it's easy to divide each cell into two major parts: 1. the nucleus and 2.

the cyto-
plasm. The cytoplasm is the portion of the cell outside the nucleus. Both the nucleus
and the cytoplasm work together in the business of life. The interior of a prokaryotic
cell, which lacks a nucleus, is also referred to as the cytoplasm.
organelles, literally "little organs."
Comparing the Cell to a Factory In some respects, the eukaryotic cell is much like a
living version of a modern factory, The different organelles of the cell can be
compared to the specialized machines and assembly lines of a factory.
The Nucleus the main office controls a large factory, the nucleus is the control center
of the cell. The nucleus contains nearly all the cell's DNA and, with it, the coded
instructions for making proteins and other important molecules.
Only eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is found in the
cytoplasm.
The nucleus, is surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of two membranes. The
nuclear envelope is dotted with thousands of nuclear pores, which allow material to
move into and out of the nucleus. Like messages, instructions.
a steady stream of proteins, the nucleic acid RNA, and other molecules move
through the nuclear pores to and from the rest of the cell. Chromosomes, which
carry the cell's genetic information, are also found in the nucleus. Most of the time,
the threadlike chromosomes are spread throughout the nucleus in the form of
chromatin—a complex of DNA bound to proteins. When a cell divides, its
chromosomes condense and can be seen under a microscope.
Organelles That Build Proteins Because proteins carry out so many of the essential
functions of living things, including the synthesis of other macromolecules such as
lipids and carbohydrates, a big part of the cell is devoted to their production and
distribution.
Ribosomes One of the most important jobs carried out in the cellular "factory" is
making proteins. & Proteins are assembled on ribosomes. Ribosomes are small
particles of RNA and protein found throughout the cytoplasm in both eukaryotes and
prokaryotes. Ribosomes produce proteins by following coded instructions that come
from DNA.
Each ribosome, in its own way, is like a small machine in a factory, turning out
proteins on orders that come from its DNA "boss." Cells that are especially active in
protein synthesis often contain large numbers of ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Eukaryotic cells contain an interal membrane system known
as the endoplasmic reticulum ER. The endoplasmic reticulum is where lipids,
including those needed for the cell membrane, are synthesized, along with proteins
and other materials that are exported from the cell.

The portion of the ER involved in the synthesis of proteins is called rough

endoplasmic reticulum, or rough ER. It is given this name because of the ribosomes
found on its surface. Newly made proteins leave these ribosomes and enter the
rough ER, where they may be chemically modified.

Proteins made on the rough ER include those that will be released, or secreted, from
the cell; many membrane proteins; and proteins destined for other specialized
locations within the cell. Rough ER is abundant in cells that produce large amounts of
protein for export. Other cellular proteins are made on "free" ribosomes, which are
not attached to membranes. The other portion of the ER is known as smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) because ribosomes are not found on its surface.
In many cells, the smooth ER contains collections of enzymes that perform
specialized tasks, including the synthesis of lipids and the detoxification of drugs.
Smooth ER also plays an important role in the synthesis of carbohydrates.
Golgi Apparatus In eukaryotic cells, proteins produced in the rough ER move next
into an organelle called the Golgi apparatus, which appears as a stack of flattened
membranes. As proteins leave the rough ER, molecular "address tags" get them to
the right destinations. As these tags are "read" by the cell, the proteins are bun- died
into tiny membrane-enclosed structures called vesicles that bud from the ER and
carry the proteins to the Golgi apparatus, The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and
packages proteins and other materials from the endoplasmic reticulum for storage in
the cell or release from the cell. The Golgi apparatus is somewhat like a
customization shop.

