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Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

FLOWER
-All flowering plants reproduce sexually
-Sexual reproduction leads to new genetic combination
-Flowers are morphological & embryological marvels
-Modified shoot

Floriculture
-Cultivation of flowering plants

PARTS OF FLOWER
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PRE-FERTILISATION EVENTS

a) Structure of stamen

Anther
-A typical anther is bilobed
-Each lobe is dithecous (2 theca)
-Anther is four sided structure (tetragonal)
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Filament
-Thin, slender stalk
-Distal end attaches to anther
-Proximal end attaches to thalamus

In solanaceae proximal end of filament may attach to petal

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Longitudinal Groove
-Runs lengthwise
-Separates two theca

b) Structure of Young Anther

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Epidermis
-Outermost
-Protection

Endothecium
-2nd layer
-Large size
-Main role in dehiscence

Middle layer
-Two to three layer thick

Outer three layers helps in protection and dehiscence of

anther to release pollen

Tapetum
-Imnermost
-Single layer
-Dense cytoplasm
-Binucleated or Multinucleated
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Role of Tapetum
-Provide nourishment to developing pollen
-It produces chemical for exine
-Produce pollen Kit (sticky material)
-Produce callase enzyme

Q) Difference between Young & mature Anther ?

Young Anther Mature Anther
-Four layer -Two layer (Epidermis,
endothecium)
-Four microsporangia -Pollen sac present
-Sporogenous tissue (2n) -Pollen grain/male
gametophyte (n)
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Development of Pollen Grain

Microsporogenesis
-Cells of sporogenous tissue undergo meiosis to form
microspore tetrad
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Mitosis
Each microspore (n) --------> Give pollen grain
(Multicellular)

Structure of pollen
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Q) Difference between vegetative & generative cell ?

Vegetative cell Generative cell
-Large size -Small size
-Irregular shape nucleus -Spindle shape cell
-Provide nutrition for -Dense cytoplasm
pollen tube -Give 2 male gamete
-Floats in cytoplasm of
vegetative cell

Pollen grain/Male gametophyte

-Spherical
-25-50 micrometers in diameter
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-Different greatly in shape, size, colour in different

species

TWO LAYERED WALL

⬋ ⬊
Exine Intine

Exine
-Outer
-Sculptured
-Made up of sporopollenin
-Discontinuous
-Help to preserve fossils

Sporopollenin
-Most resistant organic material
-Resistant to enzymes, acid, high temperature & alkali
-Sporopollenin absent in germ pore

Intine
-Inner layer
-Made up of cellulose & pectin
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-Continuous
-Produced by vegetative cell

Note - In 60% angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at

2-celled stage
Remaining 40% pollen grains shed at 3-celled stage

EXTRA DATA

1) Pollen allergy
-Arises due to wind pollination
-Can cause bronchitis & asthma
-Ex : Parthenium or carrot grass

Parthenium
-Come to india with imported wheat
-Ubiquitous
-Cause pollen allergy

2) Food supplements
-Pollen grains are rich in nutrients
-Used as food supplements
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-In Western countries available in the form of tablets &

syrups
-Good for athletes & horses to increase performance

Viability of pollen
-Maximum time upto which pollen can germinate to form
pollen tube
-Viability depends on temperature & humidity
-Rice, wheat - short viability (30 minutes)
-Rosaceae, leguminoseae & solanaceae - pollen viable for
months

Pollen bank
-Store pollen grain in liquid nitrogen (-196°c)
-Useful in crop breeding

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE

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Stigma
-Landing platform

Style
-Hollow
-Elongated slender part

Ovary
-Basal buldge part

NUMBER OF CARPEL
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1) Monocarpellary
-Single carpel
-Ex : Wheat, paddy, mango, coconut, fabaceae

2) Bicarpellary
-Two carpel

a) Bicarpellary syncarpous
-Carpels fused together
-Ex : Brassicaceae, solanaceae

b) Bicarpellary apocarpous
-Carpels free
-Ex : Rose lotus

Multicarpellary
⬋ ⬊
Apocarpous Syncarpous
Ex : Michelia Ex : Papaver
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Hilum
-Junction between ovule & funicle

Funicle
-Stalk by which ovule is attached to placenta

Megasporangium or ovule
-Small structure

MEGASPORANGIUM
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Orthotropous ovule
-Micropyle, chalaza & funicle is present in straight line

Anatropous Ovule
-Most angiosperms
-Inverted

PARTS OF OVULE

1) Nucellus (mass of cells)

-Diploid tissue
-Any one cell of nucellus acts as megaspore mother cell
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(MMC)
-Have abundant reserve food material

2) Integument
-Encloses Nucellus
-2 or more protective envelopes

3) Micropyle
-Small opening
-Integument absent

4) Chalaza
-Basal part of ovule
-Opposite to micropylar end

Development of female gametophyte

Megasporogenesis
-Formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell
(MMC)
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Out of four megaspore only one megaspore is functional -

Monosporic development
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Antipodals
-Three cells
-Chalazal end

Egg apparatus
-Two Synergids + One egg cell

Central cell
-Largest
-Two polar Nuclei

Filliform apparatus
-Cellular thickening
-Guide pollen tube to enter into Synergids

Q) Comparison between male & female gametophyte ?

Male gametophyte Female gametophyte
-Three cell -Seven cell
-Two gamete -One gamete
-Pollen grain -Embryo sac
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POLLINATION

Meaning
Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma

Types
(On the basis of source of pollen)
⬋ ⬊
Self pollination Cross pollination

Self pollination
-Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of same plant
a) Autogamy
-Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of same flower

b) Geitonogamy
-Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of different
flower of same plant

Cross pollination
-Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of different
plant
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-Ex : Xenogamy

TYPES OF FLOWER
⬋ ⬊
Cleistogamous flower Chasmogamous flower

Cleistogamous flower
-Close flower
-Anther & stigma lie close

Advantage
-Show only autogamy
-No pollinator required

Disadvantage
-Less variation

Q) Why do we need cleistogamous flower ?

-Place where pollinator is absent
-Underground flower, desert
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Chasmogamous flower
-Open flower
-Occur autogamy, geitonogamy & xenogamy
-Require pollinator

Types of chasmogamous flower

⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Bisexual flower Flower unisexal Unisexal plant
Plant Bisexual

Bisexual flower
-Occur Autogamy, geitonogamy & xenogamy
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-Ex : Sweet potato

Flower unisexal Plant bisexual

-Occur geitonogamy & xenogamy
-Ex : Coconut, cucurbits, castor & maize
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Unisexal Plant
-Only xenogamy
-Ex : Date palm, papaya & vallisneria

Chasmogamous (open flower)

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Viola (common pansy), commelina & oxalis are both

cleistogamous & chasmogamous

Autogamy
-Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of same flower
-Bisexual flower (Cleistogamous & chasmogamous)
-Synchronised in pollen release & stigma receptivity
-No pollinator require

Geitonogamy
-Same plant but flower different
-Pollinator required
-Plant should be bisexual
-Functionally xenogamy, genetically autogamy

Xenogamy
-Flower of different plant but same species
-Pollinator required
-Genetically different

POLLINATING AGENTS
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(Agents that helps in pollination)

Types of pollinating agents

⬋ ⬊
Abiotic (non-living) Biotic (living)

Abiotic
-Wind (Anemophily)
-water (hydrophily)
-Among abiotic wind is more common
-Uncertain/less chances
-More wastage of pollen

Biotic
-Animals (Zoophily)
-Imsect (Entomophily)
-Bat (Chirepterophily)
-Bird (Ornithophily)
-Ants

WIND POLLINATION
(more common)
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Adaptation/features
-Colourless/white flower
-Large feathery stigma
-Pollen : Small, light & non-sticky
-Cluster/large in number
-Monoovular ovary (single ovule in each ovary)
-Well exposed stamen
-Common in grasses

Example : Maize (Corn cab)

-Tassels (stigma & style) wave in wind to trap pollen
-Pollination by air
-Male & female flower different but present on same plant
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WATER POLLINATION

a) Algae, bryophytes & pteridophytes

-Gamete motile
-Pollination by water

b) Gymnosperm
-Wind pollination

c) Angiosperm
-30 genera of monocot pollination by water

AQUATIC ANGIOSPERM
⬋ ⬊
Not pollinated by water Pollination by water

Not pollinated by water

-Ex : water hyacinth & water lily
-Flower emerges above
-Pollinated by insect & wind
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Pollination by water
⬋ ⬊
Ex : Hydrilla & vallisneria Ex : Zostera (sea grass)
(On surface) (Under water)

On surface pollination
-Ex : Vallisneria
-Due to long stalk female flower come on surface
-Male flower or pollen float on surface & fall inside female
flower

Under water pollination

-Ex : Zostera
-Both flower under water
-Same level float
-Mucilage covering around pollen protect from wetting
-Long & ribbon like pollen
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BIOTIC AGENTS

Insects
-Bees, butterfly, wasps, ants, moth, beetle
-Insects are attracted by colour & odour of flower
-Flies & beetles pollinated flower have foul odour
-Most pollination done by bees than butterfly

Flower features
-Colourful, fragrant
-Rich in nector
-Small & conspicuous
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-Clustered into inflorescence

Q) Bat & Birds pollination ?

Bat pollination Birds pollination
-large size flower -Large size flower
-Dull colour -Bright colour
-Strong odour -Odour absent
-Nector present -Nector present
-Ex : Sunbirds &
humming birds

Other Agents
-Lemurs (primates)
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-Arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents

-Reptiles (gecko lizard & garden lizard)

To ensure regular visit of pollinator some rewards are

given to pollinator
1) Edible nector
2) Some flower have edible pollen
3) Space for egg laying
a) Ex : Amorphophallus
-Tallest flower
-6 feet height

b) Moth & Yucca plant

-Cannot complete life cycle without each other
-Moth deposits it's egg in locule of ovary of yucca plant &
in return yucca plant get pollinated
-Before fruit development larvae comes out

Nector robber
-Eat nector without doing pollination
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INBREEDING DEPRESSION

-Continued self pollination results in inbredding

depression
-Due to autogamy recessive trait express (harmful
character express)
-Results in loss in quality (Vigour)

Outbreeding Devices
-All those mechanism which prevents inbreeding

Methods
1) Stigma & anther at different position
2) Pollen release & stigma receptivity unsynchronised
3) Unisexal flower (pollinator require)
4) Self incompatibility
-Pollen from same anther is rejected
-It is genetic mechanism
-Not allow autogamy & geitonogamy

Q) Difference between monoecious & dioecious ?

Monoecious Dioecious
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-Male & female flower -Male & female flowers

present on same plant present on different plant
-Ex : Castor, maize -Ex : Papaya
-Prevent autogamy but -Prevents both autogamy
not geitonogamy & geitonogamy

ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDIZATION
(On desired pollen falls on stigma)

1) Bagging
-Flower covered by bag (butter paper)
-Cover stigma both before & after fertilisation

2) Emasculation
-Removal of anther
-To prevent self pollination
-Unisexual flower : Bagging
-Bisexual flower : Bagging, emasculation

POLLEN PISTIL INTERACTION

-Dynamic process
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-Involves all events, after pollination till entry of pollen

tube in ovule

1) Pollen falls on stigma

Pollen falls on stigma

⬋ ⬊
Rejects (Incompatible) Accept (compatible)
1) Reason for rejection -Allows fertilisation
-Different species
-Self incompatible
2) Rejection occurs on stigma
(When there is no pollen tube formation)
-When pollen tube form (inside stigma)

Acceptance or rejection of pollen is due to chemical

dialogue between pollen & pistil

2) Germination of pollen
-Pollen tube comes out from germ pore
-Intine grows pollen tube by using nutrition of Vegetative
cell
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-In pollen tube nucleus of vegetative cell & 2 male gamete

are present in 3-celled stage
-In 2-celled stage pollen tube have 1 vegetative cell
nucleus & 1 generative cell nucleus that divides to form 2
male gamete in stigma
-Boron helps in pollen germination

3) Growth of pollen tube

-Grow in style

Style has two types

⬋ ⬊
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Hollow style Solid style

-Most plant -They have transmission
& conducting tissue
-Pollen tube grows by food reserve of Vegetative cell &
by absorbing nutrition from style

4) Pollen tube entry

-Mostly pollen tube enter ovule through micropyle
-Vegetative cell nucleus degenerate
-Pollen tube bursts & open in any one of the Synergids
-Both male gamete release into any one of the Synergids
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5) Fertilisation
-One male gamete from synergid move into egg cell
-Male gamete (n) fuses with Nuclei of egg cell Syngamy
-Result of syngamy is zygote formation
-zygote further develops into embryo

-One nucleus/male gamete move into central cell & fuse

with two polar nuclei Triple fusion
-Product obtained from triple fusion is primary
endosperm nucleus (PEN)
-The Central cell after triple fusion become primary
endosperm cell (PEC)
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-PEC develops into endosperm

Syngamy + Triple fusion = Double fertilisation

Result of syngamy
-Zygote (micropylar end)

Result of triple fusion

-Central cell convert into PEN
-After fertilisation only Two cells are present
1) Zygote
2) PEC
-Five cell degenerate
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POST FERTILISATION CHANGES

Inside ovule endosperm develop first so that it can provide

food to developing embryo

ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT
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Since zygote division require some amount of endosperm

so PEC divide first before zygote

Role of endosperm
-Provide nutrition to developing Embryo
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Types of endosperm
⬋ ⬊
Free Nuclear endosperm Cellular endosperm
-Free nuclear division -Cell wall forms
-Ex : coconut water -Ex : Surrounded
white kernal

Q) Difference between endospermous &

Non-endospermous seed ?
Endospermous Non-endospermous
-Also called Albuminous -Also called Ex-album
seed -imous seed
-Endosperm not used -Endosperm completely
up consumed (absent)
-Ex : Maize, wheat, rice -Embryo well develop
castor, coconut -Ex : Pea, gram, orchid
groundnut

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
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Initial development is similar in monocot & dicot embryo

DICOT EMBRYO
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Cotyledons
-Food reserve

Plumule
-Epicotyl terminate at plumule

Epicotyle
-Part of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon

Hypocotyl
-End/terminate on radicle
-Part of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledon

Radicle
-Covered by root cap

MONOCOT EMBRYO
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Coleoptile
-Hollow foliar structure (leaf like)
-Cover plumule

Coleorhiza
-Undifferentiated sheath like structure
-Surrounds radicle

=> Grass (wheat, rice, maize)

-Cotyledon is known as scutellum
-In all monocot cotyledon is not scutellum
-In grass coleoptile & coleorhiza is present
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SEED

-It is fertilized ovule

-Formed inside the fruit

Parts of seed
1) Seed coat
-Develop from Integument (2n)

2) Embryo
Embryo (2 parts)
⬋ ⬊
Embryonal axis Cotyledon

3) Endosperm is not present in all seed

4) Perisperm
-Persistant nucellus is known as Perisperm
-Ex : Beet, blackpepper

SEED DEVELOPMENT

1) Integument of ovule
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-Tough protective seed coat

2) Micropyle
-Small pore
-Facilitates oxygen & water supply

3) Mature seed
-Water content reduces (dry seed)
-10-15% moisture by mass
-Metabolic activity slows down
-Embryo may enter state of inactivity Dormancy
(physiologically inactive)
-In favorable conditions they germinate

=> Advantages of seed

-Variation
-Because of dormancy & dehydration farmer can store
the seed & use next year
-Seed coat gives protection
-Seed germination is dependent on water so it will search
for water
-Better dispersal
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-Have sufficient food reserve

=> Viability of seed

-Maximum time upto which seed can germinate

1) Some seed have long viability

a) Lupinus articus
-Excavated from Arctic tundra
-Germinate & flower after 10,000 years

b) Phoenix dactylifera (date palm)

-King herod's palace near dead sea
-germinate after 2000 years

=> Large number of tiny seeds

-Some plants produce large no of tiny seeds
1) Orobanche (parasitic plant)
2) Striga (parasitic plant)
3) Ficus
4) Orchid
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FRUITS

-Ripened ovary
-Fruit wall is called pericarp
-Aftwr fertilisation level of auxin increases & ovary gets
converted into fruit

Types of fruits
(On the basis of layers of pericarp)
⬋ ⬊
Dry fruits Fleshy fruits
-Pericarp not divisible -Pericarp come into
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into layers layers & edible

-Ex : Mustard, pea -Ex : Guava, orange
groundnut mango

Types of fruits
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
True fruit False fruit Parthenocarpic

True fruit
-Develop from ovary

False fruit
-Develop from thalamus
-Ex : Cashew, strawberry, apple

Parthenocarpic
-Seedless fruit
-Ex : Banana

APOMIXIS

-Seeds are product of fertilisation & they show variation

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-In some plants like asteraceae (sun flower), grasses,

mango, citrus seed develop without fertilisation

1) Normally egg cell is haploid

-In case of apomixis diploid egg cell give zygote therefore
seed develop have zygote without fertilisation

2) Diploid nucellus develop into zygote & forms embryo

-Ex : Mango, citrus

=> Changes in Apomixis

-Seed is forming
-Embryo is forming
-Fertilisation is absent
-No seed variation
-Seed genetically similar to parent

Polyembryo
-More than one embryo in a seed
-Ex : Orange, citrus

Hybrid seeds
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-Develop by MNC
-High production
-Costly
-Every year newely purchased by farmer

=> In hybrid seed

-Seed collected from hybrid seed cannot be sown
-Seed character lost
-May not maintain hybrid character

=> If hybrid seed made up apomixis

-No character loss
-Hybrid character maintain
-No need to buy every year