Essays

Understanding China's foreign policy

in Xi Jinping’s “New Era”

Arvind Gupta*

A t the 19th Congress of China's Communist Party held in October 2017,

President’s Xi's "Thoughts on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for
a New Era" were unveiled. Since then Chinese party officials, theoreticians and
experts have been busy expounding and elaborating on China’s policies in
socialism’s “new era" which China has supposedly entered. The `new era’
signifies a stage in the rise of China in which the country will first become a
moderately advanced country by 2030 and an advanced country by 2049—the
centenary year of the Communist Party’s rise to power and the establishment
of the People’s Republic of China. In the sphere of foreign policy, the Chinese
swear by "major country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in the new
era". This is a signal for a ‘new’ kind of great power foreign policy.
Chinese Foreign Minister Wang YI, in a speech delivered at the China
Institute of International Studies in December 2017, summarised five aspects
of China’s foreign policy in the ‘new era’, namely, drawing up a blueprint for
the Belt and Road Initiative; strongly supporting economic globalization;
working for stable relationship among the world's major countries;
maintaining stability in the neighborhood and pushing for regional
cooperation; and raising the profile of cooperation amongst BRICS countries
(Yi, 2018). He emphasised that Chinese diplomacy is guided by the tradition of

*Dr. Arvind Gupta, is Director, Vivekananda International Foundation and former Deputy National Security Advisor.

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5000-year-old Chinese culture. He claimed, in this period China would uphold

the five principles of peaceful coexistence and the existing international
system with the UN at its core. It would also break new grounds in pursuing
“major country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics“, in keeping with the
priorities of the 19th Congress of the Communist Party.
China Development Forum is a platform built by China to articulate its
policies to the international audience. At a meeting of the forum, held in
Beijing on 26 March this year in Beijing, Zheng Zeguang, Vice Minister of
Foreign Affairs, elaborated on China’s “distinctive major-country diplomacy”
for the new historical context (Zeguang, 2018). The foreign policy of China is
characterized by ‘innovations in diplomatic theory and practice,’ he said. The
‘new era’ calls for ‘new missions and goals.’ President Xi is himself guiding the
emergence of foreign policy and diplomacy for the ‘new era’ in which, he
claims, China will move ‘closer to the center stage’ and strive to make a
significant contribution to humanity. The “major-country” relationship
prioritises ‘stability and balanced development’ in China’s relationships with
other countries. Though it now appears a remote possibility, he also asserted
that China would develop its relations with the US in a ‘no-conflict or
confrontation, mutual respect, and win-win cooperation’ framework.
Relations with neighbouring countries will be based on the principle of “amity,
sincerity, mutual benefit and inclusiveness”. China will strike a “proper balance
between friendship and interests and the principle of sincerity, real results,
affinity, and good faith”. The Belt and Road Initiative is the major Chinese
innovation which is aimed at further opening the rest of the world to Chinese
trade and investments and building a “community with a shared future for
mankind”. He also claimed that China will proactively participate in the reform
of the global governance system. As China opens up and become proactive, it
will take effective steps to protect its interests abroad.
Intellectual Rationalizations
Chinese scholars are busy developing the conceptual basis of rising
China’s ‘new era’ foreign policy. According to Xu Jin, a research professor at

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the Institute of Economics and Politics at the Chinese Academy of Social

