NCERT NOTES

FOR SCIENCE
7th Standard
CONTENTS
Nutrition in Plants ........................................................................................................................... 1 - 3

Nutrition in Animals ....................................................................................................................... 4 - 9

Fibre to Fabric ............................................................................................................................. 10 - 13

Heat ............................................................................................................................................... 14 - 14

Acids, Bases, and Salts ............................................................................................................ 15 - 16

Physical and Chemical Changes ........................................................................................... 17 - 17

Weather, Climate, and Adaptations of Animals to Climate .......................................... 18 - 20

Winds, Storms, and Cyclones ................................................................................................ 21 - 24

Soil .................................................................................................................................................. 25 - 27

Respiration in Organisms ........................................................................................................ 28 - 32

Transportation in Animals and Plants ................................................................................. 33 - 36

Reproduction in Plants ............................................................................................................ 37 - 39

Motion and Time ........................................................................................................................ 40 - 40

Electric Current and its Effects .............................................................................................. 41 - 41

Light ............................................................................................................................................... 42 - 43

Water: A Precious Resource .................................................................................................. 44 - 45

Forests: Our Lifeline .................................................................................................................. 46 - 47

Wastewater Story .................................................................................................................... 48 - 50

 NUTRITION IN PLANTS
1
Components of food are called nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
Different Modes of Nutrition in Plants:
Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body. Some modes of nutrition in
plants are as follows:
· Autotrophs: Green plants that can synthesize food for themselves by the process of photosynthesis
are called Autotrophs. E.g., Grass, Wheat, etc.
· Heterotrophs: Like Humans and animals, some plants are dependent on other plants (autotrophs) for
their food supply and they are called Heterotrophs. E.g., Cuscuta (Amarbel) takes readymade food
from the plant on which it climbs. The plant on which it climbs is called the host. Since it deprives the
host of valuable nutrients, Cuscuta is called the parasite.
· Saprotrophs: Many fungi derive nutrition from dead and decaying matter. They are called
Saprotrophs such as Mushrooms.
· Insectivorous: Few plants can trap insects and digest them. Such insect-eating plants are called
insectivorous plants. They may be green or of some other colour. The pitcher-like or jug-like structure
in such plants is the modified part of the leaf.
· Symbiosis: Some organisms live together and share both shelter and nutrients. This relationship is
called Symbiosis. E.g., Lichen is a symbiotic association between algae (chlorophyll-containing
partner), and fungus. The fungus provides shelter, water, and minerals to the algae and, in return, the
algae prepare and provides food to the fungus.
· About the 'Cell':
· Bodies of living organisms are made of tiny units called Cells.
· Cell is enclosed by a thin outer boundary called Cell membrane.
· Most cells have a distinct, centrally located spherical structure called the Nucleus.
· Nucleus is surrounded by a jelly-like substance called Cytoplasm.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Fig. 1.1: Cell

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Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy into
chemical energy.
· Water and minerals present in the soil are absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves.
· Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of leaves. These pores
are surrounded by 'Guard Cells'. Such pores are called Stomata.
· The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll which helps leaves to capture the energy of the
sunlight. The synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight thus called photosynthesis.
· It is a unique process on the Earth. The solar energy is captured by the leaves and stored in the plant in
the form of food.
· During photosynthesis, chlorophyll-containing cells of leaves, in the presence of sunlight, use carbon
dioxide and water to synthesize carbohydrates. Oxygen is also released during the process. The
process can be represented in an equation:

Carbohydrate+oxygen

Fig. 1.2: Leaf Details Fig. 1.3: Diagram showing Photosynthesis

· Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the plant. For example,
NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Desert plants have spine-like leaves and green stems that carry out photosynthesis.
· The leaves other than green also have chlorophyll. In such plants, a large amount of red, brown, and
other pigments masks the green colour.
· Algae can also prepare their food by photosynthesis.

Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates:

· Proteins are another major nutrient. These are nitrogenous substances.

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 · Plants cannot absorb nitrogen in gaseous form. Some root-living soil bacteria convert gaseous
nitrogen into a usable form and this form is absorbed by the plants along with water.
· Fer lizer used by the farmers also adds Nitrogen directly to the soil in the usable form.
· In this way, the plants fulfill their requirements of nitrogen along with the other cons tuents. Plants
can then synthesize proteins and vitamins.

Nutrient replenishment in Soil:

· Fer lizers and manures are used to enrich the soil. These contain nutrients such as nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorous, etc.
· The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a usable form.
Rhizobium lives in the roots of the gram, peas, moong, beans, and other legumes and provides them
with nitrogen. In return, the plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria. Thus, they have a
symbio c rela onship. This can reduce the use of nitrogenous fer lizer.

Interesting points

· Chlorophyll, water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight are the essen al requirements for
photosynthesis.
· Complex chemical substances such as carbohydrates are the products of photosynthesis.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS

3
 NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
2
Animal nutrition includes the nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food, and its utilization in the body.
Our food includes required nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc.

Mode of Intake of Food:

The mode of taking food into the body varies in different organisms.
· Bees and hummingbirds suck the nectar of plants.
· Infants of humans and many other animals feed on mother's milk.
· Snakes like python swallow the animals they prey upon.
· Some aquatic animals filter tiny food particles floating nearby and feed upon them.

Nutrient Utilization:
Complex substances such as carbohydrates cannot be utilized as such and are broken down into simpler
substances. This breakdown of complex components of food into simpler substances is called Digestion.
For example, Carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, fats into fatty acids and
glycerol, and proteins into amino acids.

Digestion in Humans
Food is taken through the mouth. It is then digested and utilized, and the unused part is defecated. The
human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and secretory glands.
· The alimentary canal (digestive tract) is a continuous canal that begins at the buccal cavity and ends at
the anus. It consists of:
Ø the buccal cavity,
Ø food pipe or oesophagus,
Ø stomach,
Ø small intestine,
Ø large intestine (ending in the rectum) and
Ø the anus.
· The main digestive glands which secrete digestive juices are:
Ø Salivary glands,
Ø Liver and
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Ø Pancreas.
Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity. The digestion of protein starts in the
stomach. The bile secreted from the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and the digestive juice
from the intestinal wall complete the digestion of all components of food in the small intestine. The
digested food is absorbed in the blood vessels from the small intestine. The nutrient utilization process
involves (1) ingestion, (2) digestion, (3) absorption, (4) assimilation, and (5) egestion.

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 Fig. 2.1: Human Digestive System
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Mouth and buccal cavity:

· The process of taking food into the body through the mouth is called ingestion.
· Food is then chewed by teeth and broken down mechanically into small pieces. Our teeth vary in
appearance and perform different functions such as:
Ø Cutting and biting teeth – Incisor
Ø Piercing and tearing teeth – Canine

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 Ø Chewing and crushing teeth – Premolar
Ø Chewing and grinding teeth – Molar

Fig. 2.2: Arrangement of teeth and different type of teeth Fig. 2.3: Regions of the tongue for different tastes

· The tongue mixes saliva with the food during chewing and helps in swallowing food. It has taste buds
that detect different tastes of food such as sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.
· Salivary glands present in our mouth secrete saliva which breaks down the starch into sugars.
Food pipe/oesophagus:
The swallowed food passes into the food pipe or oesophagus. Food is pushed down by the movement of the
wall of the food pipe.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Fig. 2.4: Movement of the food in the oesophagus of the alimentary canal

6
 Stomach:
The stomach is a flat J-shaped, thick-walled bag and is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It receives
food from the food pipe at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other.
· The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid, and digestive juices.
· The mucous protects the lining of the stomach.
· The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in the stomach
acidic and helps the digestive juices to act.
· The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances.

Small intestine:
The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5 meters long. It receives secretions from the liver and the
pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes juices.