Organelles That Store, Clean Up, and Support

Vacuoles and Vesicles Every factory needs a place to store things, and so does every
cell. Many cells contain vacuoles, which are large saclike, membrane-enclosed
structures. Vacuoles store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates. In
many plant cells, there is a single large central vacuole filled with liquid. The pressure
of the central vacuole in these cells increases their rigidity, making it possible for
plants to support heavy structures, such as leaves and flowers.
Vacuoles are found in many eukaryotic cells. The paramecium contains an organelle
called a contractile vacuole, which pumps excess water out of the cell. In addition,
nearly all eukaryotic cells contain smaller membrane- enclosed structures called
vesicles. Vesicles store and move material between cell organelles, as well as to and
from the cell surface.
Lysosomes Lysosomes are small organelles filled with enzymes. Lysosomes break
down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins into small molecules that can be used by
the rest of the cell. They are also involved in breaking down organelles that have
outlived their usefulness. Lysosomes perform the vital function of removing "junk"
that might otherwise accumulate and clutter up the cell. A number of rare but
serious human diseases can be traced to lysosomes that fail to function properly.
Biologists once thought only animal cells contained lysosomes, but it is now clear
that a few types of plant cells contain them as well.

The Cytoskeleton Eukaryotic cells are given their shape and internal organization by a
network of protein filaments known as the cytoskeleton. Certain parts of the
cytoskeleton also help transport materials between different parts of the cell, much
like the conveyor belts that carry materials from one part of a factory to another.
Cytoskeletal components may also be involved in moving the entire cell, as in cell
flagella and cilia. The cytoskeleton helps the cell maintain its shape and is also
involved in movement.
Microfilaments (pale purple) and microtubules (yellow) are two of the principal
protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton.

Microfilaments are threadlike structures made up of a protein called actin. They form
extensive networks in some cells and produce a tough, flexible framework that
supports the cell. Microfilaments also help cells move. Microfilament assembly and
dis- assembly are responsible for the cytoplasmic movements that allow amoebas
and other cells to crawl along surfaces. Microtubules are hollow structures made up
of proteins known as tubulins. In many cells, they play critical roles in maintaining cell
shape. Microtubules are also important in cell division, where they form a structure
known as the mitotic spindle, which helps to separate chromosomes. In animal cells,
organelles called centrioles are also formed from tubulins. Centrioles are located
near the nucleus and help organize cell division. Centrioles are not found in plant
cells.
Microtubules also help build projections from the cell surface known as cilia
(singular: cilium) and flagella (singular: flagellum)— that enable cells to swim rapidly
through liquid.
Organelles That Capture and Release Energy
Chloroplasts are the biological equivalents of solar power plants. Chloroplasts
capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy stored in food
during photosynthesis. Two membranes surround chloroplasts. Inside the organelle
are large stacks of other membranes, which contain the green pigment chlorophyll.
Mitochondria Nearly all eukaryotic cells, including plants, contain mitochondria
Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell. Mitochondria convert the chemical
energy stored in food molecules into compounds that are more convenient for the
cell to use. Like chloroplasts, two membranes—an outer membrane and an inner
membrane enclose mitochondria. The inner membrane is folded up inside the
organelle,
Cellular Boundaries all cells are surrounded by a barrier known as the cell mem-
brane. Many cells, including most prokaryotes, also produce a strong supporting layer
around the membrane known as a cell wall.
Cell Walls Many organisms have cell walls that lie just outside their cell membranes.
The main function of the cell wall is to support, shape, and protect the cell. Most
prokaryotes and many eukaryotes, including plants and fungi, have cell walls,
although animal cells do not. Most cell walls are porous enough to allow water,
oxygen, car- bon dioxide, and certain other substances to pass through easily. Cell
walls provide much of the strength needed for plants to stand against the force of
gravity. In trees and other large plants, nearly all of the tissue we call wood is made
up of cell walls. The cellulose fiber used for paper as well as the lumber used for
building comes from these walls. So if you are reading these words from a sheet of
paper in a book resting on a wooden desk, you've got cell walls all around you.
Cell Membranes All cells contain cell membranes, generally made up of a double-
layered sheet called a lipid bilayer lipid bilayer gives cell membranes a flexible
structure that forms a strong barrier between the cell and its surroundings. The cell
membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also protects and supports
the cell.

