Ore Geology Reviews, 4 (1989) 315-344 315

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam m Printed in The Netherlands

BRECCIAS AND ORES. PART 1" HISTORY, ORGANIZATION

AND PETROGRAPHY OF BRECCIAS

P E T E R LAZNICKA

University of Manitoba, Department of Geological Sciences, 340 WallaceBuilding, Winnipeg, Man. R3T 2N2 (Canada)

(Received January 8, 1988; revised and accepted August 24, 1988)

Abstract

Laznicka, P., 1989. Breccias and ores. Part 1: History, organization and petrography of breccias. Ore Geol. Rev., 4:
315-344.

Although the term breccia is one of the oldest rock names stillin use and proliferatingin its application,a satisfac-
tory definition remains problematic and an overall classificationof breccias is non-existent. The names of breccia
varieties (severalhundred) please the heart rather than the computer, and there is littleinterdisciplinarycorrelation
among the more than fiftyspecializedschools of breccia study.
This contribution reviews briefly the history of breccia research and provides a listof the present study trends,
complete with references,with emphasis on ore-associated breccias wherever possible. Conventional breccia defini-
tions and their shortcomings are discussed and a case is made for the introduction of the petrographic category of
"coarse fragmentites" of which the "typical" sedimentary breccias and conglomerates as well as volcanic, tectonic,
hydrothermal, impact and other fragmental materials are members, whether designated or not as "breccia" in the
conventional literature.
This is followed by a proposed rational organization (classification)of coarse fragmentites and breccias based on
the regime of formation and architecture (fabric, "Geftige"). Two fundamental end-member sequences (a,b) and a
transitional suite (c) can be recognized: (a) Disaggregation fragmentites (D-breccias), produced from a solid progen-
itor by increasing rate of fracturing, expansion, rotation, mixing and attrition. The transitional sequence is crac-
kle-* mosaic -~ rubble-* mdlange -, milled breccia. (b) Aggregation fragmentites (A-breccias), generated by gathering,
aggregation and accumulation of originally dispersed fragments at the site of deposition. These materials form a
sequence ranging from tightly packed, fragment-supported matrix-free fragmentites through matrix-infilled, matrix-
supported fragmentites to lonestone rocks. (c) In-transport fragmentites (T-breccias) formed by redeposition of an
aggregate gathered in an earlier phase of development as an A-fragmentite, or by transportation and redeposition of
an advanced member (i.e. rubble, m~lange or milled fragmental aggregate) of a D-fragmentite. Examples of metallic
mineralizations coeval with, or superimposed on the fragmentite sequences are reviewed.

Introduction over 1000 items!) and considering their posi-

tion outside, along and across the borders of es-
As far as the overall systematics of breccias tablished petrographic disciplines. But we may
is concerned, there is none at present and some try, with the realization that the result will re-
geoscientists doubt that any can be prepared flect a particular premise of a scholar in metal-
given the enormous complexity and heteroge- liferous geology and that different premises may
neity of this type of rocks (the "Index of Coarse yield different products.
Fragmentite Names" in Laznicka, 1988, lists The objectively observable and measurable

0169-1368/89/$10.15 © 1989 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

316

properties of breccias and coarse fragmental breccia in the geognostic literature of the 17th
rocks are considered to be of fundamental im- and 18th centuries, Britain became the 19th
portance. The genetic factors are considered century leader in breccia study (e.g., Buckland,
secondary and auxiliary, highly dependent on 1819; Sedgwick, 1835; Ramsay, 1855). Most
the progress of science, fashion and subjective British breccias are sedimentogenic or sedi-
inclination of the investigator, yet worthy of a ment-hosted, although volcanogenic (dia-
"new look" and a rational organization because treme) breccias have been extensively treated
of their undisputed place in ore exploration in the classical memoir of Geikie (1902).
models. The German leadership in the study of ore
The present contribution is the first part of deposits ("Lagerst~ittenlehre") in the 18th and
a set examining all breccias and related rocks 19th centuries is reflected in the many detailed
as a cross-disciplinary petrographic category descriptions of breccias in hydrothermal veins,
and paying special emphasis to the association summarized by Von Cotta (1859). Blum (1860)
and origin of metallic ores. Part 2 (in prep. ) will briefly described several examples of breccias
attempt to put genesis of coarse fragmentites among his "Triimmergesteine" (a category also
and ores into a rational framework and Part 3 including sandstones) in his textbook on
(in prep.) will summarize existing and hypo- lithology.
thetical models of ore-bearing fragmentite sys- The French school (Daubrde, 1891; Lacroix,
tems. The ideas are an extension of the author's 1904, 1906) contributed significantly around
book on breccias and ores recently released the turn of this century to the understanding of
(Laznicka, 1988). volcanic breccias. In North America, many
breccia occurrences were recorded in geological
Evolution of and divisions in the field of survey memoirs from 1850 onwards (Logan,
breccia study, "brecciology" 1863; Chamberlin, 1883; Winslow, 1894; Van
Hise and Leith, 1911 ).
The terms breccia and br~che are thought to Several early reviews, classifications and or-
come from the vocabulary of a medieval warrior ganizations of all breccias appeared in the first
(it means break in the wall of a fortification), four decades of this century (Norton, 1917;
but were soon adapted by the Italian and French Grabau, 1924; Reynolds, 1928; Maslov, 1938),
quarrymen and builders to designate striking, but more recent contributions are scarce. In-
fragmental stones. Breccia is thus one of the creasing specialization of geoscientists in the
oldest rock names that has retained its funda- past half century resulted in fragmentation and
mental meaning up to the present. After the pe- compartmentalization of "brecciology" into
riod of occasional and haphazard use of the term many independent to semi-independent re-

Biography

Peter Laznicka was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia. He graduated from Charles University
(Dipl. Geol.) and the University of Manitoba (M.Sc., Ph.D.). Presently he is professor of
Mineral Deposits at Manitoba and during 1987/88 Gastprofessor at Heidelberg. He is en-
gaged mainly in a broadly based freelance study of the worldwide distribution of metallic
deposits as relatedto depositional environments and lithologicassociations.
 317

PERIOD (YEARS)

16oo 18oo I~oo ~o ~9~o ~4o 19~o 196o I~6~ I~o ~9~ 198o I~5

GENERAL unclassified
//// ~ s-h~erial landfozms J
~lacial (~aleo)enviro~t s
/ karst/solution I
....

basal (stratigraphic) br~ccias

MVT/A~T deposits
/ ~ressure solution
iIi

mud volcanis~
isubmar, talus, slo~, turbid.
~ o l i s t o s ~ , sad. m~lanqe
carbonate buildups (reefs)
soils, duricrusts
hydrovolcanism, iz~,reatc~ _cin.
diatrmm~s ~%rs
f

subaerial lava flows

/
-- suba~eous lava flows
VOLCANIC I
suba~eous ex~losive vole.
subglacial volcani~
calderas, cauldrons
ash-flow tuffs I
subaerial pyroclastic hx
I hydrothermalveins, bx
J hot sprin~s ]
}~fDFOTHER~~kL/HYDRAULIC HYDRC~HE~M~L/MYDRAULIC
~ h~Iraulic breccias
chemical/metas(m~ticbx
breccia pii~ms (all origins)
porphyry Cu, FD, etc.
carbonatite-alkaline c ~ l .
MAn'TIC (PLUTONIC)I I I I ~ ~ ~ /v~G~%TIC (PLUI~NIC)
pebble dikes I
" m
plutonic (intr./inelus.bx)
d~ ra~l~tic, ultrauet~an.
/ cold flowage, halokineties
J
f dia~irs
fault r o c k ~ i
TEL~fONIC TECgf~IC BRI~CIAS
tector~-meta~orphic bx
i
subduction (flow) r~lan~es
i

tectono-sedimentary bx
tectonic m~lanqes
serpe~tinite protrusions
meteorite breccias
terrestrial ~ a c t s
SPACE/LMPAC~ SPACE/IMPACT BRECCIAS

I
OTHERS Illl. I I I /11 • i=' II
lunar bre~ias I
planetary breccias
I::==:I--o,I.,.c]E~S . . . . =. I ~ _ _ . - - i l Y "
anthropogenic breccias
megabreccias I

Fig. 1. Approximate representation of "specialized trends" of breccia study as they evolved over the years.
318

search trends, lacking mutual correlation. As- Nilsen, 1969, 1982; Bull, 1972; Garner, 1974;
sorted premises of breccia study preferentially Turner, 1980).
emphasized features, while others were ig- (3) Glacial environments and associations,
nored, and one-sided terminologies prolifer- blessed with a variety ofbreccias hidden behind
ated. Perhaps the most outstanding Tower of the terms tillite, tilloid and diamictite (Gold-
Babel in the field of petrography and petrology thwait, 1971; Edwards, 1978; Easterbrook, 1982;
was in the making. Evenson et al., 1983; Gravenor et al., 1984).
At present, several tens (Fig. 1 shows fifty) {4) Bases of stratigraphic units (lithologic
of "trends of breccia study", many with unique sequences) with a variety of basal breccias or
terminologies, are in existence. Most of them conglomerates (Pettijohn, 1975; Button and
evolved and reached a "solid footing" in the past Eriksson, 1981; Button and Tyler, 1981 ).
15 to 30 years and they are, now, spearheads of (5) Soil profiles and regoliths in various cli-
focussed progress. Most of the study trends in- matic zones, including duricrusts (calcrete, sil-
volve examples of ore-hosting breccias, but the crete), laterites and regoliths (Gordon et al.,
presence of ores is usually only a supplemen- 1958; Van Dorr and Barbosa, 1963; Goudie,
tary feature having no influence on the internal 1973; Ollier, 1975; Reeves, 1976; Lelong et al.,
order of the discipline. The field of "ore brec- 1976; Langford-Smith, 1978; Brunsden, 1979;
cias" briefly reviewed below, has developed in Button and Eriksson, 1981; Freytet et al., 1982;
isolation and is essentially restricted to the Esteban and Klappa, 1983).
study of objects at hand specimen and micro- (6) Shallow-marine carbonates with empha-
scopic scales. sis on depositional (constructional) features
such as organic buildups and reefs (Manten,
Sedimentary breccias 1971; Embry and Klovan, 1971; Bathurst, 1975;
Wilson, 1975; Longman, 1981; James, 1983;
The field of sedimentary and sediments- Scholle et al., 1983 ).
hosted breccias (Pettijohn, 1975) achieved a (7) Carbonate and detrital submarine talus,
special prominence and provided us with an im- slope and turbidite deposits including olistos-
age of a "typical breccia" (which is a consoli- tromes and overlapping with m~langes (Flores,
dated aggregate of coarse clastic fragments). 1955; Playford and Lowry, 1956; Abbate et al.,
Since about 1950, this field has been broken into 1970; Mountjoy et al., 1972; Cook and Enos,
several sub-disciplines, i.e. breccias and their 1977; McIlreath and James, 1978; Cook and
unconsolidated equivalents, and other coarse Mullins, 1983; Enos and Moore, 1983; Jacobi,
fragmentites, often departing significantly from 1984).
the ideal image. The following disciplines, en- (8) Karst and paleokarst, solution, solution-
vironments and lithologic associations have collapse and similar near-surface phenomena in
achieved a degree of uniqueness or specializa- carbonates and evaporites (Tute, 1870; Landes
tion in "their" breccia treatment (each can be et al., 1945; Stanton, 1966; McKee and Gut-
easily put into the ore-genesis context): schick, 1969; Smith, 1972; Esteban and Klappa,
(1) Recent subaerial landforms including 1983; Wenrich, 1985).
talus, landslides, avalanches, and debris flows (9) Pressure solution in carbonates and other
(Crandell, 1969; Krieger, 1977; Embleton and rocks, marked by stylolites and solution sur-
Thornes, 1979; Keefer, 1984; Eisbacher and faces (Bretz, 1950; Silberling and Wallace, 1969;
Clague 1984). Logan and Semeniuk, 1976).
(2) Arid (desert, semi-desert) (paleo-) en- (10) Genetically complex and multistage
vironments and "red beds", especially their carbonate terrains, hosting metallic deposits of
talus/alluvial fan lithologies (Glennie, 1970; the Mississippi Valley, Appalachian and simi-
 319

lar types (Snyder and Odell, 1958; Heyl et al., (3) Hydrovolcanism, hyaloclastite associa-
1959; McKnight and Fischer, 1970; Lagny, 1975; tions, phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions
Sass-Gustkiewicz et al., 1982; Rhodes et al., (Peckover et al., 1973; Sheridan and Wohletz,
1984; Ohle, 1985). 1983; Wohletz and McQueen, 1984; Sigurdsson
(11) Mud volcanism and similar features in et al., 1984).
sediments undergoing compaction (Shnyukov (4) Subaqueous (mostly submarine) lava
et al., 1971; Cecile and Campbell, 1977; Khali- flow volcanism producing autobreccias, pillow
lov and Kerimov, 1983). lavas and breccias, hyaloclastites, and peper-
ites (Carlisle, 1963; Snyder and Fraser, 1963;
Volcanic breccias Moore et al., 1973; Dimroth et al., 1978; Good-
win, 1979; Cousineau and Dimroth, 1982).
The field of volcanic and volcanics-hosted (5) Subglacial eruptions (Walker and Blake,
breccias evolved relatively early into a reposi- 1966; Hamilton, 1972; Saemundsson, 1979; Al-
tory of coarse fragmental rocks rivaling sedi- len et al., 1982).
mentary associations in variety and complex- (6) Submarine, felsic to intermediate explo-
ity. The conformity of rock terminologies in sive volcanism (Lichtblau and Dimroth, 1980;
both fields has been, unfortunately, eliminated Burnham, 1983; Ohmoto and Takahashi, 1983;
quite early by the selection of different size lim- Busby-Spera, 1984).
its and by introduction of special terms for size
categories of volcanic fragments Magmatic breccias
(ash-~cinder-~lapilli-~bombs, blocks; Went-
worth and Williams, 1932; Rittmann, 1960; Magmatic (or plutonic, intrusive, intrusion-
Fisher, 1960, 1961, 1966; Vlodavets et al., 1962; related) breccias are a very heterogeneous
Williams and McBirney, 1979). The following group. They include; (a) breccias actually
volcanic associations coincide with trends of hosted by intrusive bodies; and (b) breccias
specialized breccia studies: generated as a consequence of evolution of an
( 1 ) Subaerial mafic volcanism dominated by intrusive complex in depth and directly related
non-explosive lava flows and cinder cones to expansion, shrinkage, hydraulic pressure,
(Jaggar, 1947; Macdonald, 1953; Wentworth hydrothermal activity, etc., and triggered and
and Macdonald, 1953; Greeley, 1977; Boudon et sustained by magmatic heat, but largely situ-
al., 1982 ). ated outside a solidified intrusion. The latter
(2) Subaerial explosive (pyroclastics-rich) breccias are transitional and very subjectively
volcanism (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Cas organized in the literature. The following as-
and Wright, 1986), with the emphasis on: (a) sociations and/or study trends can be identified:
composite volcanoes (stratovolcanoes) (Silli- (1) Calc-alkaline granitoid plutons in gen-
toe, 1975; Blackburn et al., 1976; Ianovici et al., eral, dominated by inclusion and intrusion
1976; Branch, 1976); (b) calderas and cauld- breccias (Bateman et al., 1963; Didier, 1973;
rons (Branch, 1976; Lipman et al., 1976; Sides Myers, 1975; Cobbing et al., 1981; Hutchison,
et al., 1981; Lindsay, 1982; Rytuba and McKee, 1982).
1984); (c) ash-flow tuff (incl. ignimbrite) se- (2) Plutonic mineralization systems of the
quences (Smith, 1960; Ross and Smith, 1961; "Porphyry" Cu,Mo,Au,U, (etc. )-type (Kents,
Ekren et al., 1984; Sheridan, 1979); and (d) 1964; Camus, 1975; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975;
maars and diatremes (Williams, 1936; Cloos, Bashkirov, 1983; Sillitoe, 1985).
1941; Hearn, 1968; Lorenz, 1973, 1975; Haw- (3) Deep-seated (katazonal) and/or meta-
thorne, 1975; Sillitoe and Bonham, 1984; Pas- somatic granite, pegmatite, or migmatite asso-
teris, 1984). ciation (agmatite and boudinage breccias)
320