Liver:
It is a reddish-brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side. It is the largest gland
in the body. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall bladder. Bile plays an important role in
the digestion of fats.

Pancreas:
It is a large cream coloured gland located just below the stomach. The pancreatic juice acts on
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and changes them into simpler forms.
The partly digested food now reaches the lower part of the small intestine where the intestinal juice
completes the digestion of all components of the food.
Absorption in the small intestine:
· The digested food can now pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine. This process is called
absorption.
· The inner walls of the small intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are called villi
(singular villus). The villi increase the surface area for absorption of the digested food. Each villus has a
network of thin and small blood vessels close to its surface. The surface of the villi absorbs the digested
food materials.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

· The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where
they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by the body. This is called
assimilation.
· In the cells, glucose breaks down with the help of oxygen into carbon dioxide and water, and energy is
released.
· The food that remains undigested and unabsorbed enters the large intestine.

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Large intestine:
The large intestine is wider and shorter than the small intestine. It is about 1.5 meters in length. Its function
is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material. The remaining waste passes into the
rectum and remains there as semi-solid faeces. The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-
time. This is called egestion.
Digestion in Grass eating animals:
Grass-eating animals such as cows, buffaloes quickly swallow the grass and store it in a part of the stomach
called Rumen. Food gets partially digested in the rumen and is called cud. Later the cud returns to the mouth
in small lumps and the animal chews it. This process is called rumination and these animals are called
ruminants.
The grass is rich in cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. In ruminants like cattle, deer, etc., bacteria present in
rumen helps in the digestion of cellulose. Animals like horses, rabbits, etc., have a large sac-like structure
called Caecum between the oesophagus and the small intestine. The cellulose of the food is digested here by
the action of certain bacteria that are not present in humans.

Fig. 2.5: Digestive system of ruminant Fig. 2.6: Amoeba

Feeding and digestion in Amoeba:

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Many small organisms do not have a mouth and a digestive system e.g., Amoeba. It is a microscopic single-
celled organism found in pond water.
· It has a cell membrane, a rounded, dense nucleus, and many small bubble-like vacuoles in its
cytoplasm. It pushes out one or more finger-like projections, called pseudopodia which act as false
feet for movement and capture of food.
· Amoeba feeds on some microscopic organisms. When it senses food, it pushes out pseudopodia

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 around the food particle and engulfs it. The food becomes trapped in a food vacuole.
· Digestive juices are secreted into the food vacuole. They act on the food and break it down into simpler
substances.
· Gradually the digested food is absorbed. The undigested residue of the food is expelled outside by the
vacuole.

Interesting points

· Starfish feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate. After opening the shell, the
starfish pops out its stomach through its mouth to eat the soft animal inside the shell. The
stomach then goes back into the body and the food is slowly digested.
· The working of the stomach was discovered by William Beaumont in 1822.
· Diarrhea is a disease that may be caused by an infection, food poisoning, or indigestion.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

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 FIBRE TO FABRIC
3
Fibres like Cotton, Jute, etc. are obtained from plants and fibres like wool and silk are obtained from animals.
Wool is obtained from the fleece (hair) of sheep or yak. Silk fibres come from cocoons of the silk moth.
Wool
The wool comes from sheep, goat, yak, and other hair-bearing animals. The hairy skin of the sheep has two
types of fibres that form its fleece: (1) coarse beard hair, and (2) fine soft under-hair close to the skin.
· The fine hairs provide the fibres for making wool.
· Some breeds of sheep possess only fine under-hair. Their parents are specially chosen to give birth to
sheep which have only soft under hair. This process of selecting parents is termed 'selective breeding'.

Animals that yield wool:

· Several breeds of sheep that are found in different parts of our country are as follows:
· Yak wool is common in Tibet and Ladakh.
· Mohair is obtained from angora goats found in hilly regions such as Jammu and Kashmir.
· The underfur of the Kashmiri goat is soft. It is woven into fine shawls called Pashmina shawls.
· The fur (hair) on the body of camels is also used as wool.
· Llama and Alpaca, found in South America, also yield wool.

From fibres to wool:

For obtaining wool, sheep are reared. Their hair is cut and processed into wool.

Rearing and breeding of sheep:

· Sheep are herbivores and prefer grass and leaves. They also feed on a mixture of pulses, corn, jowar, oil
cakes, and minerals.
· In winter, sheep are kept indoors and fed on leaves, grain, and dry fodder.
· Once the reared sheep have developed a thick growth of hair, hair is shaved off for getting wool.

Processing of fibres into wool:

The processing of fibre into wool can be represented as follows:
Shearing → Scouring → Sorting → Cleaning of burrs → Dyeing → Rolling
The wool which is used for knitting sweaters or weaving shawls is the finished product of a long process,
which involves the following steps:
Step I: The fleece of the sheep along with a thin layer of skin is removed from its body. This process is
FIBRE TO FABRIC

called shearing.
Step II: The sheared skin with hair is thoroughly washed in tanks to remove grease, dust, and dirt. This is
called scouring.
Step III: After scouring, sorting of hairs is done based on different textures.

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 Step IV: The small fluffy fibres, called burrs, are picked out from the hair. The fibres are scoured again and
dried. This is the wool ready to be drawn into fibres.
Step V: The fibres are dyed in various colours, as the natural fleece of sheep and goats is black, brown, or
white.
Step VI: The fibres are straightened, combed, and rolled into yarn.

Longer fibres are made into wool for sweaters and shorter fibres are spun and woven into woollen cloth.

Additional Information: Risks faced by workers in any industry are called Occupational hazards.
Wool fibre sorting job carries risk as sometimes workers might get infected by a bacterium,
Anthrax, which causes a fatal blood disease called Sorter's disease.

Silk
Silk fibres are also animal fibres. Silkworms spin the silk fibres. The rearing of silkworms for obtaining silk is
called sericulture.
· The silk yarn (thread) is obtained from the cocoon of the silk moth. There is a variety of silk moths that
look very different from one another and the silk yarn they yield is different in texture (coarse, smooth,
shiny, etc.).
· Tassar silk, Mooga silk, Eri silk, Kosa silk, etc., are obtained from cocoons spun by different types of
moths.
· The most common silk moth is the mulberry silk moth. The silk fibre from the cocoon of this moth is
soft, lustrous, and elastic and can be dyed in beautiful colours.
· Sericulture is a very old occupation in India. India produces plenty of silk on a commercial scale and
ranks among the leading silk-producing countries. China leads the world in silk production.

Life history of silk moth:

· The female silk moth lays eggs, from which hatch larvae which are called caterpillars or silkworms.
· They grow in size and when the caterpillar is ready to enter the next stage of its life history called pupa,
it first weaves a net to hold itself. Then it swings its head from side to side in the form of the Figure of
eight (8).
· During these movements of the head, the caterpillar secretes fibre made of a protein that hardens on
FIBRE TO FABRIC

exposure to air and becomes silk fibre.

· Soon the caterpillar completely covers itself with silk fibres and turns into a pupa. This covering is
known as a cocoon.
· The further development of the pupa into moth continues inside the cocoon.

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 Fig. 3.1 (a to f): The life history of the Silk moth

From cocoon to silk

For obtaining silk, moths are reared, and their cocoons are collected to get silk threads.

Rearing silkworms:
· A female silk moth lays hundreds of eggs at a time.
· Eggs are stored carefully on strips of cloth or paper.
· Eggs are warmed to a suitable temperature for the larvae to hatch from eggs. This is done when
mulberry trees bear a fresh crop of leaves.
FIBRE TO FABRIC

· The larvae, called caterpillars or silkworms, eat day and night and increase enormously in size.
· The larvae are kept in clean bamboo trays along with freshly chopped mulberry leaves.
· After 25 to 30 days, the caterpillars stop eating and move to a tiny chamber of bamboo in the tray to
spin cocoons.

