Biology Lesson Note SS1 Second

Term
 34 minutes read

BIOLOGY ENOTE FOR SS1 SECOND

TERM – Edudelight.com
SECOND TERM SSI SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK ONE—–BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

WEEK TWO……ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

WEEK THREE…..TOLERANCE

WEEK FOUR AND FIVE……ADAPTATION

WEEK SIX AND SEVEN………POLLUTION

WEEK EIGHT……CONSERVATION NATURAL RESOURCES

WEEK NINE AND TEN…REPRODUCTION

WEEK 1

ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of living organism e.g. plants and animals in relation
to their environment. Ecology is divided into two main groups:-

a. Autecology:-which is the study of an individual organism and its

environment. E.g. the study of a single rat and its environment.

b. Synecology:– It is the study of inter relationship between groups

of organism or species of organism living together in an area . E.g.
the study of di erent organisms in a river in relation to aquatic
environment.
 BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT.

1. Habitat.

It is de ned as any environment which an organism lives naturally

e.g. shes live in the water, some other organism lives on land or
trees e.g. monkey.

2. Environment.

It’s de ned as overall factor both external and internal, living or

non- living which a ects an organism.

3. Eco system:

It is de ned as an association between living component i.e.

plant and animals with the non living factors of the environment.

4. Biotic community:

It is de ned as any naturally occurring group of di erent

organisms living together and interacting together in the same
environment.

5. Biome:

It is de ned as the largest community of an organism e.g.

Rainforest and Guinea savannah.

6. Biosphere or Ecosphere:

It is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms. It is a

layer of life which exist in the earth’s surface and it is a zone
where complex biological activities occur.

7. Lithosphere:

It is the solid portion of the earth, it is the outermost layer or

zone of the earth crust which is made up of rock and mineral materials.
8. Hydrosphere:

It is the liquid or aquatic portion of the earth. It holds water in

various form i.e. ice, liquid, and gasses. E.g. lake, pool, spring, ocean or
sea, ponds, oasis, river and stream.

Read Also

Literature in English Lesson note SS2 Second Term

THIRD TERM SCHEME OF WORK FOR FOOD AND

NUTRITION SS2

9. Atmosphere:

This is the gaseous portion of the earth. It is a layer of gasses

surrounding the earth.

10. Ecological Niche:

It is de ned as the speci c portion of an habitat which is occupied

by particular species of organism. It is the functional position of an
organism within the community. E.g. caterpillar and aphid which live on
the same plant occupies di erent ecological niche of the plant.

11. Population:

It’s de ned as the total number of organism of the same specie

living together in a given area. E.g. the total number of tilapia sh in a
pond constitutes the population of tilapia in that habitat

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Biotic factor: It is the component of ecosystem that comprises of

all living things in the environment often called biotic community. This
biotic community includes the population of
a. food producers/autotrophs. Which are majorly green plants,
Protophyta and chemosynthetic bacteria.

b. food consumer/ heterotrophs: These include all animasl,

protozoa and some bacteria. The consumer may be divided based on
the type of food they eat. Namely

Herbivore

Carnivore

Omnivore

c. Decomposer/Saprophyte: These are organisms that cause the

decay or putrefaction of plants and animals remain. e.g. fungi, bacteria
and some insects such as termites,

2. Abiotic Factor: These are factors that which the organisms need
to stay alive. They include.

a. Climate factor such as temperature, humidity, wind, sunlight, or

light intensity.

b. Edaphic factors such as soil factors.

c. Inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon (iv)

oxide, oxygen, a source of energy, water current, turbidity.

The Local Biome of Nigeria.

The biome is the largest community of organism e.g. rainforest, guinea

savanna. The local biotic community of Nigeria can be grouped into two
major zones.

1. Forest Zone: This is made up of vegetation having mainly trees

and are divided into

A. Mangrove or swamp forest(salt and fresh water)

B. Tropical rain forest.

2. Savanna Zone: It’s made up of mainly grasses and it is divided
into three

A. Southern guinea savanna

B. Northern guinea savanna

C. Sahel savanna

A. Mangrove or swamp forest: is found in areas along the coastal in

states like Delta, Lagos, Cross-River, Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, and Rivers.

Characteristics of swamp forest

I. It has tall wooden trees.

II. The plants have aerial roots.

III. It has ever green trees with broad leaves.

IV. It has a combination of salt and fresh water.

V. The swamp forest is found in areas of heavy and frequent

rainfall with an annual rainfall of 250cm.

VI. Common plant species are red mangrove, white mangrove, ra a

palm, coconut.

VII. Common animal species in this community include: Tilapia, oyster

shell, crabs, snakes, birds and king shes.

B. Tropical rain forest: this biotic community is located in states like

Ondo, Edo, Lagos, Ogun, Delta, Anambra, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom.

Characteristics of rain forest

I. It has tall trees with buttress roots.

II. It has evergreen and broad leaves.

III. The forest is made up of climbers, epiphytes, creepers and
parasitic plants.

IV. It has little undergrowth due to canopy formed by the tall trees.

V. The plant species are not in pure stand i.e. trees are scattered.

VI. The biome have experienced rainfall over 200cm, high

temperature and high relative humidity.

VII. Plant species include Iroko, Obeche, Mahogany, Walnut, Opepe

And Ebony.

VIII. Animals commonly found in this area are chameleons, monkeys,

birds, squirrels.