(Mehnert, 1968; Hutchison, 1982; Ashworth, ing) followed by partial dissolution (e.g.,
1985). rauhwackes, see Leine, 1971; Speed, 1975;
(4) Carbonatites, kimberlites and some vol- Trfimpy, 1980), resedimentation of tectonic
atile-rich alkaline rocks (Sutherland, 1965; fragmentites and similar processes (Casey and
Garson, 1966; Verwoerd, 1967; Gold, 1972; Le Kidd, 1981 ).
Bas, 1977). (4) Mdlanges of several genetic and compo-
(5) Breccia pipes of variable mostly complex sitional varieties (trench, accretionary, flow,
origins (Kuhn, 1941; Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; subduction, etc.) which overlap with the pre-
Sawkins, 1977; Fletcher, 1984; Norman and vious category, and are still largely controver-
Sawkins, 1985). sial pillars of many consuming plate margin ge-
(6) Breccia ("pebble") dikes and "reefs" netic models (Karig and Sherman, 1975;
(Lovering and Goddard, 1950; Gilmour, 1977; Williams, 1975; Sibson, 1977; Hall, 1976; Cloos,
Morris and Lovering, 1979). 1982; Nelson, 1982; McCall, 1983; Raymond,
(7) Hydrothermal veins, mostly of plutonic 1984). Some are gradational into serpentinite
affiliation (Von Cotta, 1859; Byetekhtin et al., protrusions (Saleeby, 1979; Cowan, 1985).
1958; Ihlen et al., 1984).
(8) Hot spring systems (White et al., 1964; Other breccias
Nelson and Giles, 1985; Hedenquist and Hen-
ley, 1985). The remaining breccia study trends cannot
(9) Chemical and metasomatic breccias and be incorporated into a super-category. A sub-
pseudobreccias (Sawkins, 1969; Lane, 1984). division of nine groups is made. Groups 1 and 2
result from viscous flowage of rocks under load;
Tectonic breccias 3, 4, 5 and 6 are members of the field of meteo-
ritics and planetary sciences; 7 is considered
Tectonic breccias come from tectonized "artificial", so virtually never mentioned or
terranes and single tectonic structures (faults, treated in the geological literature; and 9 is a
shears) and include some of the earliest-known collection of often famous or economically im-
and architectonically utilized serpentinite, portant (mineralized) breccias of problematic
ophicalcite and marble breccias. Tectonism as origin from various localities.
an organizational system of breccias is very (1) "Cold" flowage and halokinetics (salt
broad, and includes the following categories and domes) (Murray, 1961; Halbouty, 1967; Price
trends, many of which are interactive or tran- et al., 1983; Talbot and Jarvis, 1984).
sitional into the earlier listed fields of study: ( 2 ) Diapirs (solid cold intrusions ) of several
( 1 ) Tectonic-metamorphic association dom- possible origins (in many cases still poorly
inated by breccias, produced by disruption of understood) (Coats, 1964; Braunstein and
continuum under semiplastic conditions (e.g., O'Brien, 1968; Dalgarno and Johnson, 1968;
boudinage, "durchbewegte" breccias) (Kinkel, Rouvier et al., 1985 ).
1967; Spry, 1969; Davis, 1972; Barrett et al., (3) Terrestrial impacts (meteorite craters)
1977; Lawrence, 1973; Ramsay and Huber, (Shoemaker, 1963; Short, 1970, 1975; Pohl et
1983). al., 1977; Roddy et al., 1977; Masaitis et al.,
(2) Fault rocks including brittle breccias and 1980).
gouge, as well as rarer breccias in the mylonite (4) Meteorites, meteorite breccias (Van
association (Higgins, 1971; Grocott, 1977; Sib- Schmus, 1969; Fodor et al., 1976).
son, 1977; Wise et al., 1984). (5) Lunar breccias (Mason and Melson,
(3) Tectonic-sedimentary breccias. These are 1970; Klein, 1972; Wilshire et al., 1973, 1981;
interactive rocks, formed by faulting (thrust- Ulrich et al., 1981 ).
 321

(6) Planetary breccias (Wilson et al., 1973; Overall organization and terminology of
Soften and Snyder, 1976). breccias
(7) Anthropogenic breccias (Laznicka,
1988). The Glossary of Geology (Bates and Jack-
(8) Megabreccias (Noble, 1941; Landes et al., son, 1980) defines a breccia as: "a coarse-
1945; Lipman, 1976; Krieger, 1977; Pohl et al., grained clastic rock composed of large (greater
1977; Bell, 1986). than sand-size, or 2 mm in diameter), angular
(9) Problematica, e.g. "intrusive breccias" of and broken rock fragments that are cemented
Bryant and Metz (1966), Bryant (1968); Sud- together in a finer-grained matrix and that can
bury breccias (Dressier, 1984; Muir, 1984; Muir be of any composition, origin or mode of accu-
and Peredery, 1984); cryptoexplosion struc- mulation; the consolidated equivalent of rub-
tures (Bucher, 1936; Kiilsgaard et al., 1963; ble". Figure 2 is an approximate graphic rep-
Wilshire et al., 1972); Kiruna breccias (Geijer, resentation of the above definition. It also
1967; Frietsch, 1978; Par~ik, 1975, 1985); brec- reflects definitions that appear in textbooks on
cias at Olympic Dam, Australia (Roberts and sedimentology and sedimentary petrography
Hudson, 1983). (e.g., Pettijohn, 1975; Lewis, 1984) and general
geology.
Ore breccias A simple scrutiny reveals that many rocks
termed "breccia" are excluded from the Glos-
Fragmentites hosting subordinate quantities sary definition; for example, open-void breccias
of ore minerals (blebs, disseminations, vein- lacking matrix; breccias composed of mineral
lets, stringers, etc. ) have been described and or- (e.g., quartz, feldspar) or bioclast (e.g., bones,
ganized in the literature within one of the "rock" coral fragments) rather than rock fragments;
categories of breccias reviewed above. Breccias fault breccias that can range from cohesive
dominated by ore minerals and/or hydrother- (consolidated) to non-cohesive ones and oth-
mal gangue (as in veins), however, have re- ers. Several rocks and aggregates, on the other
ceived a specialized treatment in the past two hand, that would fit the Glossary definition, are
hundred years in the context of ore structures excluded from the breccia family. Fragmental
and textures (Ramdohr, 1955; Byetekhtin et al., lithic tuffs are termed tuff breccia only when
1958; Cameron, 1961 ). Two sets of fragmentite the size of the angular fragments exceeds 32 mm.
terms are in use: (1) those for macrostructures Further complications result from transition-
observed on the hand specimen-scale (meso- ality and textural variations. What about a rock
scale; e.g., ball ore; cockade, headcheese, coro- composed of 50% rounded and 50% angular
nary or concretionary structure; xenolithic ore; clastic fragments? What about a rock com-
ore breccia); and (2) those for microstructures posed of subrounded or rounded coarse frag-
(cataclastic, breccia, filigree, insular, shredded, ments that is not a clastic conglomerate? The
"durchbewegung", etc., microstructures or tex- glossary and textbook breccia definitions have
tures; see Schwartz, 1951; Edwards, 1954; Man- thus many shortcomings and define, at best, an
ilici et al., 1965 ). So far, the terminology of ore "ideal" or "typical" breccia only. Additional
(and gangue) breccias has been entirely non- terminological complications occur frequently
quantitative and named haphazardly after a in the case of heavily altered, weathered, re-
process, visual resemblance to various objects, crystallized, metamorphosed or similar coarse
and similarly. Terminological convergence of fragmental rocks impossible to place into the
"rock" and "ore" breccias and at least partial major divisions of petrography. If it is impos-
rational organization and quantification are, sible to tell whether an altered rock was origi-
however, on their way. nally sedimentary or pyroclastic (although its
322

no upper size limit

:. :.,':-:] ,:-:

OON~XMm~kTES
. °.°:°:°°- °..°... '.

10 mm
:": -'9:'."::::'-:-.,',,.. (Russian usage)
2mm
(Euro-American
usage)

~ND~mNES (AR~ES)

rounded subrounded
i
subangular
I angular
0.1 mm

BOUNDING r

Other breccias: pyroclastic

cataclastic
autoclastic
etc.

Fig. 2. The "standard" genetic-textural organization of breccias based on a "typical" clastic breccia, prevalent through the
1950s-1970s.

coarse sharpstone fragmental relic fabric is well dated rock composed of fragments, inclusions
recognizable), there is no "neutral" name or particles greater than at least 2 mm, subdi-
available so that a geologist is forced to make a vided in solid state from a former continuum,
quick, instant genetic assumption in order to or aggregated from dispersed particles". This
use either the term "breccia" (if sedimentary) definition excludes coarse-grained crystalline
or tuff (if pyroclastic). A name once commited rocks as well as rocks in which coarse particles
is difficult to remove and forget. Early termi- formed by in-situ accretion (e.g., nodular or
nological errors often adversely influence sub- concretionary sediments). The second-order
sequent geological interpretations and division separates rudaggregates (i.e. uncon-
exploration. solidated coarse fragmentites, e.g., rubble,
Unfortunately, there are no better overall gravel, tephra, impact fallback) and rudrocks
definitions of breccia than those defective ones (consolidated rudaggregates, e.g., clastic brec-
quoted above, including those in foreign lan- cia, tuff and tuff breccia, vein breccia, conglom-
guages. It might be better perhaps to approach erate, pillow breccia, etc.). Admittedly, many
the terminological problem from another end. fragmentites are transitional (semi-
Compile all rocks produced by fragmentation consolidated).
or fragment-aggregation with particle sizes of 2 Fragment-rounding and sphericity, a third-
mm or more, then subdivide t h e m into rational order division, has not been considered a suit-
groups, and name such groups provided that able attribute for an overall fragmentite clas-
names have not been available as a terminol- sification because only in the context of trans-
ogical heritage. Figure 3, (modified from Laz- ported clastic sediments it is a reflection of
nicka, 1988), tests such an approach: the first- textural maturity brought about largely by the
order division (all-inclusive, nongenetic) is length of transport (e.g., fluvial conglomerate)
termed "coarse fragmentite", and it is defined or duration/intensity of abrasion (beach con-
as an "unconsolidated aggregate or a consoli- glomerate). In some non-sedimentogenic coarse
 323

OOARSE FRAGM~WTITES
fragment size 2ram plus

F R A ~
ANGUIAR transitional ROUNDED
(SHARPS'TONE ) (ROUNDSTONE)
RHDAGC4~GATES
rubble volcanic bombs
scree accret, lapilli
tephra loose concretions
fault "breccia" ( s o m e ) "balls" in gouge
some regoliths

sedim, breccia
RUDtKX:KS
pebble dike
< i

¢)

tuff breccia agglomerate

inpact breccia inclusion granite
intrusion breccia pillow breccia
vein breccia coral head breccia
"TYPICAL" BRECCIA

Fig. 3. Nongenetic, overall organization of coarse fragmentites. Modified from Laznicka (1988).

fragmentites, fragment-rounding is achieved by be given the following composite name that

milling in a vent or conduit (as in agglomerates, provides, at the same time, description of the
pebble dike fills); aerodynamic shaping of a essential rock characteristics: "Transported,
plastic material (volcanic or meteorite impact granule ~o cobble sharpstone to subroundstone
bombs); accretion in a variety of media before (meso)breccia composed of heterolithologic
deposition (accretionary lapilli, concretions, chert, vein quartz and siliceous dolomite frag-
gangue/mylonite balls ); cooling (pillows); or- ments in semi-corresponding hematite pig-
ganic growth (coral heads, onkolites); mag- mented impure carbonate groundmass. Frag-
matic or chemical corrosion or resorption ments are groundmass-supported".
(magmatic inclusions); and other mechanisms.
The difference between rounded and angular Premise-based breccia terms
fragments in the above examples is of lesser to
insignificant importance, compared with the Terms like tillite, fold breccia, explosion
pair clastic breccia/conglomerate. Roundstone breccia, collapse breccia, landslide breccia, bone
fragmentites included in the above list are often breccia, melange, rauhwacke, impactite, etc.,
termed breccia (pseudoconglomerate is occa- have been defined and they exist within the
sionally used) and never conglomerate. The context of a certain geological discipline or a
coarse clastic roundstone fragmentites (gravel premise. Such terms can be purely genetic (e.g.,
and conglomerate) have thus a special position hydraulic breccia, friction breccia) or they can
in Fig. 3. combine genesis and composition (e.g., tachy-
Any breccia (and also any conglomerate) can lite breccia); genesis and provenance (e.g., epi-
be objectively described in empirical (non-ge- clastic breccia); environment (e.g., vent brec-
netic) terms, following the Universal Rudrock cia, fault breccia); and others (Fig. 5, Table 2).
Code (URC; Laznicka, 1988, Table 1) into Some breccia names indicate environment
which composition of the breccia constituents only (e.g., reef breccia, diatreme breccia, til-
has to be incorporated (that is fragments, ma- lite), but the origin is implied, and is considered
trix, cement). The rock shown in Fig. 4 could equivalent to a process or a set of processes op-
324