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 · Caterpillar or silkworm spins the cocoon inside which develops the silk moth.

Processing silk:
A pile of cocoons is used for obtaining silk fibres. The cocoons are kept under the Sun or boiled or exposed to
steam. The silk fibres separate out. The process of taking out threads from the cocoon for use as silk is called
reeling the silk. Silk fibres are then spun into silk threads, which are woven into silk cloth by weavers.
The processing of fiber to fabric is an important industry and has a major contribution in providing
employment.
FIBRE TO FABRIC

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 HEAT
4
Key Terms and Facts:
● Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of an object.
● A clinical thermometer is used to measure our body temperature. Its range is from 35°C to 42°C. The
normal temperature of the human body is 37°C. Mercury is used in these thermometers and is a toxic
substance. Digital thermometers are available which do not use mercury.
● For other purposes, laboratory thermometers are used, and their range is from –10°C to 110°C.
● The heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. There are three
ways in which heat can flow: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Ø In Solids, generally, the heat is transferred by conduction.
Ø The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are conductors of heat. For example,
aluminum, iron, and copper.
Ø The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are called insulators. For
example, plastic and wood.
Ø The water and air are poor conductors of heat. In liquids and gases, the heat is transferred by
convection.
Ø No medium is required for the transfer of heat by radiation. From the Sun the heat comes to us by
another process known as radiation. All hot bodies radiate heat.
● Dark surfaces absorb more heat and hence dark-coloured clothes are more comfortable in the winter.
On the contrary, Light-coloured clothes reflect most of the heat and are more comfortable to wear in
the summer.
● Wool is a poor conductor of heat. Air gets trapped in between the wool fibers and prevents the flow of
heat from our body to the cold surroundings making us feel warm.

An interesting phenomenon: Sea breeze and Land breeze

During the day, the land gets heated faster than the water. The air over the land becomes hotter and
rises up. The cooler air from the sea rushes in towards the land to take its place. The warm air from the
land moves towards the sea to complete the cycle. The air from the sea is called the sea breeze.
At night it is exactly the reverse. The water cools down more slowly than the land. So, the cool air from
the land moves towards the sea. This is called the land breeze.

HEAT

Fig. 4.1: Sea breeze and Land breeze

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 ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS
5
Key Terms and Facts:
● Acids are sour in taste. For Example, Lemon juice, vinegar, etc.
● Bases are generally bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching. For Example, baking soda.
● An acid and a base neutralize each other and form a salt.

Acids found in common substances

Name of Acid Found in

Acetic acid Vinegar

Formic acid Ant's sting

Citric acid Citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, etc.

Lactic acid Curd

Oxalic acid Spinach

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Amla, Citrus fruits

Tartaric acid Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes, etc.

Base found in common substances

Name of Base Found in

Calcium Hydroxide Lime water

Ammonium Hydroxide Window cleaner

Sodium Hydroxide/ Potassium Hydroxide Soap

AND SALTS

Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia

· Special types of substances are used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic. These substances
CRAFTS

are known as Indicators.

ACIDS, BASES,

· The indicators change their color when added to an acidic or basic solution. Litmus, Turmeric, China
THEATRE

rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the naturally occurring indicators.
Ø Litmus: It is extracted from lichens and has a mauve (purple) color in distilled water. When added to
an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution, it turns blue.

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 Ø Turmeric: Turmeric remains yellow in acid and neutral substances but turns red with bases.
Ø China Rose: China rose indicator turns acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and basic solutions
to green.
● The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralization. Salt and water are produced in
this process with the evolution of heat.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water + Heat
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) + Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) → Sodium chloride (NaCl) + Water (H2O)

Neutralization in Everyday life:

Indigestion: Hydrochloric acid helps in digesting food but an excess of it in the stomach causes indigestion.
Intake of an antacid such as milk of magnesia (base) relieves indigestion.

Ant bite: When an ant bites, it injects formic acid into the skin. It can be neutralized by rubbing moist baking
soda or calamine solution (base).

Soil treatment: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers makes the soil acidic. Plants do not grow well when the
soil is either too acidic or too basic. Acidic soil is treated with bases like quick lime or slaked lime and If the soil
is basic, organic matter (acidic in nature) is added to it.

Factory wastes: The wastes of many factories contain acids. If they are allowed to flow into the water
bodies, the acids will kill fish and other organisms. The factory wastes are, therefore, neutralized by adding
basic substances.

ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS

16
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
6
Key Terms and Facts:
● Changes in any object or its material can occur because of some internal and external factors.
● Changes can be of two types, physical and chemical.
● Physical changes are changes in the physical properties of a substance such as shape, size, color, and
states. No new substances are formed in these changes. These changes may be reversible. For
example, crushing a small piece of chalk into dust.
● In Chemical changes, one or more new substances are formed. For example, Rusting of Iron, ozone
formation in the atmosphere, etc.
● In addition to new products, a chemical change may accompany heat, light or gas emission/absorption,
sound production, change in smell or colour, etc.
● Rusting of Iron: Iron when exposed to air acquires a film of a brownish substance called rust and this
process is called Rusting. Moist air and saltwater fasten the rusting process. Rusting can be
represented by the following equation:
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + Water (H2O) → Rust (Iron oxide, Fe2O3)
Prevention of Rusting:
It is the prevention of iron articles from exposure to oxygen, or water, or both. It can be done by:
Ø Applying a coat of paint or grease.
Ø Depositing a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron. This process of depositing a layer of zinc
on iron is called galvanization.
● The Ozone layer in our atmosphere protects us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Ozone is
formed naturally by chemical reactions involving UV radiation and atmospheric oxygen.
● Large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their solutions. The process is called
crystallization.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

17
 WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND ADAPTATIONS
7 OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE
Weather:
The day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to the temperature, humidity, rainfall,
wind-speed, etc., is called the weather at that place.
· The temperature, humidity, and other factors are called the elements of the weather.
· The weather can vary over a very short period. For example, the maximum temperature of the day
occurs generally in the afternoon while the minimum temperature occurs generally in the early
morning.
· All changes in the weather are caused by the Sun as the Sun is the primary source of energy.
· Energy absorbed and reflected by the Earth's surface, oceans, and the atmosphere play important
roles in determining the weather at any place.

Climate:
The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is called the climate of the place.
· The climate of the western region of India, for example, Rajasthan, is 'hot and dry' as it receives very
little Rainfall and has a high temperature.
· The climate of north-east India is 'wet' as it receives rain for a major part of the year.

Climate and Adaptation

WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

Animals are adapted to survive in the conditions in which they live. Animals living in very cold and hot
climates must possess special features to protect themselves against extreme cold or heat. Features and
habits that help animals to adapt to their surroundings are a result of the process of evolution. Severe
climatic conditions are observed in polar regions (countries like Canada, Iceland, etc.) and tropical regions
(countries like India, Brazil, etc.) of the Earth.

Polar regions: These regions are covered with snow and are very cold for most of the year. For six months
the Sun does not set at the poles while for the other six months the Sun does not rise. In winters, the
temperature can be as low as -37°C. Following are some examples of adaptations in animals of polar
regions:

Polar bears:
· They have white fur to camouflage in the snowy white background. It also protects them from their
predators and helps in catching their prey.
· They have two thick layers of fur and a fat layer under their skin to protect it from cold. They are so
well-insulated that they must move slowly and rest often to avoid getting overheated.
· Physical activities on warm days necessitate cooling. So, the polar bear goes swimming. Its paws are
wide and large, which help it not only to swim well but also walk with ease in the snow.
· While swimming underwater, it can close its nostrils and can remain underwater for long durations.
· It has a strong sense of smell so that it can catch its prey for food.

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 Penguin:
· It is also white and merges well with the white background.
· It has thick skin and a lot of fat to protect it from cold.
· Penguins huddled together to keep them warm.
· Like polar bears, penguins are also good swimmers. Their bodies are streamlined, and their feet have
webs, making them good swimmers.