IX. Tropical rain forest has high temperature between 25°c-37°c with
a small annual range of 2-3°c.

Savanna or Grassland: Grassland are distinguished from the

trees by their relative absence of trees and abundance of grasses.
The grass of the world is a translational biome between the forest and
the desert.

A. Southern guinea savanna: This biotic community is found in states

like Enugu, Oyo, Ebonyi, Osun, Ekiti, Benue, Kogi and Kwara.

Characteristics of southern guinea savanna

I. It is the largest of all communities in Nigeria.

II. It has a moderate rainfall between100-150cm annually.

III. It has tall grasses.

IV. It has tall trees with broad leaves.

V. The trees are scattered and deciduous i.e. they shed their leaves
during dry season.
VI. Important plants include locust bean tree, Shea-butter, Isobelina.

VII. Important animal commonly present in the biome are antelope,

lion, zebra and leopard.

B. Northern Guinea Savannah:- The biome is found in place like

Plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Taraba, Adamawa and Kano
states.

CHARACTERISTICS

1. It has low rainfall of about 50-100cm per annum

2. It has scatter and short deciduous trees

3. It has short but numerous grasses

4. Some of trees have thorns while other have thick bark

5. Some of the trees wither in dry season and sprout at the

beginning of raining

6. Common plant specie present in this area are Acacia, date palm,
silk cotton plant, baobab

7. Common animal that can be found there, include: – Snakes,

lizard, deer, lion, leopard, antelope e.t.c.

C. Sahel savannah:- The local biotic community can be seen or found

in only the extreme Northern part of Nigeria such as Bornu,
Katsina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kebbi, Zamfara, Kano and Jigawa
CHARACTERISTICS

1. The biome has high temperature and very low rainfall below 50cm
per annum.

2. It has short and scanty grasses.

3. It has tall shrubs or trees.

4. The grasses are fewer/ poorer and exist in patches.

5. It has much drought resistant and scattered plant

6. Important plant species include acacia, gum Arabic and date

palm.

DESERT

A desert is a place of dryness or a place associated with dryness

or acidity. The environment is usually hot with little or no rainfall.

MAJOR BIOME OF THE WORLD

It is divided into the following:

1. Tropical rainforest

2. Savanna

3. Deserts

4. Shrubs

5. Afro-aphine

6. Swamp

Tropical Rainforest

The tropical rainforest of the world is located around the equator with
latitude 50 North and South of the equator. The forest is found in the
amazon basin of South America, Zaire basin of central Africa, the coast
of west Africa and interior Malaysia.

CHARACTERISTICS

1. The trees are of great varieties

2. There is abundance of tall hard woods e.g. iroko, obeche e.t.c.

3. There are various layers of trees i.e. upper, middle, lower and
bottom storey.

4. It has abundance sunshine.

5. The forest tree have broad ever green leaves.

6. Relative humidity within the forest is very high.

7. It has annual rainforest of year.

8. Rainfall is through out the year.

9. Tropical rain forest has a high temperature of between 25% – 370

within a small annual range of 20 – 30.

SAVANNA / GRASSLAND.

Grassland are distinguished from the forest because of the

presence of abundant grass: The savanna of the world is
grouped into two:-

i. Tropical grassland.

ii. Temperate Grassland.

i. Tropical Grassland:- is located between latitude 50 N and 200 S of

the Equator. Areas where these grassland are found include
Central Africa/ North West, South America, Interior Of Brazil, West
Africa, East Africa, South – East Asia And North And Northern Australia.

Characteristics.

i. The tree grow there are deciduous.

ii. The tropical grassland has tall grasses.

iii. There is presence of short and scattered trees.

iv. It has annual temperature range of 110.

0 0
v. The temperature of tropical grassland ranges from 210 to 300

vi. The annual rainfall is between 600 to 1500mm.

vii. Temperature Grassland: it is found in the interior continent in

Asia, North America, South America (Argentina) and Australia.

Characteristics.

1. The grasses tend to have uniform height.

2. Temperature grassland has average rainfall of about 508mm.

3. It has hot summer with temperature of about 200.

4. The trees are scare in the temperature grassland.

5. The grasses are succulent.

6. The vegetation is associated with the temperate continental

climate.

DESERT

Desert are generally associated with aridity or dryness. It is an

environment that is usually very bet with little or no rainfall.

TYPES OF DESERT

1. Hot Desert:- Hot desert of the world are on the western coastal
of the continent within latitude 150 and 300 N and S of the equator. Hot
desert include Sahara desert in North Africa, Arabian desert in Arabia,
Iranian desert in Iran, Nambi and Kalahari desert in South Africa, great
Australian desert in Australia, Atacama desert in south Africa America.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOT DESERT

1. Hot desert has high temperature between 300 and 600

2. The desert are associated with cold current

3. Vegetation is sparse or scanty

4. The vegetation include grasses, shrubs and herbs

5. Evaporation is high while relative humidity is very low

6. Aridity or rainlessness is common

2. Cold Desert:- They are located in the interior of the continent

around latitude 450N and 600N and S of the equator. Cold desert are
found in the interior of Eurasia in North America and Patagonia in South
America

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD DESERT

a. Cold desert has short and scanty grasses

b. Winters is cold with temperature below 70C while summers are

hot below 380C

c. Rainfall is about 25cm due to long distance from the sea

d. It has drought resistant plant with woody stem and needle like or
spiny to reduce evaporation

e. It has summer and cold winter

SHRUB

The shrub vegetation is found in semi-arid region, border land of

tropical desert and the interior of the continent. It is found in West
Africa closed to Sahara Desert, North-East Brazil and Australia

CHARACTERISTICS

a. It has low thorny trees with shrubs and herbs

b. It has drought resistant shrubs and aromatic plants and dwarf

trees such as thorny acacia
c. The rainfall is very low

d. The shrub has very high temperature of over 300

e. The shrub has patches of grasses

AFRO-ALPINE

The Afro-alpine is kind of vegetation associated with high mountains or

highlands. The Afro-alpine vegetation as it relates to Africa is found in
highland such as Cameroon Mountain, Kenya Highland and Kilimanjaro
Mountain in East Africa.