TABLE 1

Checklist of the most common characteristics (terms) of coarse fragmentites, used in the Universal Rudrock Code

(]) MODE OF EMPLACEMENT

transported, in situ
aggregated, in-transport, disaggregated
(2) LARGE F R A ~ N T SIZE
expressed as average size or size-range (e.g. 3 on; 0.5-2 cm), or in traditional
size terms used for description of clastic conglomerates (Wentworth, 1922):
I-4 m
boulder
25 cm cobble block
64 mm
4 rmn pebble, lapilli, cinder
2 n~n granule
(3) ROCK CATEGORY/NAME
Fragmental origin: FRA(~4ENTITE
fragment size
over about IOOm Im to about 10Om 2mm to about Im under 2 ~m
general term megablocks consi- megafragmentite mesofragmentite microfragmentite
dered in their
own way coarse fragmentite

(sub) rounded UC gravel sand

fragment,
clastic CS . . . . . . . . . conglomerate sandstone
angular, UC megarubble megarubble (meso)rubble sharpgrain micro-
any origin aggregate or
rock flour
CS megabreccia (meso)breccia " microbreccia
(sub)roun- UC roundstone roundstone roundgrain micro-
den, non- megarubble (meso)rubble or aggregate or
sedimentog. pseudogravel pseudosand
CS roundstone roundstone roundgrain micro-
megabreccia {meso)breccia or breccia or
pseudoconglomerate pseudosandstone
(4) FRAC~dgFVARIETY
One fragment variety, one lithology SYNONYMS: Monomictic, monolithic, monolithologic;
homonictic, homolithic, homolithologic
oligomictic
Two fragment v~rieties, two lithologies bimictic, bilithic, bilithologic
Three ' three " trimictic, trilithic, trilithologic
Many " many " polymictic, polylithic, polylithologic
heteromictic, heterolithic, heterolitho-
logic
(5) FRA(~/Cf/GROUNDMASS CORRESPONDENCE
Groundmass ,composition CORRESPONDING to fragment composition
' SEMI-CORRESPONDING "
" NON-CORRESPONDING "
(6) INTERFRA(~NTAL FILLING
Void filled by air or water
groundmass a general, non-genetic term, includes matrix and cement
matrix detrital, cataclastic, lava, tuff, magmatic, etc. groundmass
cement chemically precipitated, usually open-space filling, sometimes
recrystallized earlier matter
replacement compositionally may correspond to cement, emplaced by
substitution of an earlier matter. Often merges with cement.
(7) FABRIC
-'-~gment-supported, interfragmental spaces empty (void)
fragment-supported, interfragmentals partly filled by groundmass, matriy, cement
fragment supported, interfragmentals completely filled
fragment supported in general
groundmass or matrix supported
(8) CEMENTS
Mineralogical (or substance) composition, e.g. quartz (silica), calcite, dolomite,
iron oxide, phosphorite, fluorite, barite, etc.
NOTES: Codes can be used in place of terms (e.g. in computerized data recording/
processing.
ABBREVIATIONS: UC=unconsolidated CS=consolidated
 325

rocks already recorded and named earlier in

other branches of earth sciences. There is a large
quantity of synonyms and analogous words,
and, as a consequence, a single breccia variety
can be designated by a great variety of names.
The principal asset of premise-related brec-
cia names is their brevity: the term tillite, in a
single word, conveys to a specialist an extensive
set of characteristics that would otherwise re-
quire five or more sentences to express ade-
quately. The main danger of terms based on a
genetic premise is the often irresponsible read-
iness of m a n y geologists to apply such terms to
isolated ancient breccia occurrences that lack a
Fig. 4. Boulderof a tectonic breccia in the Sous River valley sufficiently convincing affiliation to a distinct
near Alouz, Morocco,derivedfrom Haut Atlas. It is used to paleoenvironment (e.g., a continental glacier,
demonstrate application of the Universal Rudrock Codeto volcanic edifice ). Premise-based terms given to
provide a detailed descriptive name to a fragmentite (see
breccias, the environmental affiliations or for-
text).
mational processes of which have not really
f r i c t i o n bx been convincingly determined, inhibits prog-
crush bx explosion bx ress by placing mental blocks into the heads of
milled bx s o l u t i o n bx
PROCESS ~ " unwary readers. Additional reason against a
r e s e .d m. e n. t e.•u DX IZ/ \ \ k . 4 t Ihvdrovolcanic
." . . bx single breccia occurrence recorded under var-
stylobreccla ~ _ _ ~ ] f l o w i n t r u sbXi o n Dx ious names in the literature, is the one-sided-
/ W \ Ivent bx ness, rather t h a n mutual exclusivity, of m a n y
pyroclastic bx/ ~ . ~ , t ~ I c a n ~ a n bx
terms. The copper-bearing breccia from E1
m?ac,t bx / ~ lablation bx
Teniente, Chile, has been referred to as mosaic,
bone bx / W \ d i a p i r i c bx jigsaw puzzle, net-veined, hydraulic, monolith-
mua ~x / \ l ologic, explosive, and similar terms.
calcibreccia / ~l~
coquina /~
Rational petrographic organization
(classification) of breccias by regime and
broken pillow bx ]ange bx f a u ] t bx
architecture
magmatic bx I reef bx i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l bx
pilIow bx Iplutonic bx fo]d bx
soi I bx I rauhwacke If one analyses the reasons why a non-ge-
netic petrographic organization of all breccias
Fig. 5. Examplesof non-quantitative breccia ( = bx) names has been lacking for so long and why some con-
in the process-ingredient-site context. From Laznicka sider breccias as impossible to classify, the an-
(1988). swer is quite clear: the students of breccias failed
to recognize and stress that these rocks are
erative in the respective environment. The products of two different fundamental regimes.
problem with these terms is that most are not These regimes are (1) disaggregation of origi-
rational, quantifiable and amenable to a sys- nally solid progenitor, and (2) aggregation of
tematic hierarchical organization. T h e y rap- formerly dispersed constituents. T h e y are of
idly proliferate being often coined by narrow mutually contrasting styles. It is impossible to
specialists who have little regard for equivalent apply the philosophy of interpretation and or-
326

TABLE 2

Examples of premise-based breccia terms (bx = breccia (s) )

PREMISE EXAMPLES
PROCESS OF BRECCIATION explosive bx, phreatomagmatic bx, hydrovolcanic bx,
chemical bx
~CH&NISMOF BRECCIATION friction bx, crush bx, milled bx, solution bx,
dessication bx, shrinkage bx, expansion bx
MECHANISMOF TRANSPORT debris flow bx, slurry bx, solifluction bx,
lodgement till, ablation till, turbidite bx,
slide bx, landslide bx
MECHANISMOF DEPOSITION fallback bx, fallout bx, intrusive bx, injection bx,
OR EMPLACEMENT inclusion bx
SITE (DEPOSITIONAL fault bx, intraformational bx, fold bx, basal bx,
ENVIRONMENT) sub-unconformity bx, reef bx, forereef bx
COMBINED PROCESS/INGRE- subductionmelange bx, olistostrome bx, karst bx
DIENT/SITE
COMPOSITION bauxite bx, shale bx, basalt bx, limestone bx
SPECIAL INGREDIENT coquina, calcibreccia, tachylite bx, pseudotachylite
bx, ophicalcite bx
UNCONSOLIDATEDEQUIVA- scree bx, talus bx, diamicton bx, tephra bx
LENTS
FABRIC, STRUCTURE crackle bx, mosaic bx, rubble bx, orthobreccia,
parabreccia
L(F~KL VARIETY NAME rauhwacke, ophicalcite
(controversial origin)

ganization suitable for transported aggregated

coarse fragmentites (such as conglomerates ) to \o~ DEPOSITION COMPACTION
,~
fragmentites produced by in-situ fracturing and
expansion of a solid rock (such as a mosaic
DI SAGGREGATI - #
breccia) as is the common practice, and expect ON (D) BREC.
to get meaningful results.
It is thus suggested to subdivide coarse frag-
mentites (including breccias) into three con-
constant vol. o
tinual spectra between two end members: .m4
4-J

(1) Disaggregation fragmentites (D-breccias); IN-TRANSPORT

(2) Aggregation fragmentites (A-breccias); (T) BRECCIA
and a transitional category of
(3) In-transport fragmentites (T-breccias) =-
O
(see Fig. 6 ).
a tbee~.oe
These fragmentite varieties have different
early formational histories, terminated by the AGGREC~T I ON
(A) BRECCIA u
establishment of a protofragmentite (proto-
breccia), such as loose rubble, semi-cohesive
mosaic breccia, etc. The subsequent evolution,
in general, has phases common to all these three
PROGENITOR PROTOBRECCIA FINAL (FIXED)
breccia varieties, which are: (a) compaction (FRAUvlENT (COARSE BRECCIA
(often missing), and (b) cementation or lithi- SOURCE) FRAGMENT TTE)
fication (sometimes missing). Fig. 6. The three fundamental varieties of breccias, based
The proposed organization is virtually inde- on formational regime and architecture.
 327

pendent of genesis, so it is applicable to descrip- shatter breccia; see Kents, 1964) is used when
tion and interpretation of all breccias, in par- this is considered as an end-member of the D-
ticular to those where the origin is unknown or breccia sequence. Some fractures can be slightly
obscure. The regime (disaggregation, aggrega- dilated (or filled by chemical cement, veinlets),
tion, transport) is usually apparent on single but the overall expansion rarely exceeds 5-10%.
hand specimens of end-members (e.g., a crac- When an emphasis is on the interconnected
kle/mosaic breccia or an orthoconglomerate in- (network) interfragmentally introduced ce-
dicate the disaggregation and aggregation, re- ment, the term stockwork can be used. Curved
spectively, quite convincingly). Affiliation of planes of discontinuity due to cooling or differ-
mid-sequence members and in-transport frag- ential weathering (e.g., in pillow lavas, some
mentites usually follows from the facies pro- diabases, gabbros, granitoids) may convert a
gression and has to be, as a rule, established in rock into a roundstone crackle breccia (or
the field by careful mapping. pseudoconglomerate).
Mosaic (or subsidence; see Kents, 1964)
Disaggregationfragmentites breccia forms from crackle breccia by expan-
sion (5-20%) and fragment detachment. The
Disaggregation fragmentites (D-breccias; see fragments are separated by empty voids; by
Figs. 7 and 8) are initiated by formation of dis- voids (often incompletely) filled with fine-
continuities in the parent rocks. A set of three grained fragments of the host rock; or by voids
or more intersecting planes of discontinuity, filled with precipitated chemical cement (e.g.,
most often fractures, is needed to convert a calcite, dolomite, quartz) including ore min-
massive rock into an aggregate of closely fitting erals. Jigsaw breccia is a variety in which the
angular segments. Such aggregate is usually fragments can be visually fitted together with-
termed "densely fractured rock", but an alter- out rotation. Other mosaic breccias have slightly
native term "crackle breccia" (also rupture, rotated fragments. The term net-veined breccia

I:RA(NENT ROTATION
~ND SINKING FRAGMENT
MIXING
LOOSENING -50~ EXPK\SION MILLING, ATTRITION
10-20~ EXP.GNSION MATRIX INFILL
FRACTURING
1-5~ EXP,%NSI ON

G
E--

5<

b-
F--
GO

~<~,

PAREN~F ROCK CRACKLEBX

(2 l i t h o l o g i e s ) (OR DENSELY ........ MILLED
FRACTURED ROCK) BRECCIA RUBBLE ~LKNGE BRECCIA
BRECCIA

Fig. 7. Evolutionary sequence of disaggregation fragmentites (D-breccias) established in a mechanically uniform, brittle
bilithological unit.
328

~9

~9

°~

~D

r/~ ¢9
 329

stresses the interfragmental veining that could tite undergoes further expansion, dilution and,
be either chemical or magmatic. Injection brec- ultimately, dispersion.
cia (e.g., Speers, 1957 ) is a variety in which the
interfragmental spaces have been infilled by a M e t a l l i c ores
foreign material (fragmental slurry, magmatic Disaggregation fragmentite sequences host
impact melt) that itself can be a micro- or meso- the majority of breccia-related metallic ores, al-
breccia. though exact percentages cannot be given be-
Further expansion (up to 50%) causes con- cause of transitionality. Ideally, the ore em-
siderable loosening of the fragment aggregate, placement in single cycle breccias can: (a)
so that individual blocks start to tilt and sink predate the main, disaggregation phase of brec-
by gravity or stress and mutually rotate to form cia origin; (b) be penecontemporaneous with
a rubble breccia. Kents (1964) designated this it; (c) coincide with the process of breccia ce-
rock "heave breccia", defined as an "agglom- mentation that postdates completion of the
eration of large blocks and clasts up to several fragmental aggregate; and (d) is superimposed
metres in size, which have been shifted among on an already completed, lithified breccia.
themselves". "Kneaded breccia", according to Category a is represented by instances of dis-
Kents (1964), is formed from heavedbreccia by aggregation of an earlier orebody in solid rocks,
additional in-situ fracturing. resulting in physical transfer of the ore mate-
Continual expansion and loosening of the rial into the coarse ("fragments") or fine
fragment aggregate combined with the force of (groundmass) detrital phase. Most of the re-
gravity (collapse or downslope movement), corded examples are considered as merely mi-
nor variations of the "primary" orebody and
magmatic pressure, tectonic stress, explosion,
their breccia character is rarely emphasized.
etc., results in mixing of fragments (mixed
Here belong fragmentites in regoliths and pa-
breccia or m~lange). In thick homogeneous se-
leoregoliths over bauxites (e.g., the "unconso-
quences, fragment mixing may be unrecogniz-
lidated bauxitic laterite" in Guyana; B~rrange,
able because of compositional uniformity and
1977 ); iron formations and ironstones (rubbly
the breccia is of the monolithologic type. When
and breccia enriched ores; Dorr, 1969); and
the protolith was a set of compositionally vari-
many other bedrock mineralizations (e.g., frost-
able alternating layers (e.g., sandstone-shale;
heaved blocks containing Pb-Zn sulphides at
limestone-shale; basalt-chert), the mixing Nanisivik, Arctic Canada; Olson, 1984; and re-
produced bilithologic and heterolithologic sidual rubble to breccia of Zn-Pb mineralized
breccias. The generic term for mixed breccias is boulders with mudstone matrix in Tynagh, Ire-
m~lange and they may have a multitude of land; Morrissey and Whitehead, 1970).
origins. In the age of plate tectonics, however, In category b, breccias and ores have the
m~lange has a genetic connotation and is largely greatest degree of causal relationship, hence
associated with subductive continental mar- breccias serve as exploration indicators of pos-
gins. Fragment mixing can be accompanied by sible ore cccurrences. The best-publicized mod-
further internal fragmentation, or by milling: ern examples are hydraulic breccias in hot
that is, autogenous attrition of colliding frag- springs, subvolcanic and plutonic systems (e.g.,
ments in motion (milled breccia). hot springs Au-Sb-Hg deposits; epithermal and
Mixed or milled breccias terminate the pro- epizonal-plutonic vein, breccia "pipe" and sim-
gression of disaggregation fragmentites and ilar deposits; "porphyry" and "stockwork" Cu,
mark the beginning of the in-transport frag- Mo, Au, Sn, etc.; "greenstone belts" Au depos-
mentites (T-breccias), further discussed be- its; and others; Sillitoe, 1985; Sillitoe and Bon-
low. Alternatively, a mixed or milled fragmen- ham, 1984; Nelson and Giles, 1985; Hedenquist
330