Migration is another means to escape the harsh, cold conditions.

· Birds must remain warm to survive. They migrate to warmer regions when winter sets in. They
come back after the winter is over.
· India is one of the destinations of many of these birds. For example, the Siberian crane comes
from Siberia to places like Bharatpur in Rajasthan and Sultanpur in Haryana.
· Mammals, many types of fish, and insects are also known to migrate seasonally.

Tropical regions: Following are the main characteristics of these regions:

· The tropical region has generally a hot climate because of its location around the Equator.
· Even in the coldest month, the temperature is generally higher than 15°C. During hot summers, the
WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

temperature may cross 40°C.

· Days and nights are almost equal in length throughout the year.
· These regions get plenty of rainfall.
· An important feature of this region is the tropical rainforests.
· Tropical rainforests are found in the Western Ghats and Assam in India, Southeast Asia, Central
America, and Central Africa.
· The major types of animals living in the rainforests are monkeys, apes, gorillas, tigers, elephants,
leopards, lizards, snakes, birds, and insects.
Animals in the tropical rainforests are adapted such that they eat different kinds of food to overcome the
competition for food and shelter. Many animals are adapted to living on the trees. For example,
· Red-eyed frog has developed sticky pads on its feet to help it climb trees on which it lives.
· Monkeys have long tails for grasping branches. Their hands and feet are such that they can easily hold
on to the branches.
· Bird Toucan possesses a long, large beak which helps them to reach the fruits on branches.
· Many tropical animals have sensitive hearing, sharp eyesight, thick skin, and skin colour which helps
them to camouflage by blending with the surroundings. This is to protect them from predators. For
example, big cats (lions and tigers) have thick skins and sensitive hearing.
· The lion-tailed macaque (also called Beard ape) lives in the rainforests of Western Ghats. They have a
silver-white mane that surrounds the head from the cheeks down to its chin.
Ø It is a good climber and spends a major part of its life on the tree.
Ø It feeds mainly on fruits. It also eats seeds, young leaves, stems, flowers, and buds.

19
 Ø This beard ape also searches for insects under the bark of the trees.
Ø Since it can get enough food on the trees, it rarely comes down on the ground.
· The elephant has adapted to the conditions of rainforests in many remarkable ways.
Ø It uses its trunk as a nose because of which it has a strong sense of smell.
Ø The trunk is also used for picking up food.
Ø Its tusks are modified teeth. These can tear the bark of trees.
Ø The large ears of the elephant help it to hear even very soft sounds. They also help the elephant to
keep cool in the hot and humid climate of the rainforest.

Interesting points

· The weather reports are prepared by the Meteorological Department of the Government. This
department collects data on temperature, wind, etc., and makes the weather prediction.
· Rainfall is measured by an instrument called the rain gauge. It is a measuring cylinder with a
funnel on top to collect rainwater.

WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS TO CLIMATE

20
 WINDS, STORMS, AND CYCLONES
8
The moving air is called the wind. Wind speed plays an important role in the formation of storms and
cyclones. It is, therefore, important to measure the wind speed. The instrument that measures the wind
speed is called an anemometer.

Characteristics of Air:
· Air exerts pressure and this makes leaves of trees, banners, or flags flutter when the wind blows.
Increased wind speed is accompanied by reduced air pressure.
· Air moves from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure. The greater the difference in
pressure, the faster the air moves.
· Air expands on heating and contracts on cooling.
· Warm air expands and occupies more space. When the same thing occupies more space, it becomes
lighter. The warm air is, therefore, lighter than the cold air.
· Warm air rises up, whereas comparatively cooler air tends to sink towards the Earth's surface.
· As warm air rises, air pressure at that place is reduced and the cooler air from the surrounding areas
rushes in to fill its place. This sets up convection in the air.

Wind currents:
Wind currents are concentrated areas of winds resulting from wind movements. These are generated due
to uneven heating on the Earth in the following manner:
Uneven heating between the Equator and the Poles:
· Regions close to the Equator get maximum heat from the Sun. The air in these regions gets warm and
rises up.
· Cooler air from the regions in the 0-30 degrees latitude belt on either side of the Equator moves in.
These winds blow from the North and the South towards the Equator.
· At the poles, the air is colder than that at latitudes about 60 degrees. The warm air at these latitudes
rises up and the cold wind from the polar regions rushes in, to take its place.
· In this way, wind circulation is set up from the poles to the warmer latitudes.
· The winds do not flow in the exact north-south direction. A change in direction is caused by the
rotation of the Earth.
WINDS, STORMS, AND CYCLONES

Fig. 8.1: The wind flow pattern because of uneven heating on the Earth

21
Uneven heating of land and water:
· In Summer, land near the Equator warms up faster and most of the time the temperature of the land is
higher than that of water in the oceans.
· The air over the land gets heated and rises. This causes the winds to flow from the oceans towards the
land. These are monsoon winds.
· In Winter, the direction of the wind flow gets reversed and it flows from the land to the ocean.
· The winds from the oceans carry water and bring rain. It is a part of the water cycle.

Fig. 8.2: Uneven hea ng of land especially the

Fig. 8.2: Uneven heating of land especially
Rajasthan desert generates monsoon winds the Rajasthan desert generates monsoon
from southwest direc on in Summer. These winds from southwest direction in

· Thunderstorms develop in hot, humid tropical areas like India very frequently.
· The rising temperatures produce strong upward rising winds.
· These winds carry water droplets upwards, where they freeze and fall down again.
· The swift movement of the falling water droplets along with the rising air creates lightning and sound.
This event is called a thunderstorm.
Cyclones: WINDS, STORMS, AND CYCLONES

· Water requires heat to change from liquid to vapour state and hence when water vapor condenses into
the liquid it loses energy in the form of heat.
· Before cloud formation, water takes up heat from the atmosphere to change into vapour. When water
vapour changes back to liquid form as raindrops, this heat is released into the atmosphere.
· The heat released into the atmosphere warms the air around. The air tends to rise and causes a drop in
pressure.
· More air rushes to the centre of the storm and this cycle gets repeated.
· This chain of events ends with the formation of a very low-pressure system with very high-speed

22
 winds revolving around it. This weather condition is called a cyclone.
· Factors like wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and humidity contribute to the development of
cyclones.

Fig. 8.5 Formation of clouds, falling of

Fig. 8.4: Formation of a Cyclone rain, creation of storms and cyclone

Structure of a cyclone:
· The centre of a cyclone is a calm area. It is called the eye of the storm.
· A large cyclone is a violently rotating mass of air in the atmosphere, 10 to 15 km high.
· The diameter of the eye varies from 10 to 30 km. It is a region free of clouds and has light winds.
· Around this calm and clear eye, there is a cloud region of about 150 km in size. In this region, there are
WINDS, STORMS, AND CYCLONES

high-speed winds (150–250 km/h) and thick clouds with heavy rain.
· Away from this region, the wind speed gradually decreases.

Naming of the cyclone:

Cyclone is known by different names in different parts of the world. For example, it is called a 'hurricane' in
the American continent. In the Philippines and Japan, it is called a 'typhoon'.