Characteristics

1. The peak of the mountain may experience ice- cap or permanent

show.

2. The wind ward side of the mountain may have luxuriant forest
type of vegetation.

3. Temperature and pressure of Afro alpine decrease with attitude.

4. Heavy rainfall is experience from the windward side of the

mountain while lesser rainfall is experience on the leeward side.

5. The leeward side may experience savanna type of vegetation.

6. Vegetation decreases with the height of mountain.

Swamp / Mangrove Forest.

The swamp forest are usually found in tropics along coastal region and
river mouth in West, East and South Africa. Swamps are generally found
along the coast all over the world.

Characteristics of swamp forest.

1. The dominant plants are white mangrove, red mangrove and

ra a palm.
2. The trees have stilt root which grow downward and branch into
mud surface.

3. Relative humidity in swamp is very high even close to 900.

4. It has high rainfall of over 2,500mm with re distinct season.

5. Animal commonly found include mud skipper, crap, tilapia sh.

ASSIGNMENT

1.State the component of ecosystem

2.De ne the following terms

I, Ecosystem(ii)niche(iii)community(iv)hydrosphere

3 .State ve characteristics of mangrove forests

4 State the distinguishing features of the guinea savanna.

5.Explain the di erences between(a) a biome and a habitat (b) a niche

and a habitat.

6.Explain the following ecological terms (i)environment

(ii)hydrosphere(iii)lithosphere.

7a.What is an ecosystem?(b) List three components of ecosystem

BIOLOGY ENOTE FOR SS1 SECOND TERM – Edudelight.com

WEEK2

Ecological Management

.Living organisms establish di erent living associations with others in

order to obtain food or protection. Some of these living associations are
bene cial to one or both organisms in the relationship. Each exhibits the
quality of tolerance and possesses certain adaptive features for survival.

Types of Associations
a.Predation: is an interaction in which a free living organism kills
another free living organism and eat it as food. The killed is the predator
for each example domestic’s cat kill rat for food.

b.Neutralism: is neither bene cial nor detrimental to either population.

For example direct interactions between a squirrel and a bird appear to
be of this type Neither services as food for the other nor do they
compete for the same food supply, yet they of the same forest
community.

-Commensalism is a relationship between two partners which the

commensal bene ts while the other called host neither bene ted nor
harm. The advantages derived its host frequently involves shelter,
support, food or several of these. A good example is the remora sh and
shark. Remora picks the food debris while shark does not grain or lose
anything.

Parasitism: This is a type of association in which one organism called

the parasite lives on or within another organism known as the host and
bene ts from the association while harming or killing its host in the
process. Parasites live on the surface of the host’s body are referred to
as ecto- parasite while the parasite live within is called endo- parasite.
Examples of ecto- parasites are tick, lice, mosquito, tsetse y have
adaptive features like claw, hooks and suckers with which they cling to
their host.

Ecto- parasites of plant like mistletoe and dodder have attachment

organ called haustoria which provides large area of contact with the
host, and make the host cell membrane permeable allowing nutrients to
pass through it to the parasite, this denying the plant needed nutrient
for growth.

Mutualism or Symbiosis: This is a type of symbiosis in which both

partners bene t and are unable to survive without each other. The
mutualist and each others, However, in a loose association, it is possible
for the two partners to live independently. The following are examples
of organism.

a.Lichen: It is a bene cial association between an alga and a fungus. In

this association, the fungus gets organic carbon and oxygen as nutrient
and for respiration from its photosynthetic activities of alga. In return,
the fungus protect the alga from high light intensities, provide water and
minerals to it with which the alga can grow.

b.Mycorrhiza: This is a bene cial association between plant roots and

fungi in this association, the fungus lives inside (endotrophic) or outside
(ectotrophic) the root extending its hyphae into the soil. The hyphae
function like root hairs absorbing water, phosphorus and other
nutrients from the soil into the plant while the fungus depends on
photosynthesis by the plant to provide soluble organic materials as its
nutrient.

c.Root nodules and nitrogen xing bacteria is a bene cial association

between nitrogen xing bacteria of the genus Rhizobium and the roots
of leguminous.

d. Another example is the relationship between the hermit crab and a

kind of hydra called hydrachatina commonly found on the occupied by
hermit crab.The hydra feeds on the food particles obtained from the
crab which gain nothing from the association.

e.Epiphytism: The process involves two plants, one lives on the stem
or branch of the other, where it seeks support. It does not necessarily
get nutrient directly from its host their nutrient are gotten from dead
leaves or dead remains of some small animals. Examples of epiphytes
are fern, mosses and mistletoes.