Sciences, China is adding new guiding principles to its diplomacy for the ‘new
era.’ (Jin, 2018) He identifies four such characteristics.
a. “Be enthusiastic and press on”. According to this principle, a rising
China will pursue more proactive foreign policy henceforth. This is a
departure from Deng Xiaoping’s dictum given several years ago
namely keep a low profile and never taking the lead. This principle,
which guided the Chinese policy for many years, is now being given up
slowly. Some Chinese scholars feel that China today stronger than
most countries except one. Keeping a low profile is no longer possible
even if China wanted to. Others feel that keeping a low profile is a
sound principle of enduring value. A middle course is being adopted,
according to him. Keep a low profile when it is necessary and take the
initiative when it suits.
b. The other principal is what is being called the principle of "bottom-line
thinking.” This implies that while China will continue to rise and
develop peacefully without being a threat to others, it would never
give up its rightful interests. It will never compromise on its national
security interests.
c. The third principle is that of “mutually beneficial cooperation.” China
will share opportunities with other countries and share the benefits of
its development. This principle has been promulgated to deflect the
criticism that China has been a free rider of the international system
from which it has gained tremendously, but it has never shared the
responsibilities to sustain it. That is why one sees repeated assertions
in Chinese statements on China’s great contribution to peace and
global development, building a community with a shared future for
humanity and win-win cooperation. The Chinese hope that this will
make China more acceptable to other countries and mitigate the fears
of a China threat.
d. The fourth principle of the new Chinese diplomacy, it is stated, is
“mutual consultation, joint construction, and co-sharing.” The
Chinese theoreticians are saying that the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI),
which was announced on March 28, 2015, jointly by the Chinese

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National Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of

Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Commerce is the direct outcome of
this principle. According to Chinese experts, the BRI has five aspects to
it, namely, cooperation, adherence to the principles of UN Charter,
harmony and exclusiveness, full play to market operations and win-win
situation.
In the Chinese view, the world is facing three deficits, namely, on
peace, development, and governance. Chinese diplomacy is geared towards
bridging these deficits. China is promoting the establishment of new types of
international relationships to achieve that. According to Chinese experts, The
Belt and Road Initiative is a manifestation of China's new thinking.
It is for others to judge how sincere China is in abiding by these
principles which seem fine as concepts but are problematic in implementation.
Chinese experts are adept at developing all kinds of theories but looking at
their behaviour, particularly in the South China Sea and at Doklam, one feels
uneasy. The Chinese are unscrupulously
It is for others to judge following their national interest even if it is
how sincere China is in at the expense of others’ but hiding the
abiding by these same behind high sounding principles. The
principles which seem fine Belt and Road Initiative, by which, the
as concepts but are Chinese lay great store, is attracting many
problematic in countries, but at the same time is also
implementation. causing great concern to those for whom
BRI is creating debt traps.
The Chinese view of the world is evolving. China today seeks to project
itself as a defender of globalisation and international order as President Trump
begins to reconfigure the international order constructed by his predecessors.
The BRI is seen as a great Chinese contribution to world peace, stability, and
development though many may not agree with this view. The Chinese have
quietly taken over the disputed islands in the South China Sea and constructed
military infrastructure there while ignoring the judgement of the International
Court of Justice. This Chinese behaviour can easily be explained by the

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principle of ‘bottom-line thinking’ which says that China will ever compromise
on its core interests.
Reading the Tea Leaves
Whether there is anything new in the new strategy of Chinese
diplomacy in the ‘new era’ is a matter of opinion but Chinese efforts to build
its power in all its dimensions and use it to secure its own interests is outright
power politics which most powerful countries have historically practiced with
violent consequences. The Chinese devote considerable attention to analysing
strategic challenges and opportunities. As China grows, the Chinese have
come to the view that they would now ….Chinese efforts to build its
play a more proactive role in the world power in all its dimensions
affairs but would not dismantle the and use it to secure its own
international system all at one go. At interests is outright power
the same time, they will add newer politics ….
elements to the international order that
benefit China.
They are closely watching the impact of Trump policies on the USA and
the international order. They will adjust their policies as they go along. We
should expect major adjustments in Chinese policies as the world becomes
more uncertain and volatile. India needs to watch the evolution of Chinese
foreign policy and innovation in its diplomacy. The Belt and Road Imitative has
proved to be problematic for India due to sovereignty and debt-trap concerns.
The BRI has been devised unilaterally and without consultations by the
Chinese with others. Even today, authentic information is not available on how
the initiative has progressed in different countries, including in Pakistan. But
the Chinese are proceeding to build BRI projects in India’s neighborhood
despite the negative experiences of Sri Lanka in Hambantota port
construction project, which has landed the country into a serious debt trap.
Chinese are likely to approach India in various ways – as a neighbour, as
a major-country, as a competitor, as a partner, and as a potential BRI target
country. Which conceptual formwork of Chinese diplomacy would apply to