23
 Fig. 8.6: Regions near the equator where cyclones form Fig. 8.7: Image of a tornado

Tornadoes:
· A tornado is a dark funnel-shaped cloud that reaches from the sky to the ground.
· Most of the tornadoes are weak. A violent tornado can travel at speeds of about 300 km/h.
· Tornadoes may form within cyclones.
· The diameter of a tornado can be as small as a meter and as large as a km, or even wider.
· The funnel of a tornado sucks dust, debris, and everything near it at the base (due to low pressure) and
throws them out near the top.
· In India, they are not very frequent.
Destruction caused by Cyclones:
Strong winds push water towards the shore even if the storm is hundreds of kilometers away. These are the
first indications of an approaching cyclone. The low pressure in the eye lifts the water surface in the centre.
The rising water may be as high as 3–12 meters. It appears like a water-wall moving towards the shore. As a
result, the seawater enters the low-lying coastal areas and causes:
· A tremendous loss of life and property.
· Reduction in the fertility of the soil.
· Extreme Flood situation due to Continuous heavy rainfall.
· Damage to houses, trees, communication systems, etc., due to High-speed winds.
The whole coastline of India is vulnerable to cyclones, particularly the East coast. The west coast of India is
less vulnerable to cyclonic storms both in terms of intensity and frequency of the cyclones.
Effective safety measures:
· A cyclone forecast and warning service.
· Rapid communication of warnings to the Government agencies, the ports, fishermen, ships, and to the WINDS, STORMS, AND CYCLONES

public.
· Construction of cyclone shelters in the cyclone-prone areas, and Administrative arrangements for
moving people fast to safer places.

Interesting points

· The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word 'Mausam', which means 'season'.

24
 SOIL
9
Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, etc. It is important for life on Earth and is a
prominent natural resource.
Role of Soil:
· It provides anchorage to the plants and supplies water and nutrients.
· It is the home for many organisms.
· It is essential for agriculture which provides food, clothing, and shelter for all.

Soil Formation:
· Soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks by the action of wind, water, and climate. This process
is called weathering.
· The nature of any soil depends upon the rocks from which it has been formed and the type of
vegetation that grows in it.
· Soil is affected by wind, rainfall, temperature, light, and humidity. These are some important climatic
factors that affect the soil profile and bring changes in the soil structure.

Soil Profile:
Soil is composed of distinct layers. A vertical section through different layers of the soil is called the Soil
profile. Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour, depth, and chemical composition. These layers are referred
to as horizons.

Fig. 9.1: Soil Profile

SOIL

25
 · The uppermost horizon is called the Topsoil or the A-horizon.
Ø It is generally dark in colour as it is rich in humus and minerals. The rotting dead matter in the soil is
called humus and it makes the soil fertile.
Ø It is generally soft, porous, and can retain more water.
Ø It provides shelter for many living organisms such as worms, rodents, moles, and beetles.
Ø The roots of small plants are embedded entirely in this layer.
· The next layer is called the B-horizon or the middle layer.
Ø It has a lesser amount of humus but more minerals.
Ø This layer is generally harder and more compact.
· The third layer is the C-horizon and is made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks and crevices.
· Below this layer is the bedrock, which is hard and difficult to dig with a spade.

Soil types:
Weathering of rocks produces small particles of various materials, i.e., sand and clay. Based on the
proportion of particles of various sizes, the soil is classified as sandy, clayey, and loamy.
Sandy Soil:
· It contains a greater proportion of big particles and there exist large spaces between them.
· These spaces are filled with air and hence sand is well aerated.
· Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles.
· Sandy soils tend to be light, well-aerated, and rather dry.
Clayey Soil:
· It contains a higher proportion of fine particles.
· Particles pack tightly together, leaving little space for air.
· Clayey soils can hold water in the tiny gaps between the particles, so they have less trapped air.
· They are heavy as they hold more water than the sandy soils.
Loamy Soil:
· It has the same amount of large and fine particles.
· It is a mixture of sand, clay, and another type of soil particle known as silt. Silt occurs as a deposit in
riverbeds. The size of the silt particles is between those of sand and clay.
· The loamy soil also has humus in it.
· It has the right water holding capacity for the growth of plants.

Properties of Soil:
· Percolation rate of water in Soil: It is the movement of the water through the soil. Percolation is
highest in the sandy soil and least in the clayey soil.
· Moisture in soil: It is the water stored in the soil. The capacity of soil to hold water is important for
various crops.
· Absorption of water by soil: It is the capacity of soil to add more water.
SOIL

26
 Soil and Crops:
Different types of soils are used to cultivate different types of crops. Components of soil along with climatic
factors determine the types of vegetation and crops that might grow in any region.
· Both Clayey and loamy soils are good at retaining water and are suitable for growing cereals like
wheat, and gram.
· Loamy soils can drain water easily and are good for growing Lentils (masoor) and other pulses.
· Sandy loam or loam soils can drain water easily and hold plenty of air thus suitable for Cotton.
· Fine clayey soils are rich in humus and are very fertile to grow crops such as Wheat.
· Soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are ideal for Paddy.

Interesting points

· Soil erosion: The removal of land surface by water, wind, or ice is known as erosion. Plant roots
firmly bind the soil. In the absence of plants, the soil becomes loose and can be moved by wind
and flowing water.
· Erosion of soil is more severe in areas of little or no surface vegetation, such as desert or bare
lands.
SOIL

27
 RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS
10
All living organisms respire to get energy from food. Breathing is a part of respiration.
Importance of Respiration:
· All organisms are made of small, microscopic units called Cells. Each cell of an organism performs
certain functions such as nutrition, transport, excretion, and reproduction.
· To perform these functions, the cell needs energy. The food has stored energy, which is released
during respiration.
· During respiration, inhaled air is transported to all parts of the body and ultimately to each cell.
· In the cells, oxygen in the air helps in the breakdown of food. The process of breakdown of food in the
cell with the release of energy is called cellular respiration.

Types of Respiration:
In the cell, the food (glucose) is broken down to release energy. Based on the use of oxygen, respiration is of
two types: Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration.
· Aerobic Respiration: In this, the breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen. Glucose breaks
down into carbon dioxide and water along with the release of energy, as given below:

· Anaerobic respiration: In this, the breakdown of glucose occurs without the use of oxygen. Glucose
breaks down into alcohol and carbon dioxide along with the release of energy, as given below:

Some organisms such as yeast can survive in the absence of air and get energy through anaerobic
respiration. They are called anaerobes.
During heavy exercise, fast running, etc., the energy demand is high but the supply of oxygen to produce the
energy is limited. Then anaerobic respiration takes place in the muscle cells to fulfill the energy demand:

RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS
The partial breakdown of glucose produces lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle
cramps. A hot water bath or massage improves the circulation of blood. As a result, the supply of oxygen to
the muscle cells increases. The increase in the supply of oxygen results in the complete breakdown of lactic
acid into carbon dioxide and water.

Breathing:
Breathing means taking in air rich in oxygen and giving out air rich in carbon dioxide with the help of
respiratory organs.
· The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is called inhalation and giving out of air rich in carbon

28
 dioxide is known as exhalation.
· The number of times a person breathes in a minute is termed as the breathing rate.
· During breathing, inhalation and exhalation take place alternately.
· A breath means one inhalation plus one exhalation.
Whenever a person needs extra energy, he/she breathes faster. As a result, more oxygen is supplied to our
cells. It speeds up the breakdown of food and more energy is released. On average, an adult human being
at rest breathes in and out 15–18 times in a minute. During heavy exercise, the breathing rate can increase
up to 25 times per minute.
Breathing in Humans:
· Air is taken through our nostrils. It passes through the nostrils into the nasal cavity.
· From the nasal cavity, the air reaches the lungs through the windpipe.
· Lungs are present in the chest cavity. This cavity is surrounded by ribs on the sides. A large, muscular
sheet called a diaphragm forms the floor of the chest cavity.
· Breathing involves the movement of the diaphragm and the rib cage.
· During inhalation, ribs move up and outwards and the diaphragm moves down. This movement
increases space in our chest cavity and air rushes into the lungs. The lungs get filled with air.
· During exhalation, ribs move down and inwards, while the diaphragm moves up to its former position.
This reduces the size of the chest cavity and the air is pushed out of the lungs.
RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS

Fig. 10.1: Human respiratory system

29
 Fig. 10.2: Mechanism of breathing in Humans

Breathing in other animals:

Animals such as elephants, cows, snakes, etc, have lungs in their chest cavities like human beings. Other
organisms such as cockroaches, fish, earthworms, etc. have distinct breathing mechanisms.
Cockroach:
A cockroach has small openings on the sides of its body called spiracles. Other insects also have similar
openings. Insects have a network of air tubes called tracheae for gas exchange. Oxygen-rich air rushes
through spiracles into the tracheal tubes, diffuses into the body tissue, and reaches every cell of the body.
Similarly, carbon dioxide from the cells goes into the tracheal tubes and moves out through spiracles.

RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS

Fig. 10.3: Tracheal system in Cockroach Fig. 10.4: Breathing organs in fish

Fish: Gills in fish help them to use oxygen dissolved in water. Gills are projections of the skin. Gills are well

30
 supplied with blood vessels for the exchange of gases.
Earthworm: Earthworms breathe through their skins. Gases can easily pass through them.
Frogs: Frogs have a pair of lungs like human beings. They can also breathe through their skin.

Respiration in Plants:
In plants, each part can independently take in oxygen from the air and give out carbon dioxide. Roots take up
air from the air spaces present between the soil particles. Leaves have tiny pores called stomata through
which they exchange gases. The breakdown of glucose in the plant cells is like that in other living beings.

Fig. 10.5: Roots absorb air from the Soil

Interesting points
RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS

· Yeasts are single-celled organisms. They respire anaerobically and during this process yield
alcohol. They are, therefore, used to make wine and beer.
· Regular traditional breathing exercise (pranayama) can increase the capacity of the lungs to
take in more air. Thus, more oxygen can be supplied to the body cells resulting in the release of
more energy.
· The percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air is different.

31
Fig. 10.6: Inhaled and exhaled air composition

RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS

32
 TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS
11 AND PLANTS
All organisms need food, water, and oxygen for survival. They need to transport all these to various
parts of their body. Also, they need to transport wastes to parts from where they can be removed.

Circulatory system in Humans

The essential components of the circulatory system in humans are blood, blood vessels, and the
heart.
· Blood: Blood is the fluid that flows in blood vessels and consists of plasma, Red blood cells
(RBC), White blood cells (WBC), and platelets. Its major roles are:
Ø It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of
the body.
Ø It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body.
Ø It also transports waste for removal from the body.

Blood is composed of a fluid, called plasma in which different types of cells are suspended.
Ø One type of cell is the Red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment called
haemoglobin. Haemoglobin binds with oxygen and transports it to all the parts of the
body and ultimately to all the cells. The presence of haemoglobin makes blood red.
Ø The blood also has White blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that may enter our
body.
Ø After an injury, a clot is formed at the place of bleeding because of the presence of another
type of cell in the blood, called platelets.

· Blood vessels: Blood vessels are like tubes in our body through which blood flows. There
are two types of blood vessels present in the body: Arteries and Veins.
Ø Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Since the blood
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

flow is rapid and at high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls.
Ø Veins are the vessels that carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body back
to the heart. The veins have thin walls. There are valves present in veins that allow blood to
flow only towards the heart.
Ø Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching the tissues, they divide further into
extremely thin tubes called capillaries. The capillaries join to form veins that empty into the
heart.
Ø Throbbing movement in vessels is called the pulse and it is due to the blood flowing in the
arteries. The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate. A resting person usually
has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats per minute.

· Heart: The heart is an organ that beats continuously to act as a pump for the transport of
blood which carries other substances with it.
Ø The heart is located in the chest cavity with its lower tip slightly tilted towards the left.

33
 Ø The heart is roughly the size of our fist.
Ø The heart has four chambers. The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing
up of blood rich in oxygen with the blood rich in carbon dioxide.
Ø The two upper chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium) and the two lower
chambers are called the ventricles.

Fig. 11.2: Schema c diagram of circula on Fig. 11.1: Sec ons of human heart

To understand the functioning of the circulatory system, start from the right side of the heart in
Fig. 11.2 and follow the arrows. These arrows show the direction of the blood flow from the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart from where it is pumped to the rest of the body.

TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Heartbeat: The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles. These muscles
contract and relax rhythmically. This rhythmic contraction followed by its relaxation constitutes
a heartbeat. Heartbeat can be felt with the help of an instrument called a stethoscope. It
amplifies the sound of the heart.

Circulatory system in other animals:

Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory system. The water in which
they live brings food and oxygen as it enters their bodies. The water carries away waste materials
and carbon dioxide as it moves out. Thus, these animals do not need a circulatory fluid like the
blood.
Excretion in Animals:
When our cells perform their functions, certain waste products are released. These are toxic and
hence need to be removed from the body. The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of
the living organisms is called excretion. The parts involved in excretion form the excretory system.

34
 The way in which waste chemicals are removed from the body of the animal depends on the
availability of water.
· Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste as ammonia which directly dissolves in water.
· Land animals like birds, lizards, snakes excrete a semi-solid, white-coloured compound (uric
acid).
Excretory system in Humans:
The excretory system of humans consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and
urethra.
· The process to filter the blood is done by the blood capillaries in the kidneys.
· When the blood reaches the kidneys, it contains both useful and harmful substances. The
useful substances are absorbed back into the blood.
· The wastes dissolved in water are removed as urine.
· From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through tube-like ureters.
· It is stored in the bladder and is passed out through the urinary opening at the end of a
muscular tube called the urethra.
· An adult human being normally passes about 1-1.8 L of urine in 24 hours. The urine consists
of 95% water, 2.5% urea, and 2.5% other waste products.
· Sweating is also a form of excretion in humans. It contains water and salts and helps to cool
our body.
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Fig. 11.3: Human excretory system

In case of kidney failure, waste products start accumulating in the blood and they need periodic
filtration through an artificial kidney. This process is called dialysis.

35
Transport of substances in Plants:
Plants take water and mineral nutrients from the soil through the roots and transport them to the
leaves. The leaves prepare food for the plant, using water and carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis.
Transport of water and minerals: Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have
root hair. The root hair increases the surface area of the root for the absorption of water and mineral
nutrients dissolved in water.

Fig. 11.4: Transport of water and minerals in (a) a sec on of root, (b) a tree

Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil. The vessels are made
of special cells, forming the vascular tissue. A tissue is a group of cells that perform a specialized
function in an organism. Xylem and phloem transport substances in plants.
· The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the xylem.
· The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to the leaves

TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

through the stem and branches and thus transports water to the entire plant.
· The vascular tissue for the transport of food to the various parts of the plant is called the
phloem.

Transpiration: The water evaporates through the stomata present on the surface of the leaves by
process of transpiration. Transpiration generates a force that pulls up water absorbed by the roots
from the soil, to reach the stem and leaves. Transpiration also cools the plant.

Interesting points

· The English physician, William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of

blood.

36
 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
12
Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms called "offspring" are
produced from their parents.

Modes of Reproduction:
There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are categorized into two types:
Asexual reproduction, and Sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction:
In asexual reproduction, new plants are obtained without the production of seeds. Following are its major
types:
· Vegetative propagation: It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from
roots, stems, leaves, and buds. Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is
known as vegetative propagation. Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow
and bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds. The new plants are exact copies
of the parent plant, as they are produced from a single parent.
· Budding: The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is called a bud. The bud
gradually grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms a new yeast cell. The new yeast cell
grows, matures, and produces more yeast cells. Sometimes, another bud arises from the bud forming a
chain of buds.
· Fragmentation: When water and nutrients are available, algae break up into two or more fragments.
These fragments or pieces grow into new individuals.
· Spore formation: Spores are asexual reproductive bodies. Under favourable conditions, a spore
germinates and develops into a new individual. Plants such as moss and ferns reproduce by this mean.