ASSIGNMENTS

1.Explain the followings terms( i)

commensalisms(ii)saprophytism(iii)parasitism

2.Give one example in each case

.3.An association between algae and fungi is called(a)commensalism

BIOLOGY ENOTE FOR SS1 SECOND TERM – Edudelight.com

WEEK 3

TOLERANCE
Tolerance is the study or reactions of an organism to physical and
chemical factors in the environment. OR tolerance is the limit to which
living organisms can withstand unfavourable changes in the
environment in any ecosystem, with several biotic factors like
temperature, rainfall, salinity which a ect the distribution and survival
of living organism. A change in any of these factors may or become
unfavourable for the living organisms.

Tolerance Range:- is de ned as the range between the minimum and

maximum limits to which living organism can withstand and survive
certain changes in their environment, for example, animals have a
minimum and maximum temperature limit of 00C and 420C. Any
alteration below 00C or above 420 results in the death of the organism.

There are variations in the tolerance range of living organisms. For

example, certain plants may withstand extreme drought due to some of
their adaptive features while others may not.

Minimum Range– It is the narrowest range of factors at which

distribution of organisms will be a ected in terms of survival, growth
and reproduction.

Maximum Range– It is the highest range of factor at which distribution

of the organism is mostly a ected in terms of survival.

Laws of Tolerance

The law states that the distribution of species will be controlled by that
environmental factor for which the organism has the minimum range of
adaptability or control. Animals range of tolerance is di cult to study
since their mobile nature makes them escape from unfavourable
conditions.

Some migrate e.g. Birds, shes e.t.c while others hibernate especially
during winter e.g. rodent, squirrels’ avoiding food.

Geographical Range

This is a given location within which most organisms can live. The
tolerance range of living organism determines the areas where they are
found.

ASSIGNMENTS

1.De ne the followings(a)tolerance(b)maximum range(c)geographical

range

2.Distinguish between the tolerance range and geographical range of a

species.

BIOLOGY ENOTE FOR SS1 SECOND TERM – Edudelight.com

WEEK 4 & 5

ADAPTATION

Adaptation is de ned as any features or characteristics possessed

by an organism that enhance its tness and survival in its
environment OR Adaptation is the ability of an organism to survive
in any given environment or features which may be structural,
physiological or behavioral shown by organism enabling them to
live successfully.

Adaptation of Animals to Aquatic Environment

1. Possession of stream lined body that reduce friction during

movement in water e.g. shes.

2. Possession of dense, water proof features that keep cold water

away from bird’s skin and prevent wetting of feather e.g. birds.

3. Possession of webbed feet, formed from their skin between the

digits that walk like paddles e.g. duck.

4. Possession of gills in shes and tadpoles for gaseous exchange.

5. Possession of hook, sucker, sticky under surface by stationary

organism for attachment to the rock surface e.g. snail.

6. Possession of swim bladder to aid buoyancy in water e.g. Tilapia

sh.
 Adaptation of Animals to Terrestrial Habitat

1. Possession of lungs by vertebrates and trachea by insects for

gaseous exchange.

2. Possession of strong limbs that perform various functions like

running, walking, climbing and burrowing e.g. vertebrate.

3. Possession of sweat gland for excretion and cooling on hot days

e.g. mammals.

4. Possession of hair and fur on the skin of mammals and feathers in

birds that insulate the body against heat loss.

5. Possession of keen senses and well developed system for

movement and rapid escape from predator’s e.g. insects.

6. Possession of ability to use camou age to blend with their

background or mimic inedible objects like twigs and birds droppings
to avoid predators e.g. chameleon and grasshopper.

PLANT ADAPTATION

Adaptation of plants to aquatic habitat.

A hydrophytes is a plant that grows in water or in water logged soil with

submerged storage organs and perennating buds resting below the
water level. Their adaptive features are:

1. Possession of large air cavities called aerenchyma that serve as a

means of buoyancy and storing of gasses for respiration.

2. Possession of photosynthetic and chloroplast that make use of

less light in the water for photosynthesis.

3. Possession of breathing roots by some hydrophytes, which grows

above the water level to have enough oxygen for respiration.

4. Possession of hairy leaves and thin waxy cuticle to repel rain

water as they do not need it.
5. Surface plants that oat on water have broad leaves that contain
numerous stomata on the upper side of the leaf which trap maximum
light for photosynthesis.

Examples are water lily, water hyacinth, water weeds, duck weed,
and water cabbage.

Adaptation of plant to terrestrial habitat

a. Mesophytes – These are terrestrial plants which grow in moist

habitat and require well aerated soil.They moderate humidity and grow
neither in water logged soil nor in soil with abundance of salts, do they
loose drought condition their adaptive features are:

1. Possession of well developed root system.

2. Possession of stems that is generally aerial and profusely

branched.

3. Possession of longer, thinner leaves with high number of stomata

on the underside of leaves.

4. Possession of mesophyll layer that is well di erentiated with

many intercellular spaces.

Examples include: hibiscus and cassava plants.

b. xerophytes: These are plants that are adapted to dry or desert

habitat including dry rocky mountain tops where water supply is
extremely scarce their adaptive features are:

1. Reduction in the number of stomata to ensure fewer pores are

exposed to water loss through transpiration.

2. Possession of thick, waxy cuticle to reduces water loss through

transpiration.

3. Possession of extensive, deep root system that extend to the

water table beneath the soil which aid in absorption of large amount of
water.
4. Possession of modi ed leaves, spines/thorn like structures to
reduce the area exposed to transpiration.