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India will depend upon the circumstances and context of bilateral relations.
Rong Ying, the Vice President of the China Institute for International Studies, a
think tank affiliated with the Chinese foreign office, has analyzed the so-called
‘Modi doctrine’ and its impact on Sino-Indian relations. According to the
author, Modi has facilitated India’s rise in global affairs through his personal
style, leadership, and improved implementation of policy and aid
programmes. India is offering the benefit of cooperation to its neighbours,
strengthening the relationship with countries on its larger periphery and trying
to become a ‘leading force’ in the Indo-Pacific region. The article expresses
concern about India’s growing partnership with the US and Japan and its
potential negative impact on Sino-Indian relations. The Chinese are taking
note of the pronouncements in India to the effect that India aspires to become
a ‘net security provider’ in the region by strengthening maritime cooperation
with countries in the Indian Ocean. India is also active on the issues of global
governance. Under Modi, India’s confidence in international affairs has “soared
high.” At the same time, India’s diplomacy is a combination of “strength (and)
morality” (Ying, 2018). The author feels that China’s goals set out in the 19th
party congress and Modi’s vision of ‘New India’ are compatible. But both
countries need to build mutual trust. He makes three suggestions (Rong 2018:
41-43): both countries should take a positive view of each other’s
development; they should strengthen developmental partnership with each
other through better coordination, and they should promote cultural and
people-to-people relations with each other. This way they will be able to
manage their simultaneous rise. It is interesting to note that in this sanitized
version of bilateral relations, the author does not mention the need to settle
the long-standing boundary question which has been at the root of mutual
mistrust between the two countries.
Nuances
India will need to understand the nuances of different frameworks of
Chinese foreign policy in the ‘new era’. Presently, India and China have a major
boundary dispute. The Chinse have so far not shown keenness to clarify the

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line of actual control nor are they ready for the eventual resolution of the
problem. Their insistence that China will never compromise its core interests
seems to suggest that they will continue to take a hardline on the territorial
issue. At the same time, their pronouncements of building cooperation with
‘major-countries’ in a ‘win-win’ framework would suggest that they are
interested in developing their bilateral relations with India. But their focus will
be on strengthening developmental partnership, including in India’s
neighborhood. This is the signal coming out following the Wuhan informal
summit between Modi and Xi Jinping in April 2018. China also seems to want
cooperation with India in the BRICS framework. Chinese interlocutors would
likely join hands with India selectively in the reform of the global governance
system where the two countries seem to
….the bilateral
share some common interests. Thus, India-
relationship will continue
China relation will not follow a straight and
to remain complex,
predictable trajectory. Instead, the bilateral
difficult and
relationship will continue to remain
unpredictable.
complex, difficult and unpredictable. India
does not want a tense relationship with China, nor can it give in to the Chinese
forays into its neighborhood that have strategic consequences. India will need
sophisticated diplomatic approaches backed by economic and military
strength to deal with the `new era’ China.
References
Rong Ying, 2018. The Modi Doctrine and the Future of Sino-Indian Relations. China
International Studies , No.68, pp.26–43.
Wang Yi, 2018. “China’s Diplomacy in the New Era: Opening up New Horizons with a
New Outlook”. China International Studies, No. 68, pp.5–25.
Jin, X., 2018. An Examination of the Concepts and Principles of China’s Major Country
Diplomacy with Its Own Characteristics for a New Era.” Contemporary International
Relations, pp.13–23.
Ze Guang, 2018. “Major-Country Diplomacy with Chinese Characteristics in the New
Era. China International Studies, No. 70 pp.5–14.

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