and Henley, 1985; Burnham, 1985; Kerrich, (Sass-Gustkiewicz et al., 1982; Kyle, 1983; Alu-
1983). Additional cases of mineralized hy- sow et al., 1983); collapse breccias in silicate
draulic breccias have been interpreted at sev- rocks, impregnated by uranium minerals (Kerr
eral localities of the Mississippi-Valley Zn-Pb et al., 1957; Wenrich, 1985); collapse breccias
"type" (Phillips, 1972; Macqueen and Thomp- in impure carbonates and siliclastic sediments,
son, 1978); among the "SEDEX" Zn-Pb ore- mineralized by "invisible gold" (Carlin, Ne-
bodies (at Navan, Ireland; Andrew and Ashton, vada; Bakken and Einaudi, 1986); collapse
1985 ); at magmatic-hydrothermal Ni-Cu-PGE breccias in hydrothermally undermined breccia
complexes affiliated to gabbro-peridotite intru- pipes in volcano-plutonic systems, mineralized
sions, e.g., Noril'sk, USSR (Zolotukhin and Vi- by disseminated Cu-Mo, Au and other metals
lenskii, 1978), and others. (Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; Fletcher, 1984;
The most common genetic scenario assumes Norman and Sawkins, 1985).
generation of dilations (including breccias) by Category d. The ore complexes superimposed
overpressurized expanding fluids usually in the on lithified, non-porous breccias (e.g., veins,
wall- and roof-rock adjacent to a heat source, replacements) are in most cases purely acci-
followed by circulation of the same fluids and dental as far as the host breccia origin is con-
eventual dilation cementation. Some of the ce- cerned, and non-selective. Breccias provided the
ments are hydrothermally precipitated ores. host rocks, merely because they happened to
Category c. The fundamental role of coarse have been there and any other local rocks can
fragmentites in metallogeny is their permeabil- host comparable orebodies. The breccia pres-
ity and porosity, providing avenues of move- ence has thus no predictive value for ore pres-
ment to ore-bearing fluids and sites in which ence. A representative example is provided by
ore and/or gangue could precipitate. In the the evolutionary late, usually post-deforma-
present case, the process (es) of void generation tional hydrothermal gold-bearing lodes and
acted earlier and produced pre-breccias: unce- stockworks in Precambrian Greenstone belts
mented fragmentites. The voids were filled and (Hodgson and MacGeehan, 1982). These are
mineralized later. In uncomplicated cases the hosted by metavolcanics and metasediments
ore occurs in interfragmental spaces. In more regardless of their original depositional fabric
complex situations earlier, reactive breccia ce- (e.g., massive or pillow lavas, volcanic breccias,
ments (e.g., carbonates) have been selectively pyroclastics). This contrasts with the evolu-
replaced by ore, or replacive ore minerals in- tionary earlier, pre-deformational massive Fe-
vaded out of the interstices the (mega-)frag- Zn-Cu deposits in the same setting, where the
ments. Recorded examples are numerous, re- ore/breccia association is causal and corre-
lated to ascending, descending and laterally sponds to our categories b and c.
moving fluids; cool meteoric waters to magma-
togene hydrothermal fluids; surficial to abyssal Aggregation [ragmentites
settings; and others. They include: hydrother-
real breccia veins of base-, rare- and precious- These are produced by transport and accu-
metals filling faults; copper-mineralized, mulation of previously dispersed (scattered)
prehnite-pumpellyite altered flowtops of con- fragments in one place, to form initially a loose
tinental basalts as in Michigan (Jolly, 1974); aggregate of fragments, later lithified into a solid
brecciated calcrete hosting infiltrations of U-V rock (Fig. 9). The formation of an epiclastic or-
minerals (e.g., Yeelirrie, Australia; Arakel and thoconglomerate, extensively studied and de-
McConchie, 1982 ); collapse breccias in carbon- scribed by sedimentologists (e.g., Pettijohn,
ates, infilled and replaced by the low-tempera- 1975; Koster and Steel, 1984) provides a stan-
ture Mississippi Valley-type Zn-Pb association dard genetic model for aggregation fragmen-
 331

Fig. 9. Examples of aggregation fragmentites. Top: Upper Proterozoic basal breccia, composed of angular fragments of
bleached and unbleached basement schist and quartzite in a slightly manganiferousgroundmass. Idikel Mn deposit, Anti-
Atlas, Morocco. Bottom: Heterolithologicrecent littoral carbonate cemented breccia to conglomerate.South of Almeria,
Spain.

tites. Formation of m a n y non-epiclastic brec- ment mechanisms that initiate epiclastic sedi-
cias, however, proceeds along a comparable mentogenesis are usually treated in the context
scenario, briefly reviewed below. of physical and chemical weathering and have
(1) Source and release of fragments. The an extensive literature (e.g., Ollier, 1975;
fragments have to be detached from an existing Brunsden, 1979a). Physical weathering is more
source rock (recycled fragments), or newly important for breccia formation, because it
generated (e.g., by lava solidification, or or- tends to produce fresh sharpstone fragments (as
ganic skeleton building). Endogenous detach- in alpine talus). It appears, however, that most
332

breccias in sedimentary sequences (e.g., among fragment contact thus eliminating abrasion and
basal breccias) required a more powerful and sorting, yet it disappears by meltout upon
extreme fragmentation process, such as glacial reaching the terminus dumping its load in the
quarrying, growth faulting, explosive fragmen- form of angular and unsorted ablation till.
tation (e.g., in a diatreme), meteorite impact, (4) Fragment deposition. Conditioned or
etc., to form. Volcanic fragments are partly "ju- non-conditioned fragments finally reach their
venile" (e.g., lava fragments produced by cool- resting place to aggregate (to form a deposit).
ing, fuel-coolant interaction, vesiculation or The internal organization of such a deposit var-
explosive fragmentation), partly recycled (e.g., ies considerably, being somewhere between the
accidental fragments). Inclusion fragments in two end-members: a completely unsorted, non-
intrusive rocks were detached by roof stoping, bedded angular aggregate such as ablation till;
wall and floor "quarrying", or inherited as the and a size and compositionally sorted, bedded
magma invaded brittle fault rocks. deposit such as an oligomictic conglomerate.
(2) Fragment gathering (mobilization) and (5) Physical compaction. This may be sig-
transportation. The simplest mechanism of nificant in deposits consisting of fragile porous
transfer of fragments from source to the site of or soft fragments (e.g., bioclasts, pumice, scoria,
fragmentite deposition is gravitational fall or suevite, etc.) and negligible in case of well-
downslope roll. Both are controlled by an alti- sorted deposits of resistate gravel, such as
tude gradient produced gradually (by erosion conglomerates.
as rock fall from canyon walls to produce talus; (6) Diagenesis and lithification. With the
tectonically as escarpments) or suddenly (fall- exception of "hot" fragmentites (magmatic
out/fallback from volcanic or impact debris breccias, some welded pyroclastics, lava brec-
plumes; meteorite fall). cias, agglutinates), diagenesis and lithification
More complex mechanisms require fluid as starts some time after deposition, particularly
transportation medium (water, dense fluid, after burial. Diagenesis refers mostly to the set
magmatic melt) to carry, or force to move, the of equilibrating processes between the pore
fragments. The fluid moves either under the in- fluids and fragments (Chillingar et al., 1979).
fluence of gravity (as in streams), or forcefully Lithification is a consequence (product) of dia-
(magmas). genesis, generating cements converting a loose
(3) Fragment conditioning during transport. aggregate into a solid rock. When unstable or
Fragments transported for a short distance by soluble fragments are present (e.g., volcanic and
a simple gravity fall (e.g., blocks falling from impact glass; volcanics containing olivine, py-
ceilings of cavities or from overhanging walls of roxene, amphibole, sanidine, etc.; carbonate
canyons), undergo virtually no conditioning fragments), partial or complete degradation of
except breaking on impact. Rolling down talus fragments usually takes place and the fragment
cone slopes, however, may initiate fragment components are transferred into pseudomatrix,
rounding and aggregate sorting. Rounding and epimatrix, cements or removed in solution. This
sorting is substantial under conditions of stream may considerably modify the original deposi-
transport, producing size and gravity pre-sorted tional fabric often beyond recognition and ut-
bedloads. Magma-transported fragments most care is necessary in interpretation of lith-
undergo sorting and are rounded largely by as- ified fragmentites of other varieties than
similation and resorption. epiclastic conglomerates. Figure 10 shows the
Supraglacial and englacial (i.e. on top and spectrum of grain frameworks of aggregation
within glacier) fragment transport is special, fragmentites and usual terms as used in the
because the interstitial mass of ice prevents various trends of brecciology.
 333

:'.-:)1~Ty_~..:l~.;..)/.~.
-,-;:,,~ -%-_,':;:I IT,:" "' -'-' i- -/'~,~I lJ -" J -l;.:'e.irl z - J :'j I~ . . . . o : . % . . : . . , : ° ~..

.r.-5:

1[,:i:,-:!.;!1
:. ".':':'<~: 'Z,'.•'~:'

NNI ,- ..:.. --.. ,, ..':' .<...-:.'.: :;):¢:

l~ I -
-tl - :
;.'.'
k'.' ! .~.~
::" "'"":::'-2"
;.'. •.
:
:"~
"$ x

•.•
• .. •• ",.:3....-:..~.i,:-.)::...
i ;'"',:•.'."'"~':F':"
.~.k I" , .'.. 't': • ".. ,..:....','.:,4 ,!]
~~~i!i!'• •~..;. • •:.:::.:........: :"
SUPPO -~ cagment s u p p o r t 4 matrix suppor
PACKIN~ +CLOSEST • ÷ CLOSE ~, 4--- LOOSE D

VOIDS "~ NO VOIDS ~ ~" OPEN VOIDS ~'*-MATRIX-FILLED VOIDS

COARSE FRA(NENTS 100% - ~ * UP TO 9 0 % - ~ - - - - - - 5 0 - 8 0 % ~ ~ 25-60% ~ *I0-35% ~*up to'10%---*
TEXTURE 4----- block-against-block ~ ~ diamictic
Youles (1984) q low = . m o d e r a t e - ~ , - - h i g h matrix breccia
Emery and Klovan (1971) = rudstone ~ 4 floatstone ~mudstone~
Dunham (1962) ~ grainstone vq-packstone-~ wackestone ~- m u d s t o n e ,
F o l k (1968) ~ sparrudite ~ micmdite - ~- r a i c r i t e ÷
-~-- orthobreccia/orthoconglomerate ,4--parabreccia/congl. .~ l o n e s t o n e r o c k s

F i g . 10. S p e c t r u m o f g r a i n f r a m e w o r k s o f a g g r e g a t i o n f r a g m e n t i t e s (A-breccias), resulting from deposition and diagenesis

(including a post-lithification pressure solution).

Mineralization size) grain dimension and accumulated in ma-

Metallic ores hosted by aggregation fragmen- trix rather than in the (mega)fragments, are
tites were emplaced in one of the four phases transitional to, or members of phase 2. Most
already outlined earlier (under D- coarse fragmentites, hosts of economically im-
fragmentites). portant detrital minerals, such as gold (recent
Phase 1. Pre-fragmentite ores. These are rep- placers; Witwatersrand paleoplacers ), cassiter-
resented by numerous examples of allochthon- ite, Ti-oxides, monazite, etc., are roundstone
ous ore accumulations, produced by mass wast- epiclastic conglomerates or gravels not treated
ing of bedrock deposits and by downslope in this review. Sharpstone fragmentite equiva-
transport of the detritus. Examples in which the lents are rare and economically insignificant.
ore substance is primarily accumulated in large Probably the economically and genetically
blocks detached from the original orebody, in- most interesting examples of penecontempor-
clude: cassiterite-mineralized Quaternary mo- aneous fragmentite lithogenesis and metal em-
raines and talus (Bolivia; E1 Rodeo, Apola- placement are hosted by usually heterolithol-
bamba, Kellguani, Potosl, etc.; see Ahlfeld and ogic transported breccia bodies formed by
Schneider-Scherbina, 1964; Rivas, 1977); gold- gaseous, vapour and steam explosions and vol-
bearing glacial drift and talus (Nome, Juneau, atile streaming and/or collapse at high plutonic
Breckenridge, Allakh-Yun, etc.; Bilibin, 1955; and subvolcanic levels. Such bodies are now
Nelson and Hopkins, 1972); seafloor (pa- preserved as relics of vents or diatremes or as
leo)talus of massive magnetite interpreted so pipes and fragmental dikes of a variety of
by Frater ( 1985 ) at the Archean Golden Grove shapes. They occur in porphyry Cu-Mo and
deposit, Australia; colluvial fragmentites con- stockwork-Mo fields (e.g., E1 Teniente, Camus
taining Sn, W, Au, Hg (Guadalcdzar, Mexico; 1975; Kounrad, Bashkirov, 1983); tin cupolas
Foshag and Fries, 1942); ferberite (Shyorongi, (Cornwall, Allman-Ward et al., 1982); epi-
Rwanda); epithermal gold (Belaya Gora, thermal Au-Ag systems (Sillitoe, 1985) and
USSR; Borodaevskaya and Rozhkov, 1974); elsewhere• The ore minerals precipitated from
and others. the fluids that have excavated the conduits and
Phase 2. Cases in which the ore substance is propelled the fragments. Alternatively, earlier
separated, of relatively small (i.e. sand to silt- ore accumulations have been physically rede-
334

posited, as in the dominantly post-ore struc- tites, such as T-fragmentite slurries collecting
tures (e.g., the Braden Formation at E1 Ten- wall- and floor-rock fragments as they move.
iente; Camus, 1985). Most in-transport fragmentites are unsorted
At several genetically enigmatic, although to poorly sorted, matrix-rich (either matrix or
economically important localities (Olympic large fragments supported), massive to bedded
Dam and Mount Painter Cu-U-Au and U fields, rocks, sometimes size-graded. The fragment
respectively; Roberts and Hudson, 1983), ore shape ranges from angular to rounded and in
deposition overlapped with breccia formation many associations angularity varies so widely
but the exact mechanisms are still not well that identical rocks have been listed in the lit-
understood. erature either as (para)conglomerates or as
Phase 3 has many examples among infil- breccias (example: till/tillite, diamictite). The
trated deposits of Cu-oxides and silicates (e.g., fragment rounding could have been inherited
Exotica, Chile; Roethe, 1975), manganese ox- (i.e. present before the initiation of the mass
ides, uranium oxides, etc., hosted by alluvial fan transport), or accomplished during the trans-
fragmentites. Zn-Pb ores of the Mississippi port mostly by physical attrition.
Valley-type have been recorded as superim-
posed on transported carbonate fragmentites Mineralization
interpreted as cave influvium (e.g., locally in (1) Pre-breccia ores have been frequently re-
Salafossa, Italy; Lagny, 1975; Les Malines, ported from the in-transport fragmentites, but
France; Fogli~rini et al., 1980). most occurrences are of transitional nature.
Subaerial, epiclastic debris flows carry locally
In-transport fragmentites (T-breccias) significant detrital cassiterite accumulations in
the Kinta Valley of Malaysia ("gugup placers";
In the literature, in-transport fragmentites Batchelor, 1979) and Guemul, Bolivia ("llam-
are usually treated jointly with the aggregation peras"; Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina,
fragmentites under the heading "transported 1964).
breccias" (or conglomerates). Their early for- Submarine debris flows, in particular syn-
mational history, however, differs from the his- volcanic lahars, sometimes contain ore boul-
tory of A-fragmentites by lacking the fragment- ders derived from "exhalative" deposits at pa-
gathering stage, and by having the preservable leo-heights. In Buchans, Newfoundland
particle content greater than the volume of (Thurlow and Swanson, 1981 ), Silurian barite
transporting medium (in the case of mass and Zn, Cu, Pb-bearing lahars were economi-
movements of Brunsden, 1979b), or lacking cally mined. Among the "SEDEX" Zn-Pb de-
such a medium altogether (mass transport of posits, mineralized debris flows have been re-
Brunsden, 1979b). The evolutionary history of corded in Silvermines and Navan, Ireland
in-transport fragmentites thus starts with the (Taylor, 1984).
fragment aggregate already in place and its sub- The "ball" and "breccia" ores in tectonized
sequent transfer into its site of deposition is ac- ("durchbewegte") massive Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni,
complished by a slide, mass flow, fluidized flow Co-sulphide deposits (Vokes, 1973; Juve, 1967;
or a magmatic melt flow. The fragmentite de- Peredery et al., 1982; Gair and Slack, 1984)
posit finally in place, before compaction, differs combine features of phases 1 and 2, because pre-
little from the fragment aggregate while in ac- breccia ores have usually been partly or entirely
tive transport, hence the term "in-transport" modified (remobilized, recrystallized, an-
fragmentite. Admittedly, there are many tran- nealed) during or shortly after the deforma-
sitional members between A- and T-fragmen- tion. Many accretion and subduction m~lange-
 335

hosted orebodies (e.g., Island Mountain, Cali- Transitions

fornia; Ergani Maden, Turkey; both massive Fe,
Cu, Zn sulphides in ophiolitic association), are Transitions a m o n g the main categories of
also partly fragmental tectonites. fragmentites (breccias) discussed above are
(2) The bulk of syn-breccia ores formed by common and generally can be subdivided into:
precipitation from gases and hydrothermal (a) facies transitions (contemporaneous); and
fluids acting as one of the agents of fragmen- (b) sequential transitions (separated in time,
tation and as propellant in magmatic and superimposed or resulting from lateral
phreatomagmatic systems (Sharp, 1978; Silli- reworking).
toe, 1985). There is a complete gradation be- Facies transitions between D-, I- and A-frag-
tween T-fragmentites that, once set into mo- mentites are common in some landslides/rock-
tion, travelled as a more or less closed system slides (e.g., in central Arizona; Krieger, 1977)
free of interaction with their wall and roof rocks, and mdlanges, where internally disaggregated
and A-fragmentites that continued to gather brecciated large rock slabs grade downslope into
fragments as they moved. The mineralization a mass transported rubble breccia which, in
is identical (described above). turn, was locally stream-reworked into an ag-
(3) Porosity-filling ores in T-breccias are gregated fragmentite. In meteorite impact cra-
probably exemplified by the Sustut copper de- ters such as the Ries, autochthonous crater floor
posit, British Columbia (Church, 1974), con- breccias and parautochthonous breccias in in-
taining copper sulphides in pervasively epido- ternally brecciated large, allochthonous rock
tized matrix of an andesitic laharic breccia. slices (i.e., D-breccias) grade into fallout and
Similar deposits are known from Chile, the fallback breccias (T- and A-breccias) (Pohl et
Philippines, the Lake Balkhash region (USSR), al., 1977).
and elsewhere. Sequential transitions in the direction D-

Fig. 11. Serpentinite conglomerate to breccia from Liguria, Italy (A- or T-fragmentite), later tectonically re-brecciated into
a superimposed D-breccia and cemented/veined by carbonate.
336

breccia~A-breccia are common above and be- proposals of several unknown manuscript re-
side fault and crush zones exposed at the paleo- viewers are also acknowledged.
surface, filled by a D-breccia (as an in-situ
brecciated wallrock) and/or T-breccia (fault References
breccia and gouge), later physically reworked
into a variety of talus and basal breccias and
Ahlfeld, F. and Schneider-Scherbina, A., 1964. Los yaci-
conglomerates (A-breccia). Transitions in the mientos minerales y de hidrocarburos de Bolivia. Dep.
opposite direction are rarer and represented by Nac. Geol. La Paz (Bolivia), Bol. 5,388 pp.
an ophiolitic serpentinite fragmentite from Allen, C.C., Jercinovic, M.J. and Allen, J.S.B., 1982. Subgl-
acial volcanism in north-central British Columbia and
Liguria, Italy, shown in Fig. 11. There, an ear-
Iceland. J. Geol., 90: 699-715.
lier polymictic conglomerate to breccia (A- or Allman-Ward, P., Halls, C., Rankin, A. and Bristow, C.M.,
T-fragmentite) has been tectonically re-brec- 1982. An intrusive hydrothermal breccia body at Wheal
ciated into a crackle to mosaic D-breccia and Remfry in the western part of the St. Austell granite
cemented by carbonate. pluton, Cornwall, England. In: A.M. Evans (Editor),
Metallization Associated with Acid Magmatism. Wiley,
Chichester, pp. 1-28.
Conclusions Alusow, E.W., Proctor, P.D. and Sweeney, P.H., 1983. Pri-
mary-secondary structures and ore relationships, Mag-
mont Mine, New Lead Belt, Missouri. In: G. Kisvar-
In the present contribution, breccias, some sanyi, S.K. Grant, W.P. Pratt and J.W. Koenig
other coarse fragmentites and related ores have (Editors), Int. Conf. Mississippi Valley Type Lead-Zinc
been organized and reviewed with the emphasis deposits. Univ. Missouri, Rolla, Mo., pp. 373-384.
Andrew, C.J. and Ashton, J.H., 1985. Regional setting, ge-
on objective (empirical, observational) prop- ology and metal distribution patterns of Navan ore-
erties. The attributes discussed here are consid- body, Ireland. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. (London), Sect.
ered sufficient for a reasonably detailed docu- B, 94: B66-B93.
mentation of a breccia field occurrence. But Arakel, A.V. and McConchie, D., 1982. Classification and
genesis of calcrete and gypsite lithofacies in paleodrain-
much more is needed. Science requires expla- age systems of inland Australia and their relationship
nation as to how natural objects have formed. to carnotite mineralization. J. Sediment. Petrol., 52:
In the present and past period of breccia study, 1149-1170.
writers have been fascinated with genesis al- Ashworth, J.R. (Editor), 1985. Migmatites. Blackie, Glas-
gow and London, 302 pp.
though in a rather one-sided and unsystematic Bakken, B.M. and Einaudi, M.T., 1986. Spatial and tem-
manner. Part 2 (in prep.) of this contribution poral relations between wall rock alteration and gold
will focus on some of the problems of breccia mineralization, Main Pit, Carlin gold mine, Nevada,
formation with the objective of improving the USA. In: A.J. Macdonald (Editor), Gold '86, Toronto.
pp. 388-4O3.
existing interpretations and suggesting a more
Barrett, F.M., Binns, R.A., Groves, D.I., Marston, R.J. and
realistic overall genetic organization ofbreccias McQueen, K.G., 1977. Structural history and metamor-
and their ores. phic modification of Archean volcanic-type nickel de-
posits, Yilgarn Block, western Australia, Econ. Geol.,
72: 1195-1223.
Acknowledgements Bashkirov, B.G., 1983. Explosion breccias in the Kounrad
porphyry copper deposit. Int. Geol. Rev., 25: 373-380.
Batchelor, B.C., 1979. Geological characteristics of certain
This manuscript was completed during my coastal and offshore placers as essential guides for tin