5. Possession of super cial roots that form large extension on the

surface of the earth, which aid to absorb torrential rain.

6. Possession of hairy leaves that trap water vapour in between

them to lower the di usion gradients to reduce water loss.
7. Shedding o their leaves during the dry season to prevent water
loss through transpiration.

8. Possession of ability to fold their leaves during the day to

decrease the number of stomata thus reducing the rate of transpiration.

Examples are: cactus, Euphorbia and Acacia.

c. Halophyte; these are salt resistant organisms. They may be plant

or animals. Examples of such plants are white mangrove and red
mangrove.

Examples of animals are all marine animals such as Sharks,

Whales e.t.c.

Structural Adaptation of Tadpoles and Fishes to Aquatic Life

Fishes:

1. Possession of streamlined body enhances movement in water.

2. Possession of water proof scales with mucous covering the entire

body which reduces water tension.

3. Possession of ns at the sides and at posterior end adapted for

fast swimming.

4. Possession of gills on the lateral sides, which serves as the

respiratory organs capable of oxygen uptake from water.
5. Possession of a tail, which functions like a rudder and helps in
changing direction while swimming.

6. Possession of thin walled air- lled bladder which aids in

respiration, sound production and stability during uctuation in
pressure.

Tadpole:

1. Possession of streamlined body without neck that enhances

movement in water.

2. Possession of a tail n which aid in changing of direction during

swimming.

3. Possession of external gills, which serve as the respiratory organ

used for oxygen uptake in water.

Structural adaptation of birds

1. Seed- eating birds have beaks adapted for picking and conical
beaks adapted for cracking seeds or nuts.

2. Birds of prey like hawk, eagle and owls have sharp, curved beaks
for tearing esh and strong claw feet for capturing and killing their
prey.

3. Aquatic birds like duck sea quills have long, at beaks adapted for
straining or shifting plants and animals from the water and for gripping
sh and sieving muddy water for food.

4. They also have webbed feet adapted for swimming.

5. Birds that eat insect like wood peckers have beaks that are long
and chisel like for boring into wood to eat insect.

6. Some birds like crows have multi purpose beaks that are adapted
to eat fruits, seeds, insect, shes and other animals.
7. Presence of feathers which enclose a layer of air and thus keeping
the bird warm.

8. Possession of scales on the leg and feet to reduce heat loss.

9. Presence of wings for ight.

10. Presence of keen sight for seeing their prey a far o e.g. Vulture.

11. Possession of light weight e.g. sun bird which help them to feed
nectar.

Structural adaptation of Toad

1. Presence of long sticky tongue for catching its prey.

2. Presence of long hind limbs for hopping.

3. Presence of bulging eyes to see in water.

4. Presence of stout fore limbs for landing.

Structural adaptation of Lizard

1. Possession of scales to reduce desiccation.

2. Lizard has ability to regenerate its lost tail when attacked and this
helps the animals to escape from danger.

3. Possession of protective colouration for defense against enemies

and to attract the opposite sex.

4. Possession of sharp claws for climbing.

5. Long neck which enable them to move their heads independent

of their body.

Structural adaptation of Snail

1. Presence of hard calcerous shells to prevent desiccation.

2. Secretions of shiny mucus to survive period of unfavourable
condition such as dryness or drought.

This process is called aestivation which is a long period of

dryness.

3. Possession of muscular foot for movement.

4. Presence of oculiferous tentacles for sight and sensitivity.

ASSIGNMENT

1.Salt resistant organisms are referred to as

(a)hydrophyte(b)halophyte(c)xerophyte(d)mesophyte

2.The modi cation in an organisms which enables

(a)adaptation(b)completion(c)hibernation(d)succession

3.The following the adaptations are associated the ight of birds except
(a)reduced body weight(b)streamlined shape(c)presence of powerful
muscles(d)clawed digits

4.State ve structural adaptations of lizard

OBJECTIVES

5.The association in which one member bene ts and the other is

relatively una ected by the interaction is termed (A)symbiosis (B)
parasitism (C)commensalism (D)mutualism

6.When an animal has a dark-coloured dorsal surface and a light-

coloured ventral surface, this is an adaptation called (A)concealment
colouration (B)countershading (C)colour blending (D)disruptive
colouration

7.One of the following is an example of commensals (A)mistletoe

(B)remora sh and shark (C)mosses and ferns (D)legumes and
nitromonas
8.Reptiles are able to survive a hot environment due to (A)long tail
(B)presence of gular fold (C)presence of claws (D) presence of tough
body covered with scales

9.One of the following is not a terrestrial adaptation (A)poorly developed

roots (B)lungs for respiration (C)presence of sweat gland (D)possession
of hairs

10.Hydrophytes possess all these characteristics except (A)broad leaves

(B)well-developed stomata (C)poorly developed roots (D)presence of air
sac

BIOLOGY ENOTE FOR SS1 SECOND TERM – Edudelight.com

WEEK 6&7

Pollution

Pollution is de ned as release of harmful or toxic substances into the

environment either by natural forces, or activities of man and other
animal to an extent that cause biological damage to man and his
environment.

OR

It is the release of harmful substances into the environment such as

water, air, in a quantity that is harmful to man, animals and plants.

Types of Pollution

1. Air pollution
2. Noise pollution

3. Land pollution

4. Water pollution

a. Air pollutants

1. Oxide of carbon (CO):- This is release into the air as a result of

burning of fume in car and other combustion engine and some
industrial processes.

