The California Psychological Inventory

INTRODUCTION OF CPI
The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is a self-report inventory created by Harrison G.
Gough and currently published by Consulting Psychologists Press. The test was first published in
1956, and the most recent revision was published in 1987. It was created in a similar manner to
the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)—with which it shares 194 items. But
unlike the MMPI, which focuses on maladjustment or clinical diagnosis, the CPI was created to
assess the everyday "folk-concepts" that ordinary people use to describe the behavior of the
people around them.
ADMINISTRATION OF CPI
The California Psychological Inventory is self-report inventory. The test consist of 434-item and
192 items are taken from MMPI. Test item are in true-false format relating to the test takers past
and present life, and the design format is similar to the MMPI. It can be scored either by hand or
computer, Computer scoring programs used for basic profile and special scales
The California Psychological Inventory was originally designed for group administration;
however it can also be administered individually. The test is untimed, and the average length of
time for administration is 45-60 minutes.
To administer the California Psychological Inventory an examiner must have a Level C
Qualification. To obtain this level of qualification, the examiner must have specialized training
in the interpretation of psychological assessments.
The intended population of the California Psychological Inventory is normal individuals aged 12
and older, however the content is primarily toward students and young adults. The test requires a
fourth-grade reading level of the subject. It has 20 scales and 4 classes.
SCALES
• Dominance

• Capacity for Status

• Sociability

• Social Presence

• Self-Acceptance

• Independence

• Empathy
 • Responsibility

• Socialization

• Self-Control

• Good Impression

• Communality

• Sense of Well-Being

• Tolerance

• Achievement via Conformance

• Achievement via Independence

• Intellectual Efficiency

• Psychological-Mindedness

• Flexibility

• Femininity-Masculinity

The twenty scales are divided into four classes including

Class 1; Self-assurance and inter-personal style and interaction with others.
Class 2; Measures of normative orientation and values.
Class 3; Measures of cognitive and intellectual functioning, need for achievement
Class 4; Measures of Personal Style or qualitative aspects of thinking and behavior.

In developing the California Psychological Inventory, Harrison Gough avoided using a theory
based inventory and developed using “Folk concepts”. Translated into more than 40 languages.
He referred to the 20 scales of the California Psychological Inventory as “folk scales”. For the
actual method of test and item construction Gough used the External Criterion method for
deriving the majority of the scales.

In development of the California Psychological Inventory, a normative sample was used that
consisted of six thousand men and seven thousand women. The sample cannot be considered a
true random or stratified sample however, the sample did include subjects of widely varying age,
socioeconomic status.
USES

California Psychological Inventory has been used in finding and developing successful
employees, identifying and developing leaders and creating efficient organizations. However, the
CPI is used for measurement in a variety of settings. It is often used in schools and colleges for
academic counseling, in clinics and counseling agencies for evaluating substance abuse,
susceptibility to physical illness, marital conflict, juvenile delinquency and criminality, and
social immaturity; and for cross cultural and other researching geographical areas.

SCORING INTERPRETATION PROCEDURES

The examiner should note the length of time it takes a person to complete the test. A person with
an IQ within the normal range would be expected to complete the test in 40 to 60 minutes. A
computerized administration of items can reduce the time from 25 to 45 minutes. If he or she takes
60 to 90 minutes or more, it suggests one of the following:
1. A major psychological disturbance such as severe depression or functional psychosis.
2. Obsessive concern with detail and/or indecisiveness.
3. A low IQ combined with poor reading ability.
4. Cerebral impairment.

Tests that are completed in 20 minutes or less suggest:

1. An invalid profile.
2. An impulsive personality.
3. Both 1 and 2.

An alternative form of administration is an oral or tape-recorded format, which would be

particularly relevant for persons with unusually low reading skills. If time efficiency is important,
a 250-item short form is currently being developed. Scoring for the 1996 (Form 434) must be done
by computer through Consulting Psychologists Press or through onsite scanning.

The steps for interpreting the CPI are described in the following sections.
Determine Profile Validity

The CPI, similar to the MMPI, has built-in scales and relevant regression equations to detect
invalid profiles. This is important because Gough (1987) has estimated that, in large-scale testing
situations, approximately 1.7% of all profiles are invalid (.6% “fake good,” .4% “fake bad,” 0.7%
random answering).

• An initial consideration in evaluating the profile validity is to note the number of items
that have been left blank (available on the computer-generated profile). If 25 or more
spaces are blank, the test results may not be valid.
• The examiner should also make sure the subject has not marked a large number of questions
(25 or more) with both “true” and “false” on the same item.
• Yet, another area that should be checked is the possibility of random answering. The
subject may appear to have answered randomly simply because he or she was out of step
between the number’s questions in the answer sheet and test booklet, or may answer
randomly in an attempt to hide his or her poor reading ability. A good indicator for the
possibility of random answering is a low score (T = 30 or less) on Cm.

“FAKING BAD” can usually be detected based on the presence of extremely low scores
on Well Being (Wb; T = 30 or less) and Communality (Cm; T = 30 or less). A low score (T = 40
or less) on Good Impression (Gi) is also frequently associated with “faking bad.”
It should be stressed that a subject who “fakes bad” is not necessarily maladjusted. Rather, it
indicates that the specifics of his or her disorder cannot be evaluated.

To determine whether a subject is “ FAKING GOOD,” the most important scale to

evaluate is Good Impression (Gi). “Fake good” profiles usually have high scores (T = 70 or higher)
on this scale. Usually, when a person is asked to “ fake good,” all the scales with positive social
connotations are elevated but Gi is still relatively higher than the others.
These critical-scale values for the three validity scales can generally serve as clinical tools to detect
invalid profiles.
However, Gough (1996) notes that a significant number of errors are still likely to occur. Instead,
he recommends the following equations
(raw scores must be used in all equations):

Fake good = 41.225 + .273 Do + .198 Em + .538 Gi − .255 Wb − .168 Fx

Fake bad = 86.613 − 1.000 Cm − .191 Wb + .203 Ac − .110 Fx

Random = 34.096 + .279 Gi + .201 Wb + .225 Py + .157 Fx

The following optimal cutoff scores for these equations should be used:
Fake good = 60.60 or greater
Fake bad = 59.50 or greater (and if the score on random is less than or equal to 48.01)
Random = 48.01 or less (and the score on fake bad is equal to or less than 59.50)

2. Note Vector Scale Patterns

A basic underlying description of core aspects of the person’s functioning can be

determined by interpreting the three vector scores of internality/externality, norm favoring/norm
doubting, and level of realization.

3. Note General Level of Elevations/Lowerings

Scores of T = 50 or more usually suggest a positive area of adjustment. Scales that are well
below T = 50 indicate specific problem areas. However, the clinician must also interpret these
scores in the overall context of assessment, taking into account variables such as the person’s age,
occupational level, cultural background, and educational

4. Note Patterns of Elevations/Lowerings on Different Clusters and Classes

After looking at possible areas of adjustment and maladjustment, the clinician can then
further evaluate the profile by examining the average elevations on the different clusters or classes
as organized by Gough (1996, 2000). For convenience, the clusters are separated on the profile
sheets by black, vertical lines. If most or all of the scales in a particular cluster are clearly above T
= 50, the qualities represented by the cluster are areas of strength. In contrast, scores well below T
= 50 represent areas of difficulty.
The clusters listed in Table 1 are organized according to conceptual similarity rather than
statistically derived categories. In contrast, Gough (1987, 1996) also recommends examining the
scales based on five factors that have been statistically derived from more empirical relations.
Cluster Meaning Scales
1 Interpersonal style and orientation Dominance (Do), Capacity for Status(Cs),Sociability
(Sy), Social Presence (Sp), Self-Acceptance (Sa),
Independence (In),Empathy (Em)
2 Normative orientation and values Responsibility (Re), Socialization (So),Self-Control
(Sc), Good Impression (Gi),Communality (Cm), Well
Being (Wb),Tolerance (To)
3 Cognitive and intellectual Achievement via Conformance (Ac),
function Achievement via Independence (Ai),
Intellectual Efficiency (Ie)
4 Role and personal style Psychological-Mindedness (Py), Flexibility(Fx),
Femininity/Masculinity (F/M)

5. Evaluate the Meaning of the Scores on Each Individual Scale

Whereas the different clusters, factors, or vectors provide general impressions for certain
areas of functioning, the clinician can obtain more specific information by evaluating each scale
individually. This involves looking at the relatively highest and lowest scales and developing a
description of the dynamics involved with these scales. The meanings associated with specific high
or low scores can be determined by considering the relevant scale descriptions in the Individual
Scales section. The

6. Note Scale Configurations and Calculate Regression Equations

Initial hypotheses can be further evaluated by consulting the section in this chapter dealing
with typical scale configurations for different areas, including intellectual level,achievement,
leadership, adjustment, and specific syndromes. This evaluation may also involve calculating and
interpreting the regression equations, which are included in the section on configural
interpretations and summarized in Table 2. However, some caution should be used with them
because they were derived from previous versions of the CPI and updated versions have not yet
been reported.

Table 2 Summary of CPI equations used for making predictions

1. Achievement (High School) = 20.116 + .317 Re + 192 So − .309 Gi + .227 Ac + .280Ai + .244
Ie
2. Achievement (High School − Using IQ) = .786 +.195 Re + .244 So − .130 Gi + .19 Ac+ .179
Ai + .279 IQ
3. College Attendance = 17.822 + .333 Do + .539 Cs − .189 Gi + .740 Ac
4. Achievement (Introduction to Psychology) = 35.958 − .294 Sy − .180 Sp + .185Re − .189 Sc −
.152 Gi − .210 Cm + .275 Ac + .523 Ai + .241 Ie + .657 Py
5. Male GPA = .16 SAT (Math) + .11 So − .19 Sp + .17 Fe
6. Female GPA = .25 SAT (Verbal) − .14 Sp + .06 Re + .20 Ac + .08 Fe
7. GPA = 30.60 − .26 Wb + .35 Re − .19 Gi + .39 Ai + .22 Ie + .36 Py
8. Teaching Effectiveness = 14.743 + .334 So − .670 Gi + .997 Ac + .909 Py − .446 Fx
9. Medical Promise = .794 Sy + .602 To + 1.114 Cm − .696 Cs
10. Dental Performance = 29.938 − .110 Sp + .148 Re − .262 Gi + .727 Ac + .230 Py
11. Leadership (Social) = 14.130 + .372 Do + .696 Sa + .345 Wb − .133 Gi + .274 Ai
12. Parole Success = 45.078 − .353 Sp − .182 Sa + .532 So + .224 Sc
13. Social Maturity = 25.701 + .408 Re + .478 So − .296 Gi

VECTOR SCALE INTERPRETATION

Major addition to the 1987 revision was the development and inclusion of three structural scales.
These three scales form what Gough (1996, 2000) has referred to as the Cuboid model
 1. Externality-internality (extraversion, self-confidence, assertive self-assurance, and social
poise)

• Alpha

• Beta

• Gamma

• Delta

2. Norm-favoring versus norm-questioning (social conformity, personal integrity, self-

control, and disciplined effectiveness)

3. Realization (self-realization and psychological integration). It is rated between 1-7, 1= poor

, 7= superior

Alphas

Extraverted, Adhere to societal norms, Good leaders, Interested in associating with others.

Managerial, Assertive, Talkative, Achievers

If highly realized (note Vector 3), may be charismatic leaders and help to create social change.

If undeveloped, they might become manipulative, self-centered, concerned only with achieving
their own ends regardless of consequences to others.

Betas

Introversion and norm-favoring, followers, high degree of self-control, highly dependable,

Conservative, Value traditions, Place the needs of others before their own.

If highly realized, they can be nurturing, represent ideal models of goodness, and convey
conventional sources of wisdom.

Poorly developed Betas might be nonresponsive, overly conformist, inflexible, constricted, and
rigid

Gammas
Extraverted, Question traditional beliefs and Values. Skeptics, Doubters, and persons who might
try to change society. Test limitations imposed on them and do so in a rebellious, self-dramatizing
manner. Innovative, Visionary, Perceptive, and Imaginative. Inventors, Create new ideas

If inadequately developed, they are intolerant, belligerent, self-indulgent, rebellious, and

disruptive.

Deltas

Introversion, Question traditional values and beliefs, highly reflective, somewhat detached,
Preoccupied, Daydreamers. Others make decisions for them, live in their own private world.

If fully developed, they might be highly imaginative, artistic, visionary, and innovative.

If poorly developed, poorly organized, withdrawn, aloof, self-defeating, and at risk of

decompensating

Vector 1+2
Vector 3 (self-actualization scale)

INDIVIDUAL SCALES

1. Dominance (Do): Leadership ability, verbal fluency, persuasiveness, assertive, goal oriented,
clear or they may be submissive, socially isolated and introverted (low Do)

High Do (T = 65 or More)

Moderate Do (T = 50 to 65)

Moderately Low Do (T = 40 to 50)

Low Do (T = 40 or Less)

(This criteria is for all of the scales)

2. Capacity for Status (Cs): “possessing qualities such as perseverance, self-direction, ambition,
and self-confidence

3. Sociability (Sy): Outgoing, Extraverted, and Sociable (High Sy) versus Introverted, Withdrawn,
and prone to avoid Social visibility (low Sy)

4: Social Presence (Sp): measure of a person’s degree of poise, self-confidence, verve, and
spontaneity in social interactions, assesses the extent to which the person is self-assured and
assertive.

High Sp (T = 65 or More)

Low Sp (T = 40 or Less)

5. Self-Acceptance (Sa): personal worth, self-acceptance, capacity for independent thinking and
action (high Sa) OR egocentric and indifferent, rebellious, impulsive, narcissism (low Sa)

6. Independence (In): measures the extent to which a person strives toward vocational and
interpersonal autonomy. The value a person places on working away from the restrictions,
expectations and influence of others.

7. Empathy (Em): Measure the degree to which a person perceives and can feel the inner
experience of others, social skills, confidence, social presence, leadership, and extraversion AND
patient, forbearing nature, afflictive, socially ascendant tendencies, liberal, humanistic political
and religious attitudes.

8. Responsibility (Re): “Conscientious, Responsible, Dependable, [and] articulate regarding rules

and order, and who believe life should be governed by reason”. Antisocial behavior score low on
Re OR may be high degree of commitment to social, civic, or moral values.

9. Socialization (So): Originally called the “Delinquency scale,” and, as the name suggests, its
intent was to assess the likelihood of antisocial behavior. Now it measure of an individual’s social
maturity, integrity, and rectitude, Warmth and satisfaction in their family relationships or presence
or absence of pessimism regarding a person’s life and environment. Can score on a continuum
from extremely well socialized to highly antisocial.
10. Self-Control (Sc): Degree to which person can delay his or her behavior and redirect it in a
clear, goal-oriented manner, the opposite can occur (low scorer) impulsive and pleasure seeking,
have difficulty delaying their impulses

11. Good Impression (Gi): detect persons who are “faking good,” it also reflects the degree to
which a person with a valid profile is concerned with creating a favorable impression on others

12. Communality (Cm): validity scale originally designed to detect random answering, good
socialization, conformity, optimism, denial of neurotic characteristics, and conventionality of
behavior and attitudes but don't measure the personality, it seems to found out what is ‘popular’

High Cm (T = 60 or More)

Low Cm (T = 30 or Less)

13. Sense of Well Being (Wb): it was initially referred to as the Dissimulation (Ds) scale, and
“fake bad” profiles can usually be detected, enterprising, energetic, experience a sense of security,
self-sufficient and independent OR diminished health and experience difficulty meeting the daily
demands of their environment

14. Tolerance (To): Not alienated, does not feel isolated, rarely feels anxious, and is relatively
poised and self-assured, openness and flexibility versus rigidity and dogmatism, accepting,
permissive, and nonjudgmental.

15. Achievement via Conformance (Ac): Productive workers, even-tempered, accepts the rules
of socially-approved standards of behavior, and dislikes frivolous, unconventional behavior OR
rebellious and disorganized

16. Achievement via Independence (Ai): Unwilling to accept conventional advice

unquestioningly but rather prefer to think for themselves, able to tolerate a high level of ambiguity
and usually reject authoritarian or overly stringent regulations.

17. Intellectual Efficiency (Ie): originally called a “nonintellectual intelligence test” and was
designed to measure personality traits that coincided with a high level of intellectual ability.
Competent, clear-thinking, and to make efficient use of the potential they possess. Well organized,
efficient, and committed to pursuing intellectual and cultural activities.
18. Psychological-Mindedness (Py): person’s ability to concentrate, his or her effectiveness in
dealing with ambiguity, and his or her degree of enjoyment in his or her occupation. Other content
areas deal with an ability to stick with long-term goals and an acceptance of unconventional
opinions

19. Flexibility (Fx): assess the degree to which an individual is flexible, adaptable, changeable in
his or her thinking, behavior, and temperament, ability to tolerate ambiguity, uncertainty, and
impulsiveness, nonjudgmental, tolerant attitude toward moral and ethical formulas of right and
wrong.

20. Femininity/Masculinity (F/M): the degree to which examinees were psychologically

feminine or masculine, regardless of their actual sex, significant conflicts over sexual identity,
beliefs, values, and occupations that are traditionally held either by males or by females.

SPECIAL PURPOSE SCALES

Managerial Potential (Mp): Identifies people who both seek and have talents in supervising and
monitoring others’ behavior, trustworthy, efficient, productive, extroverted, well organized,
mature, realistic, offer advice, value intellectual activities, make long-term plans, and have high
aspirations OR avoid making decisions, give up easily, are easily offended, apathetic, lack
confidence, rebellious, dissatisfied, defensive, immature, become anxious with change.

Work Orientation (Wo): Identify people who have a strong work ethic. Responsible, dependable,
hardworking, self-disciplined, moderate, reasonable OR Distrustful, careless, self-centered,
restless, and temperamental.

Creative Temperament (CT): Identifies unconventional, artistic people who are likely to
perceive the world in unusual, creative ways, imaginative, having a wide range of interests, like
variety, react strongly to aesthetic material, have progressive social attitudes, and tend to be
somewhat rebellious OR conventional, over controlled, reserved, rigid, have narrow interests, and
prefer the status quo.

Leadership Potential (Lp): enterprising, confident, energetic, alert, ambitious, optimistic,

resilient, resourceful OR temperamental, pessimistic, ill at ease, have feelings of inadequacy,
worry excessively, have low self-confidence, and give up easily.
Amicability (Ami): Identifies people who are friendly and considerate of others, ethical,
consistent, cooperative, dependable, responsible, optimistic, warm, compassionate OR
nonconforming, headstrong, self-centered, dramatizing, opportunistic, uncooperative, self-
indulgent, and impatient

Law Enforcement Orientation (Leo): identify people who both view societal rules and law
enforcement favorably, optimistic, stable, ambitious, conscientious, and has leadership abilities,
direct, honest, create a good impression, conservative, conventional, moralistic, and hardworking
OR nonconforming, cynical, distrustful, introspective, changeable, anxious, complicated, irritable,
and may be self-defeating

Tough-Mindedness (Tm): Tough-mindedness (frank, hard-hearted, unemotional) and tender-

mindedness (trusting, reflective, softhearted), Take pride in being objective, rational, and
unemotional OR sensitive, submissive, anxious, and easily feel inferior and embarrassed.

CLINICAL ASSESMENT

General Maladjustment: scales found to best predict personal distress were low scores on Ie,
Mp, So, and Py, A lowering of Factor 1 scales (especially Do, Re, So, and Sc) is often a good
indicator of poor adjustment, and men with low Ac and Ie are especially likely to be
maladjusted .

Personality Disorder: Persons with scores below 25 on the So scale are likely to have
diagnoses of personality disorders, particularly those that are related to dramatic, emotional,
or erratic behaviors (borderline, antisocial, histrionic, and narcissistic)

Vulnerability to Stress: Persons with a “V” formation in which So is low (T = 35 or less),

with Re and Sc significantly higher (T = 40 or more), are likely to be defensive and susceptible
to the effects of situational stress

Depression: The Social Ascendency (Class 1) scales are generally lowered by depression, and
a T score of 40 or less on Sy, So, Wb, and Ie is highly typical of depressed populations. (T =
40 or less) in Ac, Ai, and Ie is also indication of depression

Psychosomatic Disorders: usually don’t measure this disorder but male and female
psychosomatics usually have lowered scores (T = 40 or less) on Wb and Sc and an elevation
on Cm, males often have a lowering on Ie. Psychosomatics have a relatively higher So and
Cm, with females also having a higher Re.

Defense Mechanisms: High scorers on Sy, Wb, Sc, To, Gi, Ac, and Ie were more likely to
use repression

Juvenile Delinquency and Criminal Behavior: Both delinquents and criminals tend to have
lower overall subscale scores, particularly on Re and So persons who scored in either the
Gamma or Delta lifestyle categories (questioning of normative beliefs) were more likely to be
delinquents than those in the Alpha or Beta categories, delinquents and criminals had low
levels of self-realization. Scores on Wb, To, and Ac are also likely to be somewhat lower

Marital Violence among Males: lower scores in ten of the CPI scales including Re, So, Sc,
To, Ac, Ai, Gi, Ie, and Py + Low scores on Re, So, and Gi

Chemical Dependency: the possibility of potential or actual substance abuse, perhaps to the
extent of actual addiction, is suggested by high Sp and Sa accompanied by low scores on Re,
So, Sc, and Wb

Social Maturity: The concept of social maturity includes So, but is more extensive and also
includes areas other than that assessed by the So scale alone. High level of ethical standards,
feel a need to resist social pressure. Over socialized or hyper normal

Social Maturity = 25.701 + .408 Re + .478 So − .296 Gi

Strengths and limitations

Strengths

1. Comprehensive coverage of personality traits.

2. CPI is also praised for its versatility.

3. CPI focuses on measuring and understanding common interpersonal behaviors (e.g., self-
control, dominance etc.) in the general population.

4. Extreme scores on some of the scales provide important information on specific

maladjustments an individual may be experiencing.
5. Empirically supported over time (many researches supported its use).

6. Strong predictive and construct validity.

7. Functional validity cross culturally and among various subscales.

8. In addition, CPI has been shown to be a useful tool in predicting long- and short-term
behaviors (e.g., college attendance).

9. Easy scoring (scoring can be computer based).

10. Easily understandable (CPI has generally straightforward and easily understood scales).

11. Adaptable (The “folk concepts” used in CPI are found in many cultures and societies which
makes CPI more adaptable to various cultures.)

12. Group or individual administration.

13. It is difficult for an individual to fake bad or fake good on it.

Limitations

1. Initial lack of appropriate, representative norming samples (mainly representative of

Caucasian, college students).

2. its norm samples are not representative of the general population, particularly because
adults working in professional occupations are underrepresented in the norm samples.

3. High level of variance among subscales.

4. Some scales are more reliable and valid than others.

5. Reliability and validity could be better.

6. Items overlap among subscales (Some Folk Concepts scales are substantially correlated
with one another as they may be associated to the same underlying traits).

7. Lack of theoretical guidelines (There is also a lack of theoretical justification of the criteria
used in developing the Folk Concepts and Special Purpose scales. It is unclear as to why
some scales (e.g., dominance) are more basic and receive the status as “folk concepts”
whereas others are labeled as “special purpose” (e.g., anxiety).
8. Lack of justification of criteria used to develop folk scales.

9. Not easily available.

10. High cost (manual, item booklet, interpretation guide and a packet of answer sheets = $462.

An additional weakness of CPI is that little information is available on its validity, while
adequate information is available on its reliability