tenure as Gastprofessor at the Universit~it Hei- exploration in Sundaland, Southeast Asia. Geol. Soc.
delberg (F.R.G.). Thanks are due to Prof. C.G. Malays., Bull., 11: 283-313.
Amstutz for hospitality and facilities provided Bateman, P.C., Clark, L.D., Huber, N.K., Moore, J.G. and
Rinehart, C.D., 1963. The Sierra Nevada Batholith - a
in his Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Insti-
synthesis of recent work across the central part. U.S.
tut. Dr. K.H. Wolf is thanked for many helpful Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 414-D, 46 pp.
suggestions and editorial improvements. The Bates, R.L. and Jackson, J.A. (Editors), 1980. Glossary of
 337

Geology, 2nd Ed. Am. Geol. Inst., Falls Church, Va., 751 Bull,W.B., 1972.Recognition of alluvial-fandepositsin the
pp. stratigraphicrecord.In: J.K. Rigby and W.K. Hamblin
Bathurst, R.G.C., 1975. Carbonate Sediments and their (Editors),Recognition of Ancient Sedimentary Envi-
diagenesis. Developments in Sedimentology, 12. Else- ronments. Soc. Econ. Paleontol.Mineral.,Spec. Publ.,
vier, Amsterdam, 620 pp. 16: 63-83.
Bell, R.T., 1986. Megabreccias in northeastern Wernecke Burnham, C.W., 1983. Deep submarine pyroclastic erup-
Mountains, Yukon Territory. Geol. Surv. Can., Pap. 86- tions. Econ. Geol., Monogr. 5: 136-142.
1A: 375-384. Burnham, C.W., 1985. Energy release in subvolcanic envi-
BSrrange, J.P., 1977. The geology of southern Guyana, ronments: implications for breccia formation. Econ.
South America. Inst. Geol. Sci., London Overseas Mere. Geol., 80: 1515-1522.
4, 114 pp. Busby-Spera, C.J., 1984. Large-volume rhyolite ash flow
Bilibin, Yu. A., 1955. Osnovy Geologii Rossypei. Akad. eruptions and submarine caldera collapse in the lower
Nauk, Moscow, 471 pp. Mesozoic Sierra Nevada, California. J. Geophys. Res.,
Blackburn, E.A., Wilson, L. and Sparks, R.S.J., 1976. 89 (B10): 8417-8427.
Mechanisms and dynamics of strombolian activity. J. Button, A. and Eriksson, K., 1981. Precambrian paleow-
Geol. Soc. London, 132: 429-440. eathering and paleoenvironments: controls on miner-
Blum, J.R., 1860. Handbuch der Lithologie oder Gestein- alization. Course notes, Dep. Geology, Univ. Western
lehre. Ferdinand Enke, Erlangen, 356 pp. Australia, Nedlands, W.A., 290 pp.
Borodaevskaya, M.B. and Rozhkov, I.S., 1974. Deposits of Button, A. and Tyler, N., 1981. The character and eco-
gold. In: V.I. Smirnov (Editor), Ore Deposits of the nomic significance of Precambrian paleoweathering and
U.S.S.R. III, Pitman, London, pp. 3-81 (english erosion surfaces in southern Africa. Econ. Geol., 75th
translation). Anniv. Vol., pp. 686-709.
Boudon, G., De Goer De Herve, A. and Vincent, P.M., 1982. Byetekhtin, A.G., Genkin, A.D., Filimonova, A.A. and
Un module dynamique nouveau en contexte basaltique: Shadlun, T.N., 1958. Tekstury i Struktury Rud. Gos-
passage d'une coulde lavique a un ~coulement pyroclas- geolizdat. Moscow, 435 pp.
tique. Examples du Cantal (Massif Central Francais). Cameron, E.N., 1961. Ore Microscopy. Wiley, New York,
Bull. Volcanol., 45-4: 367-382. N.Y., 284 pp.
Branch, C.D., 1976. Development of porphyry copper and Camus, F., 1975. Geology of the E1 Teniente orebody with
stratiform volcanogenic ore bodies during the life cycle emphasis on wall-rock alteration. Econ. Geol., 70: 1341-
of andesitic stratovolcanoes. In: R.W. Johnson (Edi- 1372.
tor), Volcanism in Australasia. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. Carlisle, D., 1963. Pillow breccias and their aquagene tufts,
337-342. Quadra Island, British Columbia. J. Geol., 71: 48-71.
Braunstein, J. and O'Brien, G.D. (Editors), 1968. Diapir- Cas, R.A.F. and Wright, J.V., 1986. Volcanic Successions:
ism and Diapirs. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., Mere. 8, 420 pp. Modern and Ancient. Allen and Unwin, London, 528
Bretz, J.H., 1950. Origin of the filled sink structures and pp.
circle deposits of Missouri. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 61: 789- Casey, J.F. and Kidd, W.S.F., 1981. A parallochthonous
834. group of sedimentary rocks unconformably overlying the
Brunsden, D., 1979a. Weathering. In: C. Embleton and J. Bay of Islands ophiolite complex, North Arm Moun-
Thornes (Editors), Process in Geomorphology. Wiley, tain, Newfoundland. Can. J. Earth Sci., 18: 1035-1050.
New York, N.Y., pp. 167-204. Cecile, M.P. and Campbell, F.H.A., 1977. Large-scale stra-
Brunsden, D., 1979b. Mass movements. In: C. Embleton tiform and intrusive sedimentary breccias of the lower
and J. Thornes (Editors), Process in Geomorphology. Proterozoic Goulbourn Group, Bathurst Inlet, N.W.T.
Wiley, New York, N.Y., pp. 130-152. Can. J. Earth Sci., 14: 2364-2387.
Bryant, D.G., 1968. Intrusive breccias associated with ore, Chamberlin, T.C., 1883. Geology of Wisconsin, 1: 168-169.
Warren (Bisbee) mining district, Arizona. Econ. Geol., Chillingar, G.V., Bissell, H.J. and Wolf, K.H. (Editors),
63: 1-12. 1979. Diagenesis in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks.
Bryant, D.G. and Metzy, H.E., 1966. Geology and ore de- Developments in Sedimentology, 25A. Elsevier, Am-
posits of the Warren mining district. In: S.R. Titley and sterdam, pp. 247-424.
C.L. Hicks (Editors), Geology of the Porphyry Copper Church, B.N., 1974. Sustut Copper. In: Geology, Explora-
deposits, Southwestern North America. Univ. Arizona tion and Mining in British Columbia. B.C. Dep. Min.
Press Tucson, Ariz., pp. 189-203. Petrol. Res., Victoria, pp. 417-432.
Bucher, W.H., 1936. Cryptovolcanic structures in the Cloos, H., 1941. Bau und Tiitigkeit von Tuffschloten. Un-
United States. 16th Int. Geol. Congr., Washington, D.C., tersuchungen an den Schwabischen Vulkan. Geol.
Rep. 2: 1055-1084. Rundsch., 32: 709-800.
Buckland, A.J., 1819. Breccia in Staffordshire. Trans. Geol. Cloos, M., 1982. Flow m$1anges: numerical modelling and
Soc., 1st Ser., 5 (2): 507. geologic constraints on their origin in the Franciscan
338

subduction complex, California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., Easterbrook, D.J., 1982. Characteristic features of glacial
93: 330-345. sediments. In: P.A. Scholle and D. Spearing (Editors),
Coats, R.P., 1964. The geology and mineralization of the Sandstone Depositional Environments. Am. Assoc. Pet.
Blinman Dome diapir. S. Australia Geol. Surv., Rep. In- Geol., pp. 1-10.
vest., 26, 53 pp. Edwards, A.B., 1954. Textures of the Ore Minerals. Austra-
Cobbing, E.J., Pitcher, W.S., Wilson, J.J., Baldock, J.W., las. Instit. Min. Metall., Melbourne, 242 pp.
Taylor, W.P., McCourt, W. and Snelling, N.J., 1981. The Edwards, M.B., 1978. Glacial environments. In: H.G.
geology of the western Cordillera of northern Peru. Inst. Reading (Editor), Sedimentary Environments and Fa-
Geol. Sci. London, Overseas Mem. 5, 144 pp. cies. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 416-438.
Cook, H.E. and Enos, P., 1977. Deep-water carbonate en- Eisbacher, G.H. and Clague, J.J., 1984. Destructive mass
vironments. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral., Tulsa, Spec. movements in high mountains: hazard and manage-
Publ., 25, 336 pp. ment. Geol. Surv. Can., Pap., 84-16, 230 pp.
Cook, H.E. and Mullins, H.T., 1983. Basin margin environ- Ekren, E.B., McIntyre, D.H. and Bennett, E.H., 1984. High-
ment. In: P.A. Scholle, D.G. Bebout and C.H. Moore temperature, large volume, lavalike ash-flow tuffs with-
(Editors), Carbonate Depositional Environments. Am. out calderas in southwestern Idaho. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Assoc. Pet. Geol., pp. 540-617. Prof. Pap., 1272, 76 pp.
Cousineau, P. and Dimroth, E., 1982. Interpretation of the Embleton, C. and Thornes, J. (Editors), 1979. Process in
relations between massive, pillowed and brecciated fa- Geomorphology. Wiley, New York, N.Y., 436 pp.
cies in an Archean submarine andesite volcano - Amu- Embry, A.F. and Klovan, J.E., 1971. A late Devonian reef
let Andesite, Rouyn-Noranda, Canada. J. Volcanol. tract on northeastern Banks Island, N.W.T. Bull. Can.
Geotherm. Res., 13: 83-102. Pet. Geol., 19: 730-781.
Cowan, D.S., 1985. Structural styles in Mesozoic and Cai- Enos, P. and Moore, C.H., 1983. Fore-reef slope. In: P.-A.
nozoic m61anges in the western Cordillera of North Scholle, D.G. Bebout and C.H. Moore (Editors), Car-
America. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 96: 451-462. bonate Depositional Environments. Am. Assoc. Pet.
Crandell, D.R., 1971. Postglacial lahars from Mount Rain- Geol., pp. 507-538.
ier volcano, Washington. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., Esteban, M. and Klappa, C.F., 1983. Subaerial exposure.
677, 75 pp. In: P.A. Scholle, D.G. Bebout and C.H. Moore (Edi-
Dalgarno, C.R. and Johnson, J.E., 1968. Diapiric struc- tors), Carbonate Depositional Environments. Am. As-
tures and late Precambrian-early Cambrian sedimen-
soc. Pet. Geol., pp. 1-54.
tation in Flinders Ranges, South Australia. Am. Assoc.
Evenson, E.B., Schluchter, C. and Rabassa, J. (Editors),
Pet. Geol., Mem., 8:301-314.
1983. Tills and Related Deposits. Balkema, Rotterdam,
Daubr~e, A., 1891. Recherches exp~rimentales sur le rSle de
454 pp.
gaz ~ hautes temperatures, dones de tr~s fortes pressions
Fisher, R.V., 1960. Classification of volcanic breccias. Bull.
et animes d'un mouvement forte rapide divers ph6no-
Geol. Soc. Am., 71: 973-982.
m~nes g~ologiques. Bull. Soc. Geol. France, 3e Ser., 19:
Fisher, R.V., 1961. Proposed classification of volcaniclastic
313-354.
sediments and rocks. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 72: 1409-
Davis, G.H., 1972. Deformational history of the Caribou
1414.
strata-bound sulfide deposit, Bathurst, New Bruns-
wick, Canada. Econ. Geol., 67: 634-655. Fisher, R.V., 1966. Rocks composed of volcanic fragments
Didier, J., 1973. Granites and Their Enclaves; The Bearing and their classification. Earth Sci. Rev., 1: 287-298.
of Enclaves on the Origin of Granites. Elsevier, Am- Fletcher, C.J.N., 1984. Strata-bound, vein and breccia-pipe
sterdam, 393 pp. tungsten deposits of South Korea. Trans. Inst. Min.
Dietz, R.S., 1972. Sudbury astrobleme, splash emplaced sub- Metall. (London), Sect. B, 93: B176-B184.
layer and possible cosmogenic ores. Geol. Assoc. Can- Flores, G., 1955. Discussion. Proc. 4th World Petroleum
ada, Spec. Pap., 10: 29-40. Conference, Sect. I/A/2, pp. 121-122.
Dimroth, E., Cousineau, P. and Leduc, M., 1978. Structure Fodor, R.V., Keil, K., Wilkening, L.L., Bogard, D.D. and
and organization of Archean subaqueous basalt flows, Gibson, E.K., 1976. Origin and history of a meteorite
Rouyn-Noranda area, Quebec, Canada. Can. J. Earth parent-body regolith breccia: a carbonaceous and non-
Sci., 15: 902-918. carbonaceous lithic fragment in the Abbott, New Mex-
Dorr, J.V.N., 2nd, 1969. Physiographic, stratigraphic and ico, chondrite. New Mexico Geol. Soc., Spec. Publ., 6:
structural development of the Quadrilatero Ferrifero, 206-218.
Minas Gerais, Brazil. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 641- Fogli~rini, F., Bernard, A. and Verraes, G., 1980. Le gise-
A, 110 pp. ment des Malines (Gard). 26th Int. Geol. Congr., Paris.
Dressier, B.O., 1984. The effects of the Sudbury Event and Gisements Francais, Fasc. E5, 56 pp.
the intrusion of the Sudbury igneous complex on the Foshag, W.F. and Fries, C., Jr., 1942. Tin deposits of the
footwall rocks of the Sudbury structure. Ontario Geol. Republic of Mexico. U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull., 935-C: 99-
Surv., Spec. Vol., 1: 97-136. 180.
 339

Frater, K.M., 1985. Mineralization at the Golden Grove Cu- posits et E1 Salvador, Chile. Econ. Geol., 70: 857-912.
Zn deposit, Western Australia. Can. J. Earth Sci., 22: 1- Halbouty, M.T., 1967. Salt domes, Gulf Region, United
26. States and Mexico. Gulf Publ., Houston, Tex., 425 pp.
Freytet, P., Plaziat, J.-C. and Purser, B.H., 1982. Conti- Hall, R., 1976. Ophiolite emplacement and the evolution fo
nental carbonate sedimentation and pedogenesis - Late the Taurus suture zone, southeastern Turkey. Geol. Soc.
Cretaceous and Early Tertiary of southern France. Con- Amer. Bull. 87, 1078-1088.
trib. Sedimentol., 12,213 pp. Hamilton, W., 1972. The ..HuLallett volcanic province,
Frietsch, R., 1978. On the magmatic origin of iron ores of Antarctica. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 456-C, 62 pp.
the Kiruna type. Econ. Geol., 73: 478-485. Hawthorne, J.B., 1975. Model of a kimberlite pipe. Physics
Gair, J.E. and Slack, J.F., 1984. Deformation, geochemis- and Chemistry of the Earth, 9. Pergamon Press, Lon-
try and origin of massive sulphide deposits, Gossan Lead don, pp. 1-15.
District, Virginia. Econ. Geol., 79: 1483-1520. Hearn, B.C., Jr., 1968. Diatreme with kimberlite affinities
Garner, H.F., 1974. The Origin of Landscapes. Oxford Univ. in North-Central Montana. Science, 159: 622-625.
Press, New York, N.Y., 734 pp. Hedenquist, J.W. and Henley, R.W., 1985. Hydrothermal
Garson, M.S., 1966. Carbonatites in Malawi. In: O.F. Tut- eruptions in the Waiotapu geothermal system, New
tle and J. Gittins (Editors), Carbonatites. Interscience, Zealand: their origin, associated breccias and relation to
New York, N.Y., pp. 33-71. precious metal mineralization. Econ. Geol., 80: 1640-
Geijer, P., 1967. Internal features of the apatite-bearing 1668.
magnetite ores. Sveriges Geol. Unders., Ser. C, 624, 32 Heyl, A.V., Angew, A.F., Lyons, E.J., Behre, C.H., Jr. and