Sexual Reproduction:
· In sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds which are produced by the fusion of a
male and a female gamete present in the flower of the plant.
· The flower is the reproductive part of a plant and consists of Stamen and Pistil.
· Stamens are the male reproductive part and consist of Anther and Filament. The anther contains
pollen grains which produce male gametes.
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

· The pistil is the female reproductive part. A pistil consists of stigma, style, and ovary. The ovary
contains one or more ovules. The female gamete or the egg is formed in an ovule.
· A male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote.
· Flowers that contain either only pistil or only stamens are called unisexual flowers. Corn, papaya, and
cucumber produce unisexual flowers.
· Flowers that contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual flowers. Mustard, rose and petunia
has bisexual flowers.
· Both male and female unisexual flowers may be present in the same plant or in different plants.

37
 Fig. 12.1: Reproduc ve parts

Pollination:
The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination. It takes place in plants
with the help of wind, water, and insects. It is of two types: self-pollination, and cross-pollination.
· If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant, it is called self-
pollination.
· When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of a flower of a different plant of the same kind, it is
called cross-pollination.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Fig. 12.2: Pollination in Flower Fig. 12.3: Fertilization (Zygote formation)

38
 Fertilization: The process of fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. The cell which results
after the fusion of the gametes is called a zygote which develops into an embryo.

Fruits and seed formation: After fertilization, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off.
The fruit is the ripened ovary. The seeds develop from the ovules. The seed contains an embryo enclosed in
a protective seed coat.

Seed dispersal: Seed dispersal is the movement, spread, or transport of seeds away from the parent plant.
It helps the plants to prevent overcrowding, avoid competition for sunlight, water and minerals and invade
new habitats. It is aided by the wind, water, and animals.
· By wind: Winged seeds of drumstick and maple, light seeds of grasses or hairy seeds of Aak (Madar),
and hairy fruit of sunflower get blown off with the wind to faraway places.
· By water: Coconut seeds have the floating ability in the form of the spongy or fibrous outer coat.
· By animals: Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially Spiny seeds Xanthium and Urena get
attached with hooks of animals and are carried to distant places.
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

39
 MOTION AND TIME
13
Key Terms and Facts:
· Motion could be along a straight line, circular or periodic.
· The speed of objects helps us to decide which one is moving faster than the other. The distance moved
by an object in a unit time is called its speed. Its basic unit is meter per second (m/s). It could also be
expressed in other units such as m/min or km/h.
Speed = Total distance covered / Total time taken
· If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, its motion is said to be non-
uniform. On the other hand, an object moving along a straight line with a constant speed is said to be in
uniform motion.
· Periodic events are used for the measurement of time. The periodic motion of a pendulum has been
used to make clocks and watches.
· Nowadays most clocks or watches have an electric circuit with one or more cells. These clocks are
called quartz clocks. The time measured by quartz clocks is much more accurate.
· Sundials, water clocks, and sand clocks are some other examples of time measuring devices.
· The basic unit of time is a second. Its symbol is s. Larger units of time are minutes (min) and hours (h).
· Symbols of all units are written in the singular. For example, 50 km and not 50 kms, or 8 cm and not 8
cms.
· The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a constant speed is a straight line.

MOTION AND TIME

40
 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS
14
Key Terms and Facts:
· It is convenient to represent electric components by symbols. Using these, an electric circuit can be
represented by a circuit diagram.
· When an electric current flow through a wire, the wire gets heated. It is the heating effect of current.
This effect has many applications such as Electric Heater, Bulb.
· The filament (thin wire) of an electric bulb gets heated to such a high temperature that it starts glowing.
· Wires made from some special materials melt quickly and break when large electric currents are
passed through them. These materials are used for making electric fuses that prevent fires and
damage to electric appliances and act as a safety device.
· When an electric current flow through a wire, it behaves like a magnet. This is the magnetic effect of
the electric current.
· A current-carrying coil of an insulated wire wrapped around a piece of iron is called an electromagnet.
· Electromagnets are used in many devices such as Electric bell, magnetic separator, etc.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS

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 Light
15
Key Terms and Facts:
· Light travels along the straight lines.
· Any polished or shining surface acts as a mirror.
· The mirror changes the direction of light that falls on it. This change of direction by a mirror is called the
reflection of light.
· An image formed by a plane mirror is erect, virtual, of the same size, and is at the same distance from
the mirror as the object is in front of it. The image is formed behind the mirror.
· In the mirror, the 'right' appears 'left' and the 'left' appears 'right'. Only sides are interchanged; the
image does not appear upside down.
· If the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is concave, it is called a concave mirror. If the reflecting
surface is convex, then it is a convex mirror.

Fig. 15.1: (a) A concave and (b) a convex mirror

· The image formed by a concave mirror can be smaller or larger in size than the object. The image may
also be real or virtual.
· A concave mirror can form a real and inverted image. When the object is placed very close to the
mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect, and magnified.
· Concave mirrors are used for many purposes such as medical examination, torch reflectors, headlights
of cars and scooters, etc.
· An image formed by a convex mirror is erect, virtual, and smaller in size than the object.
· Convex mirrors are used as side mirrors in automobiles.
· Lenses are widely used in spectacles, telescopes, and microscopes.
· Those lenses which feel thicker in the middle than at the edges are Convex lenses. Those which feel
Light

thinner in the middle than at the edges are Concave lenses.

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 Fig. 15.2: (a) A convex lens (converging) and (b) a concave (diverging) lens

· A convex lens can form a real and inverted image. When the object is placed very close to the lens, the
image formed is virtual, erect, and magnified.
· When used to see objects magnified, the convex lens is called a magnifying glass.
· A concave lens always forms an erect, virtual, and smaller image than the object.
· A convex lens converges (bends inward) the light generally falling on it. Therefore, it is called a
converging lens. On the other hand, a concave lens diverges (bends outward) the light and is called a
diverging lens.
· White light is composed of seven colours: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red
(VIBGYOR).
Light

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 WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE
16
Water is essential for all living beings. There can be no life without it. Even plants wilt and ultimately dry-up if
they are not watered for a few days.

Water availability:

About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered with water stored in the seas and oceans, rivers, lakes, ice caps,
as groundwater, and in the atmosphere. However, most of this water is not fit for human consumption
directly. The water that is fit for use is freshwater and it is roughly 0.006% of all water found on the Earth.

Forms of Water:
Water on the Earth has been maintained for millions of years by various processes that make the water
cycle. When water circulates through the water cycle it can be found in all three forms, i.e., solid, liquid, and
gas - at any given time somewhere on the Earth.
· The solid form (snow and ice) is present as ice caps at the poles of the Earth, snow-covered mountains,
and glaciers.
· Liquid water is present in oceans, lakes, rivers, and even underground.
· The gaseous form is the water vapour present in the air around us.
The continuous cycling of water among its three forms keeps the total amount of water on the Earth constant
even when the whole world is using it.
Sources of Freshwater:
Rivers, lakes, ponds, wells, handpumps, etc. are major sources of fresh water.
Groundwater as an important source of water:
Below ground, there is a level where all the space between particles of soil and gaps between rocks are filled
with water. The upper level of this layer is called the water table. The water found below the water table is
called groundwater.

WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE

Fig. 16.1: Groundwater and water table

44
 The rainwater and water from other sources such as rivers and ponds seeps through the soil and fills the
empty spaces and cracks deep below the ground. The process of seeping water into the ground is called
infiltration. The groundwater thus gets recharged by this process.
At places, the groundwater is stored between layers of hard rock below the water table. This is known as an
aquifer. Water in the aquifers can be usually pumped out with the help of tube wells or handpumps.