E ects of CO

1. It causes su ocation because it combines with hemoglobin and

reduces its ability to carry oxygen which may result to death.

2. Oxide of sulphur. Sulphur (iv) Oxide:- it is released to the air by

burning of vehicle exhaust mining and cement particles.

E ects of Sulphur (iv) Oxide

1. It causes ill health e.g. irritation of eyes, lungs, skin, cough and
other respiratory disease.

2. It causes acid rain.

3. Oxide of Nitrogen (NO): They can be released into the air by

electrical discharge in air and industrial processes.

E ects of NO2

1. It may cause acid rain which corrodes metallic objects.

2. It irritates the skin and respiratory system.

3. Smoke and soot: these are released into the air by burning of
substances from industries, machines and coal.

E ects of smoke and soot

1. The particles can damage the lungs.

2. The particles of soot can cover the leaves of plant thereby reduces
photosynthesis.

3. It reduces visibility

4. It blackens paint on the building.

5. Dust particles: from mining, quarries, machines, industrial
processes.

E ects of Dust particle

1. it irritates respiratory system and causes respiratory diseases

such as catarrh and cough.

2. It reduces visibility.

3. Dust containing pollen grain can a ect the lungs which may result
to asthma.

4. Radioactive rays: – These are industrial process such as electric

that uses radioactive substances.

E ects of Radioactive rays

1. It can alter the nature of gene i.e. mutation.

5.Chloro uorocarbon(CFCs).

The increasing depletion of ozone layer, a layer that shields the

hazardous ultra-violet rays of the sun is due to severe environmental
contamination caused by the release of CFCs into the atmosphere.

Depletion of the ozone layer could result in fatal consequences to the

environment and its inhabitants.

EFFECTS.

-increasing number of skin cancers and cataract of the eye

-decline in immune system”s ability to respond to infections

-decline in the growth of ocean’s phytoplanktons, the producers in the

marine food chain which could lead to disruption of the ecological
balance in the ocean.
-increase in the level of atmosphere carbondioxide due to decline in the
population of photosynthetic organisms that could break down
carbondioxide during photosynthesis, resulting in global warming.

Control of Air pollution

1. Industries should be sited away from residential area.

2. Tall factory chimneys should be built i.e. for the discharge of

industrial wastes.

3. Industrial waste should be passing through lter and absorbers

4. Legislation should be made against indiscriminate burning that
will bring smoke.

5. Use of lead and free fuel should be avoided

6. Avoid driving cars that are not maintained

7. There should be public enlightenment about air pollution.

Noise pollution

Noise is unwanted utterance

Sources of noise pollution

1. Factory or industrial noise.

2. Aero plane/ Aviation noise.

3. Locomotive/ Railway Engine noise.

4. Car Horn and sirènes.

5. High pitch musical sound from loud speaker or drumming.

6. Noise from heavy guns.

7. Noise from thunder

8. Noise from generator.

E ects of Noise Pollution

1. It can cause loss of hearing or deafness.

2. Noise can cause emotional disorder, anxiety or lack of

concentration.

3. It can cause high blood pressure or hypertension.

4. Noise may cause general irritation.

5. It may cause damage in behaviour.

Control of Noise Pollution

1. There should be reduction of noise from loud speaker and car

siren.

2. Legislation against the use of loud speaker in public places.

3. There should be a ban on the use of heavy gun.

4. Railway and airport should be located far away from residential

areas.

5. There should be installation of sound proof in industries and in

generator.

Land /Soil Pollution

It is a condition in which the top thin layers of fertile top soil are
damaged. Soil is very important for the proper function of terrestrial
ecosystem because it is the major source of essential mineral nutrient
and water for plant. In a balanced ecosystem, this layer is continually
pre- maintained by various nutrient cycle and activities of decomposer
and soil system.

Causes of Soil Pollution

1. Erosion: this may be due to careless farming method .

2. Agricultural waste: such as pesticide, herbicide and fertilizers

which may bring about the killing of useful organism that bring about
decay or soil animal that aerate the soil.

3. Industrial activity such as mining and deforestation may

devastate the land and stripping it o vegetation and top soil.

4. Dumping of garbage on the soil.

5. Crude oil spillage through oil drilling, loading and o - loading of

oil tankers may render the soil infertile and destroy plant and animal
life.

E ects

1. Poor crop yield.

2. It can poison a whole community

3. Dumping of refuse may cause eye sore.

4. Refuse dumping can encourage breeding of pest.

Control

1. E ort should be made on recycling of waste.

2. People should be educated on e ect of land pollution.

3. Incessant dumping of waste should be discouraged.

4. The government should have a policy of land protection.

5. Refuse should be burnt in incinerators.

6. Oil pipeline should be maintained and check regularly.

7. Pesticide and fertilizers should be applied as instructed.

 Water Pollution

It may arise by indiscriminate dumping of waste into the body of water.

In addition pollutant in air, or vegetation and soil are drained into water
bodies via rainfall.

Causes

1. Refuse and sewage

2. Industrial wastes

3. Agricultural waste such as pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers.

4. Crude oil spillage.

5. Heavy metals such as Lead and Mercury

E ects

1. Sewage contaminated drinking water may make water un t for

drinking.

2. It destroys aquatic plants and animals

3. Chemical like gammalin 20 will bring about the killing of aquatic

animals.