pp. Flint, A.E., 1959. The Geology of the Zinc and Lead De-
Geikie, A., 1902. The geology of eastern Fife. Mere. Geol. posits of the Upper Mississippi Valley District. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Scotland, Nos. 40a, 41, 48a, 49a, 520 pp. Surv., Prof. Pap., 309,310 pp.
Gilmour, P., 1977. Mineralized intrusive breccias as guides Higgins, M.W., 1971. Cataclastic rocks. U.S. Geol. Surv.,
to concealed porphyry copper systems. Econ. Geol., 72: Prof. Pap., 687, 97 pp.
290-298. Hodgson, C.J. and MacGeehan, P.J., 1982. A review of the
Glennie, K.W., 1970. Desert Sedimentary Environments. geological characteristics of "gold only" deposits in the
Developments in Sedimentology, 14. Elsevier, Amster- Superior Province of the Canadian Shield. Can. Inst.
dam, 222 pp. Min. Metall., Spec. Vol., 24: 211-229.
Gold, D.P., 1972. Monteregian Hills: diatremes, kimber- Hutchison, W.W., 1982. Geology of the Prince Ruppert-
lites, lamprophyres and intrusive breccias west of Mon- Skeena map area, British Columbia. Geol. Surv. Can.,
treal. 24th Int. Geol. Congr., Montreal, Excurs. Guide- Mem., 394, 116 pp.
book B-10, 32 pp. Ianovici, V., Borco~, M., Bleahu, M., Patrulius, D., Lupu,
Goldthwait, R.P. (Editor), 1971. Till - A Symposium. Ohio M., Dimitrescu, R. and Savu, H., 1976. Geologia Mun-
State Univ. Press, 402 pp. ~ilor Apuseni. Edit. Academiaei, Bucharest, 580 pp.
Goodwin, A.M., 1979. Archean volcanic studies in the Tim- Ihlen, P.M., Ineson, P.R., Mitchell, J.G. and Vokes, F.M.,
mins-Kirkland Lake-Noranda regions of Ontario and 1984. K-Ar dating of dolerite dykes in the Kongsberg-
Quebec. Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull., 278, 51 pp. Fiskum district, Norway, and their relationships with
Goudie, A., 1973. Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtropical the silver and base metal veins. Norsk Geol. Tidsskrift,
Landscapes. Clarendon, Oxford, 174 pp. 64: 87-96.
Gordon, M., Jr., Tracey, J.I., Jr. and Ellis, M.W., 1958. Ge- Jacobi, R.D., 1984. Modern submarine sediment slides and
ology of the Arkansas bauxite region. U.S. Geol. Surv. their implications for m~lange and the Dunnage For-
Profess. Paper 299. mation in north-central Newfoundland. Geol. Soc. Am.,
Grabau, A.W., 1924. Principles of Stratigraphy, 2nd ed. Spec. Pap., 198: 81-102.
Seller, New York, N.Y., 1185 pp. Jaggar, T.A., 1947. Origin and development of craters. Geol.
Gravenor, C.P., Von Brunn, V. and Dreimanis, A., 1984. Soc. Am. Mem. 21,508 pp.
Nature and classification of waterlain glaciogenic sedi- James, N.P., 1983. Reef environment. In: P.A. Scholle, D.G.
ments, exemplified by Pleistocene, late Paleozoic and Bebout and C.H. Moore (Editors), Carbonate Deposi-
late Precambrian deposits. Earth Sci. Rev., 20: 105-166. tional Environments. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., pp. 345-
Greeley, R., 1977. Basaltic "plains" volcanism. In: R. Gree- 440.
ley and J.S. King (Editors), Volcanism of the Eastern Jolly, W.T., 1974. Behaviour of Cu, Zn and Ni during
Snake River Plain, Idaho. Office of the Planet. Geol. prehnite-pumpellyite rank metamorphism of the Kew-
NASA, Washington, D.C., pp. 24-44. eenawan basalts, northern Michigan. Econ. Geol., 69:
Grocott, J., 1977. The relationship between Precambrian 1118-1125.
shear belts and modern fault systems. J. Geol. Soc. Lon- Juve, G., 1967. Zinc and lead deposits in the Hafjell sync-
don, 133: 257-262. line, Ofoten, northern Norway. Nor. Geol. Unders., 244,
Gustafson, L.B. and Hunt, J.P., 1975. Porphyry copper de- 54 pp.
340

Karig, D. and Sharman, G., 1975. Subduction and accre- Laznicka, P., 1988. Breccias and Coarse Fragmentites. De-
tion in trenches. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 86" 377-389. velopments in Economic Geology, 25. Elsevier, Amster-
Keefer, D.K., 1984. Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geol. dam, 832 pp.
Soc. Am. Bull., 95: 406-421. Le Bas, M.J., 1977. Carbonatite-Nephelinite Volcanism,
Kents, P., 1964. Special breccias associated with hydro- An African Case History. Wiley, London, 347 pp.
thermal developments in the Andes. Econ. Geol., 59: Leine, L., 1971. Rauhwacke und ihre Entstehung. Geol.
1551-1563. Rundsch., 60: 488-523.
Kerr, P.F., Bodine, M.W., Jr., Kelley, D.R. and Keys, W.S., Lelong, F., Tardy, Y., Grandin, G., Trescases, J.J. and Bou-
1957. Collapse features, Temple Mountain uranium area, lange, B., 1976. Pedogenesis, chemical weathering and
Utah. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 68: 933-982. processes of formation of some supergene ore deposits.
Kerrich, R., 1983. Geochemistry of gold deposits in the In: K.H. Wolf (Editor), Handbook of Stratiform and
Abitibi greenstone belt. Can. Inst. Min. Metalh, Spec. Strata-Bound Ore Deposits, 3. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp.
Vol., 22, 75 pp. 93-174.
Khalilov, N. Yu. and Kerimov, A.A., 1983. Origin of mud Lewis, D.W., 1984. Practical Sedimentology. Hutchinson
volcanism and diapirism. Int. Geol. Rev., 25: 877-881. and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., 229 pp.
Kiilsgaard, T.H., Heyl, A.V. and Brock, R., 1963. The Lichtblau, A.P. and Dimroth, E., 1980. Stratigraphy and
Crooked Creek Disturbance, Southeast Missouri. U.S. facies at the south margin of the Archean Noranda cald-
Geol. Surv., Prof., Pap., 450-E: 14-19. era, Noranda, Quebec. Geol. Surv. Can., Pap., 80-1A:
Kinkel, A.R., Jr., 1967. The Ore Knob copper deposit, North 69-76.
Carolina, and other massive sulphide deposits of the Lindsey, D.A., 1982. Tertiary volcanic rocks and uranium
Appalachians. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Paper, 558, 58 pp. in the Thomas Range and northern Drum Mountains,
Klein, C., Jr., 1972. Lunar materials: their terminology, pe- Juab County, Utah. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 1221,
trology and chemistry. Earth Sci. Rev., 8" 169-204. 71 pp.
Koster, E.H. and Steel, R.J. (Editors), 1984. Sedimentol- Lipman, P.W., 1976. Caldera collapse breccias in the west-
ogy of gravels and conglomerates. Can. Soc. Pet. Geol., ern San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.,
Mem., 10, 441 pp. 87: 1397-1410.
Krieger, M.H., 1977. Large landslides, composed of mega- Lipman, P.W., Fisher, F.S., Mehnert, H.H., Naeser, C.W.,
breccia, interbedded in Miocene basin deposits, south- Luedke, R.G. and Steven, T.A., 1976. Multiple ages of
eastern Arizona. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 1008, 25 mid-Tertiary mineralization and alteration in the San
pp. Juan Mountains, Colorado. Econ. Geol., 71: 471-588.
Kuhn, T.H., 1941. Pipe deposits of the Copper Creek area, Logan, W.E., 1863. Geology of Canada. Geol. Surv. Can.,
Arizona. Econ. Geol., 36: 512-531. Dawson Brothers, Montreal, 1050 pp.
Kyle, J.R., 1983. Economic aspects of subaerial carbonates. Logan, B.W. and Semeniuk, V., 1976. Dynamic metamor-
In: P.A. Scholle, D.G. Bebout and C.H. Moore (Edi- phism; processes and products in Devonian carbonate
tors), Carbonate Depositional Environments. Am. As- rocks, Canning Basin, Western Australia. Geol. Soc.
soc. Pet. Geol., pp. 73-92. Aust., Spec. Publ., 6, 138 pp.
Lacroix, A., 1904. La Montagne Pel~e et Ses Eruptions. Longman, M.W., 1981. A process approach to recognizing
Masson, Paris, 662 pp. facies of reef complexes. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral.,
Lacroix, A., 1906. Contribution a l'~tude des br~ches et Spec. Publ., 30: 9-40.
conglomerats volcaniques. Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr., Ser. 4, 6: Lorenz, V., 1973. On the formation of maars. Bull. Vol-
635-685. canol., 37: 183-204.
Lagny, P., 1975. Le gisement plombo-zincif~re de Salafossa Lorenz, V., 1975. Formation of phreatomagmatic maar-
(Alpes italiennes orientales): remplissage d'un paleo- diatreme volcanoes and its relevance to kimberlite dia-
karst triasique par des sediments sulfur,s. Miner. De- tremes. Phys. Chem. Earth, 9: 17-28.
posita, 10: 345-361. Lovering, T.S. and Goddard, E.N., 1950. Geology and ore
Landes, K.K., Ehlers, G.M. and Stanlet, G.M., 1945. Ge- deposits of the Front Range, Colorado. U.S. Geol. Surv.,
ology of the Mackinac Straits region. Michigan Geol. Prof. Pap., 223, 319 pp.
Surv., Publ. 44; Geol. Ser. 37: 123-153. Macdonald, G.A., 1953. Pahoehoe, AA and block lava. Am.
Lane, T.E., 1984. Preliminary classification of carbonate J. Sci., 251: 169-191.
breccias, Newfoundland Zinc Mines, Daniels Harbour, Macqueen, R.W. and Thomson, R.I., 1978. Carbonate-
Newfoundland. Geol. Surv. Can., Pap., 84-1A: 505-512. hosted lead-zinc occurrences in northeastern British
Langford-Smith, T. (Editor), 1978. Silcrete in Australia. Columbia with emphasis on the Robb Lake deposit. Can.
Univ. New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 304 pp. J. Earth Sci., 15: 1737-1762.
Lawrence, L.J., 1973. Polymetamorphism of the sulphide Manilici, V., Giu~c~, D. and Stiopol, V., 1965. Studiul z~-
ores of Broken Hill, N.S.W., Australia. Miner. Depos- c~mintului de la Baia Sprie (Reg. Baia Mare). Memorii
ita, 8: 211-236. Inst. Geol. (Rumania), 7, 113 pp.
 341

Manten, A.A., 1971. Silurian Reefs of Gotland. Elsevier, mechanisms and hot spring gold deposits. Econ. Geol.,
Amsterdam, 537 pp. 80: 1633-1639.
Masaitis, V.L., Danilin, A.N. and Mashchak, M.S., 1980. Nelson, C.H. and Hopkins, D.M., 1972. Sedimentary pro-
Geologiya Astroblem. Nedra, Leningrad, 230 pp. cesses and distribution of particulate gold in the north-
Maslov, V.P., 1938. Klassifikatsiya Brekchii. Bull. Soc. Nat. ern Bering Sea. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 689, 27 pp.
Moscow, 46 (16): 313-321. Netterberg, F., 1980. Geology of southern African calcretes,
Mason, B. and Melson, W.G., 1970. The Lunar Rocks. 1: terminology, description, macrofeatures and classifi-
Wiley-Interscience, New York, N.Y., 179 pp. cation. Geol. Soc. S. Afr., Trans., 83: 255-283.
McCall, G.J.H. (Editor), 1983. Ophiolitic and Related M~- Nilsen, T.H., 1969. Old Red sedimentation in the Buelan-
langes. Benchmark Papers in Geology, 66. Hutchinson- det-Vaerlandet Devonian district, western Norway.
Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., 446 pp. Sediment. Geol., 3: 35-57.
McIlreath, I.S. and James, N.P., 1978. Facies Models 13. Nilsen, T.H., 1982. Alluvial fan deposits. In: P.A. Scholle
Carbonate Slopes. Geosci. Canada, 5: 189-198. and D. Spearing (Editors), Sandstone Depositional
McKee, E.D. and Gutschick, R.C., 1969. Sequence of sed- Environments. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol., pp. 49-86.
iments and unconformities. Geol. Soc. Am., Mem., 114: Noble, L.F., 1941. Structural features of the Virgin Spring
13-96. area, Death Valley, California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 52:
McKnight, E.T. and Fischer, R.P., 1970. Geology and ore 941-1000.
deposits of the Picher Field, Oklahoma and Kansas. U.S. Norman, D.I. and Sawkins, F.J., 1985. The Tribag breccia
Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 588, 165 pp. pipes: Precambrian Cu-Mo deposits, Batchawana Bay,
Mehnert, K.R., 1968. Migmatites and the Origin of Gran- Ontario. Econ. Geol., 80: 1593-1621.
itic Rocks. Elsevier, 393 pp. Norton, W.H., 1917. Studies for students. A classification
Moore, J.G., Phillips, R.L., Grigg, R.W., Peterson, D.W. of breccias. J. Geol., 25: 160-194.
and Swanson, D.A., 1973. Flow of lava into the sea, 1969- Ohle, E.L., 1985. Breccias in Mississippi Valley-type de-
1971, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 84: posits. Econ. Geol., 80: 1736-1752.
537-546. Ohmoto, H. and Takahashi, T., 1983. Submarine calderas
Morris, H.T. and Lovering, T.S., 1979. General geology and and Kuroko genesis. Econ. Geol., Monogr., 5: 39-54.
mines of the East Tintic mining district, Utah and Juab Ollier, C., 1975. Weathering. 2nd ed., Longman, London,
Counties, Utah. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 1024, 203 304 pp.
pp. Olson, R.A., 1984. Genesis of paleokarst and strata-bound
Morrissey, C.J. and Whitehead, D., 1970. Origin of the zinc-lead sulfide deposits in a Proterozoic dolostone,
Tynagh residual orebody, Ireland. In: M.J. Jones (Edi- northern Baffin Island, Canada. Econ. Geol., 79: 1056-
tor), Mining and Petroleum Geology. 9th Comm. Min. 1103.
Metall. Congr., 1969, Inst. Min. Metall. London, pp. 131- Par~k, T., 1975. The origin of the Kiruna iron ores. Sver.
145. Geol. Unders., Ser. C, 709, 209 pp.
Mountjoy, E.W., Cook, H.E., Pray, L,C. and McDaniel, Par~k, T., 1985. Phosphorus in different types of ore, sul-
P.N., 1972. Allochthonous carbonate debris flows - fides in the iron deposits, and the type and origin of ores
worldwide indicators of reef complexes, banks or shelf at Kiruna. Econ. Geol., 80: 646-665.
margins. 24th Int. Geol. Congr., Montreal, Que., Sect. Pasteris, J.D., 1984. Kimberlites: complex mantle melts.
6: 172-189. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 12: 133-153.
Muir, T.L., 1984. The Sudbury structure: considerations Peckover, R.S., Buchanan, D.J. and Ashby, D.E.T.F., 1973.
and models for the endogenic origin. Ont. Geol. Surv., Fuel-coolant interactions in submarine volcanism. Na-
Spec. Vol., 1: 449-489. ture, 247: 272-273.
Muir, T.L. and Peredery, W.V., 1984. The Onaping For- Peredery, W.V. and Geological Staff (INCO), 1982. Geol-
mation. Ont. Geol. Surv., Spec. Vol., 1: 139-210. ogy and nickel sulphide deposits of the Thompson Belt,
Murray, G.E., 1961. Geologyof the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Manitoba. Geol. Assoc. Can., Spec. Pap., 25: 165-209.
Provinces of North America. Harper, New York, N.Y., Pettijohn, F.J., 1975. Sedimentary Rocks. 3rd Ed., Harper
692 pp. and Row, New York, N.Y., 628 pp.
Myers, J.S., 1975. Cauldron subsidence and fluidization: Phillips, W.J., 1972. Hydraulic fracturing and mineraliza-
mechanisms of intrusion of the Coastal Batholith of Peru tion. J. Geol. Soc. London, 128: 337-360.
into its own volcanic ejecta. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 86: Playford, E. and Lowry, D.C., 1956. Devonian reef com-
1209-1220. plexes of the Canning Basin, Western Australia. Geol.
Nelson, K.D., 1982. A suggestion for the origin of mesos- Surv. W. Aust. Bull., 118, 150 pp.
copic fabric in accretionary melange, based on features Pohl, J., StSffler, D., Gall, H. and Ernstson, K., 1977. The
observed in the Chrystalls Beach Complex, South Is- Ries impact crater. In: D.J. Roddy, R.O. Pepin and R.B.
land, New Zealand. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 93: 625-634. Merrill (Editors), Impact and Explosion Cratering.
Nelson, C.E. and Giles, D.L., 1985. Hydrothermal eruption Pergamon, New York, N.Y., pp. 343-404.
342

Price, P.E., Kyle, J.R. and Wessel, C.R., 1983. Salt dome Sawkins, F.J., 1969. Chemical brecciation, an unrecog-
related lead-zinc deposits. In: G. Kisvarsanyi, S.K. nized mechanism for breccia formation? Econ. Geol.,
Grant, W.P. Pratt and J.W. Koenig (Editors), Int. Conf. 64: 613-617.
Mississippi Valley-type Lead-Zinc Deposits. Univ. Sawkins, F.J., 1977. Fluid inclusion studies of the Messina
Missouri, Rolla, Mo., pp. 558-571. copper deposits, Transvaal, South Africa. Econ. Geol.,
Ramdohr, P., 1955. Die Erzmineralien und ihre Verwach- 72: 619-631.
sungen. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 875 pp. Scholle, P.A., Bebout, D.G. and Moore, C.H. (Editors),
Ramsay, A.C., 1855. On the occurrence of angular, suban- 1983. Carbonate Depositional Environments. Am. As-
gular, polished and striated boulders in the Permian soc. Pet. Geol., 704 pp.
Breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire etc. and on the Schwartz, G.M., 1951. Classification and definitions of tex-
probable existence of glaciers and icebergs in the Per- tures and mineral structures in ores. Econ. Geol., 46:
mian Epoch. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London, 11: 185-205. 578-593.
Ramsay, J.G. and Huber, M.I., 1983. The Techniques of Sedgwick, A., 1835. On the geological relations and internal
Modern Structural Geology, V. 1: Strain Analysis. Ac- structure of the Magnesian Limestone, and the lower
ademic Press, London, 307 pp. portions of the New Red Sandstone series in their range
Reeves, C.C., Jr., 1976. Caliche, Origin, Classification, through Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire and
Morphology and Uses. Estacado Books, Lubbock, Tex., Durham, to the southern extremity of Northumberland.
233 pp. Trans. Geol. Soc. London, 3: 37-124.
Reynolds, J.H., 1928. Breccias. Geol. Mag., 65: 97-107. Sharp, J.E., 1978. A molybdenum mineralized breccia pipe
Rhodes, D., Lantos, E.A., Lantos, J.A., Webb, R.J. and Ow- complex, Redwell Basin, Colorado. Econ. Geol., 73: 369-
ens, D.C., 1984. Pine Point orebodies and their relation- 382.
ship to the stratigraphy, structure, dolomitization and Sheridan, M.F., 1979. Emplacement of pyroclastic flows, a
karstification of the middle Devonian barrier complex. review. Geol. Soc. Am., Spec. Pap., 180: 125-136.
Econ. Geol., 79: 991-1055. Sheridan, M.F. and Wohletz, K.H., 1983. Hydrovolcanism.
Rittmann, A., 1960. Vulkane und ihre T~itigkeit, 2. Aufl. Basic considerations and review. J. Volcanol. Geoth-
Enke, Stuttgart, 335 pp. erm. Res., 17: 1-29.
Rivas, S.V., 1977. Geologfa de los principales minas de es- Shnyukov, Ye.F., Naymenko, P.I., Lebedev, Yu.S., Usenko,
tafio. Simposio Internac. del Estafio (Nov.), La Paz, V.P., Gordievich, V.A., Yukhanov, I.S. and Schiritsa,
Proc. 15, 35 pp. A.S., 1971. Gryazevoi Vulkanizm i Rudoobrazovaniye.
Roberts, D.E. and Hudson, G.R.T., 1983. The Olympic Dam
Nauk. Dumka, Kiev, 332 pp.
copper-uranium-gold deposit, Roxby Downs, South
Shoemaker, E.M., 1963. Impact mechanics at Meteor Cra-
Australia. Econ. Geol., 78: 799-822.
ter, Arizona. In: B.M. Middlehurst and G.P. Kuiper
Roddy, D.J., Pepin, R.O. and Merrill, R.B. (Editors), 1977.
(Editors), The Moon, Meteorites and Comets. Univ.
Impact and Explosion Cratering. Pergamon, New York,
Chicago Press, Ill., pp. 301-336.
N.Y., 1301 pp.
Short, N.M., 1970. Anatomy of a meteorite impact crater:
Roethe, G., 1975. Silikatische Kupferlagers~tten in Nord
Chile. Geol. Rundsch., 64" 421-456. West Hawk Lake, Manitoba, Canada. Geol. Soc. Am.
Ross, C.S. and Smith, R.L., 1961. Ash-flow tufts: their or- Bull., 81: 609-648.
igin, geologic relations and identification. U.S. Geol. Short, N.M., 1975. Planetary Geology. Prentice Hall, En-
Surv., Prof. Pap., 366, 81 pp. glewood Cliffs, N.J., 361 pp.
Rouvier, H., Perthuisot, V. and Mansouri, A., 1985. Pb-Zn Sibson, R.H., 1977. Fault rocks and fault mechanisms. J.
deposits and salt-bearing diapirs in southern Europe and Geol. Soc. London, 133: 191-213.
North Africa. Econ. Geol., 80: 666-687. Sides, J.R., Bickford, M.E., Shuster, R.D. and Nusbaum,
Rytuba, J.J. and McKee, E.H., 1984. Peralkaline ash flow R.L., 1981. Calderas in the Precambrian terrane of St.
tufts and calderas of the McDermitt volcanic field, Francois Mountains, Southeastern Missouri. J. Geo-
Southeast Oregon and North-Central Nevada. J. Geo- phys. Res., 86 (Bll): 10349-10364.
phys. Res., 89 (B10): 8616-8628. Sigurdsson, H., Carey, S.N. and Espindola, J.M., 1984. The
Saemundsson, K., 1979. Outline of the geology of Iceland. 1982 eruptions of E1 Chichdn volcano, Mexico: stratig-
Jiikull, 29, Reykjav~, pp. 7-28. raphy of pyroclastic deposits. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Saleeby, J.B., 1979. Kaweah serpentinite melange, South- Res., 23: 11-37.
west Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. Geol. Soc. Am. Silberling, N.J. and Wallace, R.E., 1969. Stratigraphy of
Bull., 90 (I): 29-46. the Star Peak Group (Triassic) and overlying lower
Sass-Gustkiewicz, M., Dzulyfiski, S. and Ridge, J.D., 1982. Mesozoic rocks, Humboldt Range, Nevada. U.S. Geol.
The emplacement of zinc-lead sulfide ores in the Upper Surv., Prof. Pap., 597, 50 pp.
Silesia District. A contribution to the understanding of Sillitoe, R.H., 1975. Lead-silver, manganese and native
Mississippi Valley type deposits. Econ. Geol., 77: 392- sulfur mineralization within a stratovolcano, E1 Queva,
412. Northwest Argentina. Econ. Geol., 70: 1190-1201.
 343

Sillitoe, R.H., 1985. Ore-related breccias in volcanoplu- Ulrich, G.E., Hodges, C.A. and Muehlberger, W.R., 1981.
tonic arcs. Econ. Geol., 80: 1467-1514. Geology of the Apollo 16 area, Central Lunar Highlands.
Sillitoe, R.H. and Bonham, H.F., Jr., 1984. Volcanic land- U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 1048, 315 pp.
forms and ore deposits. Econ. Geol., 79: 1286-1298. Van Dorr, J.N., 2nd. and Barbosa, A.L. de M., 1963. Geol-
SiUitoe, R.H. and Sawkins, F.J., 1971. Geologic, mineral- ogy and ore deposits of the Itabira district, Minas Ger-
ogic and fluid inclusion studies relating to the origin of ais, Brazil. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 341-C, 110 pp.
copper-bearing tourmaline breccia pipes, Chile. Econ. Van Hise, C.R. and Leith, C.K., 1911. The geology of the
Geol., 66: 1028-1041. Lake Superior region. U.S. Geol. Surv., Monogr., 52:641
Smith, D.B., 1972. Foundered strata, collapse breccias and pp.
subsidence features of the English Zechstein. In: G. Ri- Van Schmus, W.R., 1969. The mineralogy and petrology of
chter-Bernburg (Editor), Geology of Saline Deposits. chondrite meteorites. Earth Sci. Rev., 5: 145-184.
UNESCO, Paris, pp. 255-269. Verwoerd, W.J., 1967. The carbonatites of South Africa and
Smith, R.L., 1960. Ash flows. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 71: 795- South West Africa. S. Aft. Geol. Surv., Handbook 6.
842. Vlodavets, V.I. and others, 1962. Klassifikatsiya Vulkano-
Snyder, G.L. and Fraser, G.D., 1963. Pillowed lavas I: in- gennykh Oblomochnykh Gornykh porod. Gosge-
trusive layered lava pods and pillowed lavas, Unalaska ol'tekhizdat', Moscow, 305 pp.
Island, Alaska. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 454-B, 23 Vokes, F.M., 1973. "Ball texture" in sulphide ores. Geol.
pp. Foren. Stockholm Forh., 95: 403-406.
Snyder, F.G. and Odell, J.W., 1958. Sedimentary breccias Von Cotta, B., 1859. Die Lehre von den Erzlagersttitten.
in the Southeast Missouri lead district. Bull. Geol. Soc. Engelhardt, Freiberg, part I, 252 pp.; Part II, 746 pp.
Am., 69: 899-926. Walker, R.G., 1975. Generalized facies models for resedi-
Soften, G.A. and Snyder, C.W., 1976. The first Viking mis- mented conglomerates of turbidite association. Geol.
sion to Mars. Science, 193: 759-765. Soc. Am. Bull., 86: 737-748.
Speed, R.C., 1975. Carbonate breccia (rauhwacke) nappes Walker, G.P.L. and Blake, D.H., 1966. The formation of a
of the Carson sink region, Nevada. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., palagonite breccia mass beneath a valley glacier in Ice-
86: 471-486. land. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London, 122: 45-61.
Speers, E.C., 1957. The age relation and origin of common Wenrich, K.J., 1985. Mineralization in breccia pipes in
Sudbury breccia. J. Geol., 65: 497-514. northern Arizona. Econ. Geol., 80: 1722-1735.
Spry, A., 1969. Metamorphic Textures. Pergamon, Oxford, Wentworth, C.K. and Macdonald, G.A., 1953. Structures
350 pp. and forms of basaltic rocks in Hawaii. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Stanley, D.J., 1975.Submarine canyons and slope sedimen- Bull., 994, 98 pp.
tation (Gres d'Annot) in the French Maritime Alps. IX Wentworth, C.K. and Williams, H., 1932. The classifica-
Conf. Int. Sedimentologie, Nice, 130 pp. tion and terminology of the pyroclastic rocks. Rep.
Stanton, R.J., 1966. The solution brecciation process. Geol. Comm. Sediment. Bull. Natl. Res. Counc., 80~ 10-53.
Soc. Am. Bull., 77: 843-848. White, D.E., Thompson, G.A. and Sandberg, C.H., 1964.
Sutherland, D.S., 1965. Nomenclature of the potassic-feld- Rocks, structure and geologic history of Steamboat
spathic rocks associated with carbonatites. Geol. Soc. Springs thermal area, Washoe County, Nevada. U.S.
Am. Bull., 76: 1409-1412. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 458-B, 63 pp.
Talbot, C.J. and Jarvis, R.J., 1984. Age, budget and dynam- Williams, H., 1936. Pliocene volcanoes of the Navajo-Hopi
ics of an active salt extrusion in Iran. J. Struct. Geol., 6: Country. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 47: 111-172.
521-533. Williams, H., 1975. Structural succession, nomenclature and
Taylor, S.R., 1975. Lunar science: a post-Apollo view. Per- interpretation of transported rocks in western New-
gamon, New York, N.Y., 372 pp. foundland. Can. J. Earth Sci., 12: 1874-1894.
Taylor, S., 1984. Structural and paleotopographic control Williams, H. and McBirney, A.R., 1979. Volcanology. Free-
of lead-zinc mineralization in the Silvermines orebod- man, San Francisco, 397 pp.
ies, Republic of Ireland. Econ. Geol., 79: 529-548. Wilshire, H.G., Offield, T.W., Howard, K.A. and Cum-
Thurlow, J.G. and Swanson, E.A., 1981. Geology and ore mings, D., 1972. Geology of the Sierra Madera cryp-
deposits of the Buchans and central Newfoundland. Geol. toexplosion structure, Pecos County, Texas. U.S. Geol.
Assoc. Can., Spec. Pap., 22: 113-142. Surv. Prof. Pap., 599-H, 42 pp.
Tr[impy, R. (Editor), 1980. An outline of the geology of Wilshire, H.G., Stuart-Alexander, D.E. and Jackson, E.D.,
Switzerland. 26th Int. Geol. Congr. Paris, Guidebook G 1973. Apollo 16 rocks - petrology and classification. J.
10, 96 pp. Geophys. ires., 78: 2379-2392.
Turner, P., 1980. Continental Red Beds. Elsevier, Amster- Wilshire, H.G., Stuart-Alexander, D. and Schwarzman,
dam, 562 pp. E.C., 1981. Petrology and distribution of returned sam-
Tute, J.S., 1870. On certain natural pits in the neighbour- ples, Apollo 16. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 1048: 127-
hood of Ripon. Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc., 5: 2-7. 146.
344

Wilson, J.L., 1975. Carbonate Facies in Geologic History. 1984. Fault-relatedrocks: suggestionsfor terminology.
Springer, New York, N.Y., 471 pp. Geology, 12: 391-394.
Wilson, R.C., Harp, E.L., Picard, M.D. and Ward, S.H., Wohletz, K.H. and McQueen, R.G., 1984. Experimental
1973. Chaotic terrains of Mars: a tectonic interpreta- studiesof hydromagmatic volcanism.In: Explosive Vol-
tion from Mariner 6 imagery. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 84: canism: Inception,Evaluation and Hazards. Studies in
741-748. Geophysics, Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D.C., pp.
Winslow, A., 1894. Lead and zinc deposits. Mo. Geol. Surv., 158-169.
7, Sect. 2,763 pp. Zolotuhkin, V.V. and Vilenskii,A.M., 1978. Petrologiya i
Wise, D.U., Dunn, D.E., Engelder, J.T., Geiser, P.A., perspektivy rudonosnosti trappov severa Sibirskoi
Hatcher, R.D., Kish, S.A., Odom, A.L. and Schamel, S., Platformy. Trudy Inst.Geol.,Sibir.Otdel. A.N. USSR,
Vyp. 357, Novosibirsk,217 pp.