The Properties of Lipids The layered structure of cell membranes reflects the
chemical properties of the lipids that make them up. You may recall that many lipids
have oily fatty acid chains attached to chemical groups that interact strongly with
water. In the language of a chemist, the fatty acid portions of this kind of lipid are
hydrophobic or "water-hating." while the opposite end of the molecule is
hydrophilic), or "water-loving." When these lipids, which are common in cell
membranes, are mixed with water, their hydrophobic fatty acid "tails" cluster
together, while their hydrophilic "heads" are attracted to water. A lipid bilayer is the
result. the head groups of lipids are exposed on both sides of the membrane, while
the fatty acid tails form an oily layer inside the membrane that keeps water from
passing across it. Although many substances can cross cell membranes, some are too
large or too strongly charged to cross the lipid bilayer. If a substance is able to cross a
membrane, the membrane is said to be permeable to it. A membrane is
impermeable to substances that cannot pass across it. Most cell membranes are
selectively permeable, meaning that some substances can pass across them and
others cannot. Selectively permeable membranes are also called semipermeable
membranes.
The Fluid Mosaic Model Protein molecules are embedded in the lipid bilayer of
most cell membranes. Carbohydrate molecules are attached to many of these
proteins. Because the proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer can move around and
"float" among the lipids, and because so many different kinds of molecules make up
the cell membrane, scientists describe the cell membrane as a "fluid mosaic." (A
mosaic is a kind of art, such as the example shown in Figure 8-15, that involves
putting bits and pieces of different colors or materials together.) Some of these
proteins form channels and pumps that help to move material across the cell
membrane. Many of the carbohydrate molecules act like chemical identification
cards, allowing individual cells to identify one another. Some proteins attach directly
to the cytoskeleton, enabling cells to respond to their environment by using their
membranes to help move or change shape.

Passive Transport
Homeostasis is a state of relatively constant internal physical and chemical conditions
by regulating the movement of molecules and other substances from one side of the
membrane to the other side.
Diffusion The process by which particles move from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration. It is known as diffusion it is the driving force
behind the movement of many substances across the cell membrane.
EX: When you add sugar to coffee or tea, for example, the sugar molecules move away
from their original positions in the sugar crystals and disperse throughout the hot
liquid.
Passive transport:
Diffusion depends on random molecular movements. Therefore, substances diffuse
across membranes without requiring the cell to use additional energy. ‹ The movement
of molecules across the cell membrane without using cellular energy is called passive
transport.
Facilitated Diffusion Since cell membranes are built around lipid bilayers, the
molecules that pass through them most easily are small and uncharged. These
properties allow them to dissolve in the membrane's lipid environment. But many
charged ions, like Cl*, and large molecules, like the sugar glucose, seem to pass
through cell membranes very quickly, as if they have a shortcut.
How does this happen?
Proteins in the cell membrane act as carriers, or channels, making it easy for certain
molecules to cross. Red blood cells, for example, have protein carriers that allow the
sugar glucose to pass through them in either direction. These channels facilitate, or
help, the diffusion of glucose across the membrane.
In facilitated diffusion, molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the membrane
pass through special protein channels. Hundreds of different proteins allow
substances to cross cell membranes. Although facilitated diffusion is fast and specific
to certain molecules, it is still diffusion, so it does not require any use of the cell's
energy.
Osmosis: An Example of Facilitated Diffusion In the 1990s, researchers discovered
that water should be added to the list of molecules that enter cells by facilitated
diffusion. Recall that the inside of a cell's lipid bilayer is hydrophobic. As a result,
water molecules cannot easily diffuse through the cell membrane.
However, many cells contain water channel proteins, known as aquaporins that
allow water to pass right through them, The movement of water through cell mem-
branes by facilitated diffusion plays a role in an extremely important biological
process- the process of osmosis.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. In
osmosis, molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration. The only difference is that the molecules moving in the case of
osmosis are water molecules, not solute molecules.
How Osmosis Works?
The barrier is permeable to water but not to sugar. This means that water can cross
the barrier in both directions, but sugar cannot. To start, there are more sugar
molecules on the right side of the barrier than on the left side. Therefore, the
concentration of water is lower on the right, where more of the solution is made of
sugar. Although water molecules move in both directions across the membrane,
there is a net transport of water toward the concentrated sugar solution. Water will
tend to move across the membrane until equilibrium is reached. At that point, the
concentrations of water and sugar will be the same on both sides of the membrane.
When this happens, the two solutions will be isotonic, which means "same
strength." Note that "strength" refers to the amount of solute, not water. When the
experiment began, the more concentrated sugar solution on the right side of the
tube was hypertonic, or "above strength," compared to the left side. So the dilute
sugar solution was hypotonic, or "below strength.
Osmotic Pressure Driven by differences in solute concentration, the net movement
of water out of or into a cell produces a force known as osmotic pressure. osmotic
pressure can cause an animal cell in a hypertonic solution to shrink and one in a
hypotonic solution to swell. Because cells contain salts, sugars, proteins, and other
dissolved molecules, they are almost always hypertonic to fresh water. As a result,
water tends to move quickly into a cell surrounded by fresh water, causing it to swell.
Eventually, the cell may burst like an overinflated balloon, In plant cells,
osmotic pressure can cause changes in the size of the central vacuole, which
shrinks or swells as water moves into or out of the cell.
Active Transport
The movement of materials against a concentration difference is known as active
transport, and it requires energy. The active transport of small molecules or
ions across a cell membrane is generally carried out by transport proteins-protein
pumps-that are found in the membrane.
Larger molecules and clumps of material can also be actively transported
across the cell membrane by processes known as endocytosis
and exocytosis. The transport of these larger materials sometimes involves changes
in the shape of the cell membrane.
The major types of active transport are:
1.Molecular Transport Small molecules and ions are carried across membranes by
proteins in the membrane that act like pumps. Many cells use protein pumps to
move calcium, potassium, and sodium ions across cell membranes.
Cells spend a considerable portion of their energy use on molecular transport.
The use of energy in these systems enables cells to concentrate substances in a
particular location, even when the forces of diffusion might tend to move these
substances in the opposite direction.
2.Bulk Transport Larger molecules and even solid clumps of mate-rial can be
transported by movements of the cell membrane known as bulk transport. Bulk
transport can take several forms, depending on the size and shape of the material
moved into or out of the cell.
Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell
by engulfing it with the cell membrane, and bringing it into the cell.
Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and
releasing their contents to the outside of the cell.

Cell Transport
homeostasis
homeostasis relatively constant internal physical and chemical conditions that
organisms maintain

diffusion
process by which particles tend to move from an area where they are more
concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated
facilitated diffusion
process of diffusion in which molecules pass across the membrane through
cell membrane channels

aquaporin
water channel protein in a cell

osmosis
diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

isotonic
when the concentration of two solutions is the same

hypertonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration
of solutes

hypotonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration
of solutes

osmotic pressure
pressure that must be applied to prevent osmotic movement across a
selectively permeable membrane
Cell transport refers to the movement of substances in and out of cells. There are
two main types of cell transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane

without the need for energy. It includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water
molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. Facilitated diffusion involves
the use of protein channels to transport molecules across the membrane.

Active transport, on the other hand, requires the expenditure of energy to move
substances against their concentration gradient. This process involves specific
carrier proteins that pump molecules or ions across the membrane. Active
transport allows cells to maintain internal concentrations different from their
surroundings and is essential for functions like nutrient uptake and waste removal.

Passive transport:
1. Diffusion: The movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of water molecules across a selectively
permeable membrane.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The movement of molecules across the
membrane with the help of protein channels.

Active transport:
1. Sodium-potassium pump: Uses energy to pump sodium ions out of
the cell and potassium ions into the cell.
2. Proton pump: Transports hydrogen ions across membranes, creating
an electrochemical gradient.
3. Endocytosis: Engulfs substances by forming vesicles that enter the cell.
4. Exocytosis: Releases substances by fusing vesicles with the cell
membrane and expelling their contents.