4. Food chain is a ected

5. It produces unpleasant odour

6. It can lead to epidemic diseases like Cholera and diarrhoea.

7. Ingested plant poisoned with Lead may accumulate in the

liver,kidney and bones leading to Lead poisoning.

8. Indiscriminate disposal of untreated mercury- containing

e uents into oceans, seas and water usually result in mercury –
poisoning of aquatic food like shell sh, shes and with fatal
consequence for the consumers.

Control

1. Task force to the monitor water pollution should be set up.

2. There should be an e cient and proper sewage disposal

system.

3. Industries should be sited away from water bodies.

4. There should be public enlightenment on waste disposal.

5. Industrial e uents should be recycled.

ASSIGNMENTS

1.One the followings pollutants a ect the green chlorophyll of

plants(a)nitrogen dioxide(b)carbon monoxide(c)Sulphur
dioxide(d)carbon dioxde.

2.Which of the following is not a pollutant of the air?

(a)dust(b)heat(c)smoke (d)moisture

3.Oil spillage can be controlled by (a)applying biochemical oxygen

demand(b)by littering water oil(c)by applying detergent(d)by removing
oil with herbicide

4.Mention four ways of preventing water pollution in an environment.

5.Which of the following is not a renewable natural resources?(A)soil

(B)water (C)Gold (D) air

6.The fumes of motor cars has in its constituents a very serious

pollutant as (A)carbon (ii) oxide (B)nitrous oxide (C)carbon(iv) oxide
(D)lead oxide

7.All of the following are pollutants except (A)carbon (ii) oxide

(B)sulphur dioxide (C)lead oxide (D)oxygen
8.The tapeworm is a very successful organism because (A) good
locomotory organs (B)sharp sight (C)a well developed brain (D)a good
reproductive system.

ESSAY

9a.What are the causes of air pollutant?

b.Describe the e ects of carbon monoxide and smoke or soot on

humans

10a.Name two pollutants of water

b.State two e ects of water pollution on organism.

WEEK 8

Conversation of Natural Resources

Conversation is the planning and management of natural resources in

order to secure their wise use and continuity of supply while
maintaining and enhancing their value, quality and diversity.

Natural resources can be renewable or non-renewable. Renewable

Natural resources are recoverable. e.g. animals, plants, water, air,
food, and soil

Non- renewable Natural resources are natural resources which when

get exhausted cannot be replaced or recovered. E.g. mineral such as
coal, petroleum, gold deposit, tin, copper, crude oil

Reasons for Conversation

1. To preserve rare and valuable specie of plant and animal for

future generation.

2. To prevent destruction of natural environment or to allow for

continued use of natural resources for man’s bene t

3. Prevent the natural beauty of the environment

4. To promote the recycling of some scare mineral resources

5. Forest which provides medicinal material is conserved to ensure

easy availability and continued existence.

6. Natural resources such as wild- life, forest and minerals are

conserved for research processes.

Method of Conserving Water

1. by irrigation.

2. Dams and reservoir construction.

3. Adequate control of use of ground water.

4. Control of water pollution.

Conservation of Forest

1. by reforestation

2. Adequate forest management approach

3. Maintenance of forest reserve.

4. Having strict law guiding forest management

5. Constituent soil conservation to encourage adequate forestation

6. by encouraging industry to use other materials aside from wood

in furniture making

Wild life Conservation Method

1. Hunting is to be limited

2. Having strict law governing wild life

3. Establishment of more National Park.

4. Having arti cial stock

5. By adopting game farming

Conservation of Soil

1. By prevention of overgrazing as this may cause soil erosion.

2. By prevention of indiscriminate felling of trees or deforestation

which may expose the soil to erosion.

3. Adoption of better farming practices e.g. crop rotation so as to

prevent erosion, leaching, water logging and acidity.

4. Prevention of pollution of land so as not to destroy useful soil

organism.

5. Avoiding of clean clearing which may expose the soil to erosion.

6. Prevention of bush burning which may expose the soil to erosion.

Ways of ensuring conservation of natural resources

1.Establishment of agencies for conservation to ensure that these

natural resources are conserved e.g. Preservation of wild life, forest
resources, water resources, air, soil and mineral resources.

2.Establishment of games reserve or national park for protection of wild

life, rear or endanger specie and for recreational purpose. E.g. of
reserve games inNigeria:Yankari games reserves in Bauchi state,

Borgu games reserves in Niger state

Shasha river forest in Ogun state

Olomu forest reserve in Kwara state

Mamu forest reserves in Anambra state

Zamfara forest reserve in Zamfara state

3. Making of conservation laws, edict or decree.

4. There should be enlightenment of conservation education

5. They must set standard for pollution.

Agencies responsible for conservation

1. Nigeria Conservation Fund (NCF)

2. Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA)

3. International Union of Conservation and National Resources

(IUCNR)

4. World Wide life Fund (WWF)

5. Ministry of Agriculture

6. Department of Wild life conservation

7. River Basin Development of Authority (RBDA)

Problem Encountered in Conservation

1. Poor public education and management

2. Problem of subsistence farming method e.g. bush burning

3. Insu cient nance

4. Over grazing

5. Constant cropping and shing

6. Short supply of land

7. Problem of oil spilla.ge

8 Occurrence of natural disaster e.g. ood & earthquake.

ASSIGNMENTS

1.State two that can be derived from forests and name two forest
reserves in Nigeria

2.List four natural resources that can be conserved apart from forest

3.List four agencies responsible for conservation

4.a List four natural resources that can be conserved apart from forest

b.How would you ensure the conservation of non- renewable

resources.

c.How is wild life conserved in your country.

