orchard businesses in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. The
transfers include physical operations, some land holdings, research and development,
pine and hardwood germplasm, and breeding programs, and expand ArborGen's
operations to 20 locations in four countries. ArborGen specializes in the research and
development and commercialization of technologies that provide purpose-grown trees
for the forest products industry and as feedstock for ethanol production.

Forest Industry Seen As Leading

The forest industry's investments in research and development could make

the industry the leading industrial locomotive in Europe, according to former Finnish
Prime Minister Esko Aho, speaking at a conference in Germany in May. Currently
President of the Finnish National Fund for Research and Development, Aho pointed
out that the European forest sector hasbeen able to get all of its central actors together
to define shared visions and a common research strategy under the Forest-based
Sector Technology Platform project. An EU working group chaired by Aho has been
looking at ways to improve the European environment for research and innovation.
Aho believes Europe's strength lies in well-educated consumers who can adopt new
technologies. Developing new products to fulfill the needs of such customers should
form the core idea of all product development activities.

AGRA: Traders at Freeganj, one of the oldest and largest timber markets in north
India, are in a very difficult situation following demonetisation. The market, which
supplies over Rs 400 crore of timber and plywood to several states in a year, has seen
business fall by more than 75% in the past 20 days.
The half-a-mile long lane, with nearly 100 shops, is facing one of the worst days in its
60-year-old history.

Satyaveer Singh, owner of a plywood store, said, "I have been in this business for the
past 30 years but have never faced a crisis till now. I have had no customers since
November 8. This is peak season for the business, with demand for timber and
plywood for furniture for wedding gifts, but because of demonetization, customers are
short of cash.

Vikas Bansal, member of the Agra Timber and Plywood Association, said, "We
welcome the government's move to curb black money, but the nature of our business
is such that we cannot have cashless transactions. We can pay manufacturers by
cheque, but we cannot swipe cards to pay between Rs 35,000 and Rs 40,000 to truck
drivers for transportation charges. Similarly, all the labourers are paid in cash. Without
cash, it is difficult for us to do business."

Every day, over 20 loaded trucks from Sitapur and Lakhimpur Kheri in UP,
Yamunanagar in Haryana and other areas ferry plywood and timber to Agra in bulk,
after which they are distributed to other districts and states. But after demonetization,
only 2 to 3 trucks arrive each day.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research in a common parlance refers to a search for knowledge Research comprises

defining and redefining problem, formulation hypothesis or suggested solution,

collection, organizing and evaluating data, make deduction and research conclusion

and testing the conclusion to determine whether they fit or not .

Collection of Data
The study has utilized secondary data for styuding the process of Sawmill and other

timber processes in Timber Industry.

Secondary Data: It was collected through scanning, searching and disseminating

information through research and data also in search information from Research

Database of UPES library , Timber Museum in FRI and Few famous articles on

Sawmill Process and illegal timber.

CONLUSION

During the last fifteen years the forestry sector of the Asia-Pacific Region has been
influenced by a number of developments that will continue to shape it into the next
century. In the absence of interventions to increase forest productivity and to promote
end-use efficiency, wood consumption has exceeded the sustainable supply capacity
of the Region's forests. Increasing wood shortages have stimulated the discussion on
introducing changes in policies, management and technologies. In addition,
environmental concerns and the discussion about timber certification schemes have
raised the awareness of the need for sustainable forest management. This raises the
question of how the forestry sector will respond to societies' demands.

It would be superficial to view the widening supply and demand gap as well as
environmental concerns as the only determinants of current and future change.
Though the developments in the various countries are far from uniform, a
transformation from an agricultural economy to an economy based on manufacturing
is currently shaping the rural landscape, industrialization and labour availability.
Modernization and commercialization have particularly influenced the use of NTFPs
leading in many cases to over-exploitation. Urbanization, improved educational
standards and a growing middle class does not only translate into higher consumption
rates. It also means a transformation in values, the realization that forests have more
to offer than just wood, and an environment potentially conducive to technology
changes. Market liberalization in former centrally planned economies have opened
opportunities in tree growing and downstream processing. It has lead to an increasing
involvement of the private sector in forestry which is also experienced in other
countries. The plantation sector is especially affected by the diminishing role of the
public sector. This has furthermore influenced research where the private sector is also
replacing public research as the latter suffers from inadequate funding. And last, but
not least, forestry in the Region is affected by globalization of production and trade
which have influenced the flow of capital to areas of comparative advantage in terms
of prices and government regulations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY