General Biology

CELL STRUCTURE
CELL  The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic
acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is
the site of ribosome formation.
 The nucleus determines how the cell will function,
as well as the basic structure of that cell.

Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is the gel-
like fluid inside the
cell. It is the medium
for chemical reaction.
 It provides a platform
 A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, upon which other organelles can
the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. operate within the cell
Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of  All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and
fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell.
miniscule but distinct structures called organelles. Within the cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a
 The interior of human cells is divided into physical process that can work only for short
the nucleus and the cytoplasm. distances.
 The nucleus is a spherical or oval-shaped structure at
the center of the cell.
 The cytoplasm is the region outside the nucleus that
contains cell organelles and cytosol, or cytoplasmic
solution.
 Intracellular fluid is collectively the cytosol and the
fluid inside the organelles and the cell nucleus.
Cytoplasmic organelles
 Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that
Cell Membrane are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a
 Membranes are the specific role in the function of the cell. Examples of
gateways to the cell. cytoplasmic organelles
 The cell membrane (or are mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic
plasma membrane) is the reticulum, golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.
selective barrier
surrounding the cell. 1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It provides a barrier to o Basically, an
the movement of molecules. endoplasmic
 The cell membrane separates the material outside the reticulum is a
cell, extracellular, from the material inside the plasma membrane
cell, intracellular. found inside the cell that
 It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls folds in on itself to
passage of materials into and out of the cell. All create an internal
materials within a cell must have access to the cell space known as the
membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed lumen.
exchange. o This lumen is actually continuous with the
 The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid
perinuclear space, so we know the endoplasmic
molecules. Proteins in the cell membrane provide
reticulum is attached to the nuclear envelope.
structural support, form channels for passage of
o There are actually two different endoplasmic
materials, act as receptor sites, function
reticuli in a cell: the smooth endoplasmic
as carrier molecules, and provide identification
markers. reticulum and the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
o The rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of
protein production (where we make our major
Nucleus and Nucleolus product - the toy) while the smooth endoplasmic
 The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a reticulum is where
fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of the cell. lipids (fats) are made
 Threads of chromatin in the nucleus (accessories for the toy,
contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), but not the central
the genetic material of the cell. product of the factory).
General Biology
CELL STRUCTURE
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (you generally wouldn’t ship just one toy and expect
o it synthesizes lipids, phospholipids as in plasma to profit).
membranes, and steroids.
o Cells that secrete these products, such as cells of  Lysosome: The final destination for proteins coming
the testes, ovaries, and skin oil glands, have an through the Golgi is the lysosome. Vesicles sent to
excess of this acidic organelle contain enzymes that will
o smooth endoplasmic reticulum. hydrolyze the lysosome’s content.

3. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 5. Ribosomes

o it has on its ribosomes, which are small, round o are
organelles whose function it is to make those macromolecular
proteins.’ machines, found
within all cells,
4. Golgi Apparatus that perform
o aka Golgi body aka Golgi biological protein
o functions as a factory in which proteins received synthesis.
o Ribosomes link
from the ER are further processed and sorted for
transport to their eventual destinations: amino acids
lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion. together in the
o If the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticula are order specified by
the codons of messenger RNA molecules to form
how we make our product, the Golgi is the
polypeptide chains.
mailroom that sends our product to customers.
o Ribosomes consst of two major components: the
o It is responsible for packing proteins from the
small and large ribosomal subunits.
rough endoplasmic reticulum into membrane-
bound vesicles (tiny compartments of lipid
bilayer that store molecules) which then 6. Lysosomes
translocate to the cell membrane. o are membrane-
o At the cell membrane, the vesicles can fuse with enclosed
the larger lipid bilayer, causing the vesicle organelles that
contents to either become part of the cell contain an
membrane or be released to the outside. array of
o In addition, as noted earlier, glycolipids and enzymes
sphingomyelin are synthesized within the Golgi. capable of breaking down all types of biological
Different molecules actually have different fates upon entering polymers—proteins, nucleic acids,
the Golgi. This determination is done by tagging the proteins carbohydrates, and lipids.
with special sugar molecules that act as a shipping label for o The lysosome is the cell’s recycling center
the protein. The shipping department identifies the molecule o These organelles are spheres full of enzymes
and sets it on one of 4 paths: ready to hydrolyze (chop up the chemical bonds
of) whatever substance crosses the membrane, so
 Cytosol: the proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake the cell
are sent back into the cytosol (imagine the barcode can reuse
scanning wrong and the item being returned). the raw
material
 Cell membrane: proteins destined for the cell
membrane are processed continuously. Once the
vesicle is made, it moves to the cell membrane and 7. Mitochondria
fuses with it. Molecules in this pathway are often o is an organelle
protein channels which allow molecules into or out of found in the
the cell, or cell identifiers which project into the cells of most
extracellular space and act like a name tag for the eukaryotes,
cell. such as
 Secretion: some proteins are meant to be secreted animals, plants and fungi.
from the cell to act on other parts of the body. Before o Mitochondria have a double membrane structure
these vesicles can fuse with the cell membrane, they and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine
must accumulate in number, and require a special triphosphate, which is used throughout the cell as
chemical signal to be released. This way shipments a source of chemical energy.
only go out if they’re worth the cost of sending them
General Biology
CELL STRUCTURE
o Just like a factory can’t run without electricity, a Intermediate filaments are slightly larger in diameter and
cell can’t run without energy. ATP (adenosine are found most extensively in regions of cells that are going to
triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell, be subjected to stress.
and is produced in a process known as cellular Desmosomes in the skin will contain filaments. Once
respiration. Though the process begins in the these filaments are assembled they are not capable of
cytoplasm, the bulk of the energy produced rapid disassembly.
comes from later steps that take place in the
mitochondria. Microtubules are hollow tubes
8. Chloroplast composed of a protein called
o is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as tubulin.
a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in They are the thickest and
plant and algal cells. most rigid of the
9. Peroxisome filaments. Microtubules
o Like the lysosome, the peroxisome is a spherical are present in the axons
organelle responsible for destroying its contents. and long dendrite
o Unlike the lysosome, which mostly degrades projections of nerve cells.
proteins, the peroxisome is the site of fatty acid They are capable of rapid assembly and disassembly
breakdown. according to need.
o It also protects the cell from reactive oxygen Microtubules are structured around a cell region
species (ROS) molecules which could seriously called the centrosome, which surrounds two
damage the cell. centrioles composed of 9 sets of fused microtubules.
o ROSs are molecules like oxygen ions or These are important in cell division when the
peroxides that are created as a byproduct of centrosome generates the microtubular spindle fibers
normal cellular metabolism, but also by necessary for chromosome separation.
radiation, tobacco, and drugs. They cause what is
known as oxidative stress in the cell by reacting 11. Cilia
with and damaging DNA and lipid-based o are hair-like motile extensions on the surface of
molecules like cell membranes. These ROSs are some epithelial cells.
the reason we need antioxidants in our diet. o They have a central core of 9 sets of fused
10. Cytoskeleton microtubules. In association with a contractile
o Within the protein, these microtubules produce movement
cytoplasm in cilia.
there is o Ciliar movements propel the luminal contents of
network of hollow organs lined with ciliated epithelium.
protein fibers
known as the
cytoskeleton.
o This structure is responsible for both cell
movement and stability. The major components
of the cytoskeleton are microtubules,
intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.
o The cytoskeleton also forms tracks along which
cell organelles move propelled by contractile
proteins attached to their various surfaces. Like a
little highway infrastructure inside the cell.

Three types of filaments make up the cytoskeleton.

Microfilaments are the thinnest and most abundant of the

cytoskeleton proteins.
They are composed of actin, a contractile protein, and
can be assembled and disassembled quickly
according to the needs of the cell or organelle
structure.
General Biology
CELL STRUCTURE
Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and
departments that work towards a common objective. Various
types of cells perform different functions. Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform
Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells: certain specific functions to carry out life’s processes. The
Prokaryotes different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are
Eukaryotes as follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes
such as bacteria have a region within the cell where the Nucleolus
genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called the The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is
nucleoid. involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular
 They all are single-celled microorganisms. reproduction.
 Examples include archaea, bacteria, and Nuclear membrane
cyanobacteria. The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a
 The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter. boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
 The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA. Chromosomes
 Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of
form of asexual reproduction. an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs of
 They are also known to use conjugation – which is chromosomes.
often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual Endoplasmic reticulum
reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation
reproduction). of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in
the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids,
Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus. steroids and proteins.
 The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in Golgi Bodies
diameter. Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is
 This broad category involves plants, fungi, involved in the transportation of materials within the cell.
protozoans, and animals. Ribosome
 The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
the transport of nutrients and electrolytes in and out Mitochondria
of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It
communication. is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy
 They reproduce sexually as well as asexually. currency.
 There are some contrasting features between plant Lysosomes
and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell contains Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies
chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, entering the cell and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they
whereas the animal cells do not. are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis.
It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the
cell.