Depletion of Water table:

Water drawn from under the ground gets restored by seepage of rainwater. The water table does not get
affected until water extraction is replenished by natural processes. Water table depletion may happen due to
many reasons:
· Increase in population
· Rapid growth of industries
· Growing irrigation requirements
· Scanty rainfall
· Deforestation
· Decrease in the effective area for seepage of water

Water management:
Water shortage has become a matter of concern throughout the world. It is estimated that in a few years
from now more than one-third of the people in the world could face water scarcity making Water is a
precious natural resource. Some measures to manage water are:
· Wastage of water during the supply of water through pipes, the leaking taps in buildings and other
places need to be rectified.
· Unnecessary use of water and overdrawing from groundwater should be avoided.
· The rainwater can be used to recharge the groundwater. This is referred to as water harvesting or
rainwater harvesting. Bawri was the traditional way of collecting water in India.
· Technological interventions can make water use in agriculture more economic. Drip irrigation is a
technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubes that deliver water directly at the base of
the plant.
WATER: A PRECIOUS RESOURCE

Interesting points

· 22 March is celebrated as World Water Day.

· The year 2003 was observed as the International Year of Freshwater to make people aware of this
dwindling natural resource.
· The amount of water recommended by the United Nations for drinking, washing, cooking, and
maintaining proper hygiene is a minimum of 50 liters per person per day.
· Case Study: A band of social workers has transformed a dry area in the Alwar district into a green
place. They have revived five dried-up rivers - Arveri, Ruparel, Sarsa, Bhagani, and Jahazwali by
constructing water harvesting structures.

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 FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE
17
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. It is a system comprising various plants, animals, and micro-
organisms.

Organization of the Forest:

· In a forest, trees form the uppermost layer, followed by shrubs. The herbs form the lowest layer of
vegetation.
· Trees have crowns of different types and sizes which creates different horizontal layers in the forest
and are known as understoreys.
· The branchy part of a tree above the stem is known as the crown.
· Branches of the tall trees look like a roof over the other plants in the forest and is called a canopy.

Forest as a system:
The various components of the forest are interdependent on one another.
· Green plants produce food. All animals, whether herbivores or carnivores depend ultimately on plants
for food.
· Organisms that feed on plants often get eaten by other organisms, and so on. For example, the grass is
eaten by insects, which in turn, is taken by the frog. The frog is consumed by snakes. This is said to form
a food chain:
Grass➜ Insects➜ Frog➜ Snake➜ Eagle
Many food chains can be found in the forest. All food chains are linked. If any food chain is disturbed, it affects
other food chains.
· There is an interaction between soil, water, air, and living organisms. For example, Mushrooms and
other micro-organisms feed upon the dead plant and animal tissues and convert them into a dark-
coloured substance called humus. Such micro-organisms are known as decomposers. The presence
of humus ensures that the nutrients of the dead plants and animals are released into the soil. Dead
animals become food for vultures, crows, jackals, and insects. In this way, the nutrients are cycled, and
nothing goes to waste in a forest.
· The forest is a 'dynamic living entity' — full of life and vitality.” The various components of the forest
like trees, animals, soil, etc. help forests to grow and regenerate. For example, Animals disperse plant
seeds, animal dung provides nutrients to the seedlings to grow, Decomposers help in maintaining the
FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE

supply of nutrients to the growing plants in the forest, etc.

Importance of Forests:
· Plants release oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. The plants help to provide oxygen for
animal respiration. They also maintain the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
That is why forests are called green lungs.

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 Fig 17.1: Balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide

· Forests are the lifeline for the forest-dwelling communities. The forest provides them with food,
shelter, water, timber, and medicines. They have traditional knowledge about many medicinal plants in
the forest.
· The dense bushes and the tall grass provide animals with food and shelter. They also protect them
from carnivores that live in the forest.
· Forest also acts as a natural absorber of rainwater and allows it to seep. It helps maintain the water
table throughout the year.
· Forests not only help in controlling floods but also help maintain the flow of water in the streams.
· They protect soil and provide habitat to many animals.
· Forests help in bringing good rainfall in neighbouring areas.
· Forests also influence climate, water cycle, and air quality.

Deforestation:
Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides the forest. Nowadays,
forests are on the verge of disappearing due to overgrazing of animals, indiscriminate felling of trees, etc.
Following are some harmful impacts of deforestation:
· If forests disappear, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air will increase, resulting in the increase of
Earth's temperature.
FORESTS: OUR LIFELINE

· In the absence of trees and plants, the animals will not get food and shelter.
· Roots of trees normally bind the soil together, but in their absence, the soil is washed away or eroded.
· In the absence of trees, the soil will not hold water, which will cause floods.
Deforestation will endanger our life and the environment. Doing things wisely could preserve the forests as
well as the environment.

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 WASTE WATER STORY
18
Wastewater is the dirty black-brown water that goes down the drains from sinks, showers, toilets,
laundries and is rich in lather and oil. Cleaning of water is a process of removing pollutants before it enters a
water body or is reused. This process of wastewater treatment is commonly known as “Sewage Treatment”
and it takes place in several stages.

Sewage:
Sewage is wastewater released by homes, industries, hospitals, offices, and other users. It also includes
rainwater that has run down the street during a storm or heavy rain.
It is a complex mixture containing suspended solids, organic and inorganic impurities, nutrients,
saprophytes, and disease-causing bacteria and other microbes. These include the following:

Organic impurities Human faeces, animal waste, oil, urea (urine), pesticides, herbicides,
fruit, and vegetable waste, etc

Inorganic impurities Nitrates, Phosphates, metals

Nutrients Phosphorus and Nitrogen

Bacteria Such as Vibrio cholerae which causes cholera and Salmonella

paratyphi which causes typhoid.

Other microbes Such as protozoans which cause dysentery.

A network of big and small pipes, called sewers, forms the Sewerage system. It is like a transport system
that carries sewage from the point of being produced to the point of disposal, i.e., treatment plant.

Wastewater Treatment:
Treatment of wastewater involves physical, chemical, and biological processes, which remove physical,
chemical, and biological matter that contaminates the wastewater. A Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP)
has the following stages:
WASTEWATER STORY

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 WASTEWATER STORY

49
The treated water has a very low level of organic material and suspended matter and is discharged into a
sea, a river, or into the ground. Nature cleans it up further. Sometimes it is required to disinfect water with
chemicals like chlorine and ozone before releasing it into the distribution system.
By-products of wastewater treatment are sludge and biogas. Dried sludge is used as manure, returning
organic matter and nutrients to the soil. Also, the biogas can be used as fuel or can be used to produce
electricity.

Alternative arrangements for Sewage disposal:

· Where underground sewerage systems and refuse disposal systems are not available, the low-cost
on-site sanitation system can be adopted such as septic tanks, chemical toilets, composting pits, etc.
· Hygienic on-site human waste disposal technology can also be employed in toilets that do not
require scavenging. Excreta from the toilet seats flow through covered drains into a biogas plant which
produces electricity.
· Vermi-processing toilet is another such technology in which human excreta is treated by earthworms.
The human excreta is completely converted to Verm-cakes.
Sanitation and Disease:
Poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water are the major causes of many diseases.
· Untreated human excreta is a health hazard. It may cause water pollution and soil pollution and can
result in water-borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, polio, meningitis, hepatitis, and dysentery.
· An open-drain system is a breeding place for flies, mosquitoes, and organisms which cause diseases.
In the year 2016, the Government of India has initiated a new mission known as “Swachh Bharat”
under which a lot of drives such as proper sewage disposal and providing toilets for everyone have
been started.

Adopting good sanitation practices should be our way of life. Mahatma Gandhi has said “No one need to
wait for anyone else to adopt a humane and enlightened course of action.

Interesting points

· Realizing the urgency of the water scarcity on World Water Day, on 22 March 2005, the General
Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the period 2005–2015 as the International Decade
WASTEWATER STORY

for action on “Water for life”.

· It is generally advised to plant eucalyptus trees all along the sewage ponds as these trees absorb
all surplus wastewater rapidly and release pure water vapor into the atmosphere.

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