WEEK 9& 10

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the ability of living organism to produce new individual

of their type or new o spring.

Types of Reproduction

Asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction: is a type of reproduction in which only one

parent is involved to produce o spring by itself without formation of
gametes. O spring’s which are identical are called clones are produced
through asexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction: it is a type of reproduction which involves the

fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote which later develops
to a young o spring. The process of the gamete joining together is
called fertilization.

Conjugation: is a simple form of sexual reproduction used by some

lower organisms which involves the exchange of nuclear material of the
two organisms. This method is being used by organism such as
paramecium, spirogyra and rhizopus.

Forms of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction involves the following methods

1. Binary & multi ssion

2. Budding

3. Spore formation

4. Fragmentation

5. Vegetative propagation

i. Fission (Binary/ ssion: this is a simple form of asexual

reproduction in which a parent organism divides into two or more part
and each of them develop into a new organism e.g. Amoeba, Euglena,
and Paramecium.

ii. Budding: this is a asexual reproduction where the parent

organism forms an outgrowth refers to as a bud which later get
detached and develop into a new organism e.g. yeast and hydra.

iii. Spore formation it is a method of asexual reproduction where

the parent organisms forms spores or produce spores. Each spores
is capable of germinating to a new organism e.g. Rhizopus, Mucor e.t.c.
iv. Fragmentation: it is an asexual method of reproduction where
the parent organism breaks up into two or more pieces and each pieces
can then develop into a new individual organism. E.g. Spirogyra,
Sponges and Coelenterate

v. Vegetative Reproduction: it involves the use of plant part to

produce new organism without the use of seed.

Types of vegetative propagation

a. Natural Vegetative propagation: It is carried out by the plant

themselves by means of leaves, stems and buds. Stem of di erent
plants are modi ed themselves in di erent ways to carry out vegetative
propagation. Some stems are modi ed as:

-Runners -Sucker

-Rhizome -Tuber

-Corm -Bulb e.t.c.

b. Arti cial vegetative propagation: this can be done by planting

the perennating organ of plant (perennating organs) are part of plants
that can survive for one growing season to the next such as tubers and
rhizors. Each perenating part of plants must post a bud which can
develop into a new plant. Method of arti cial vegetative propagation
is as follows:

– Budding

– Layering

– Grafting

– Stem cutting

– Marcotting

REPRODUCTION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISM AND INVERTEBRATE

a. Reproduction in Amoeba: Amoeba is a unicellular protozoa
whose its mode of reproduction is asexual by binary ssion and also
use multi- ssion.

Binary ssion occurs under normal condition in the water when

the organism grows to a particular size, the nucleus divides into two
equal daughter nuclei and each of the daughter become enclosed by
half of the protoplasm leading to the production of two daughter cells.
The cell division here is simple mitotic.

Multi – Fission: in multiple ssion the amoeba become rounded in

shape to form a cyst like- structure and the protoplasm undergoes
ssion to produce several cells which are later released from the cyst.
This type of asexual reproduction occur under unfavourable condition
of weather.

Reproduction in Paramecium: Paramecium is a protozoa that is more

developed than amoeba. This higher level of development is re ected in
their type of reproduction. Paramecium reproduces asexually by binary
ssion sexually by conjugation.

Transverse Binary Fission in paramecium. At maturity the cell stop

moving. The two nuclei, this is followed by the movement of the
daughter nuclei in opposite direction to the anterior and the posterior
and respectively of the new elongated cell. After this, the cell divides
transversely along the region of the oral groove and the daughter
paramecia cell becomes separated under normal condition, this occur
after every 8 – 12 hours.

CONJUGATION IN PARAMECIUM

The two individual paramecia ready for conjugation come together and
get fused by the groove. In each conjugants, the nucleus dissolves in the
cytoplasm .while the micronucleus remain to take part in the whole
process of mating. The micro nuclei divides twice by meiosis and four
nuclei are form, three of this nuclei get dissolved in the cytoplasm in
each conjugant. The remaining micro nucleus divides unequally into two
in each conjugants. The smaller micro nucleus are exchange between
the two conjugant. The migratory micro nucleus fuses with the
stationary micronucleus in each conjugants from zygote after the
conjugant then separates, the zygote in each component divides thrice
to form eight (8) nuclei four of the eight nuclei four mega nucleus while
the three of the remaining four get dissolves in the cytoplasm. The
remaining micronucleus divides twice to form four micronuclei divide to
form four paramecium. Then the paramecium has one micronucleus
and one mega nucleus.

Reproduction in Spirogyra

Spirogyra is lamentous algae. It reproduces asexually by vegetative and

sexually by conjugation. Asexual reproduction occurs when a fragment
of lament breaks away and begin to grow by dividing to produce more
cells leading to elongation of the lament.

Sexual Reproduction in Spirogyra.

Conjugation is initiated when two laments came to side in parallel from

adjacent cells then protuberances of projection are formed. These are
called conjugation tubes at the same time the entire protoplasm begins
to detach from the rigid cellular. When the conjugation tubes meet, they
join to form a continuous channel or passage between two cells. At the
same time the chlorophyll begins to break down. Later the entire
cellular content of one lament denoted as male move through the
conjugation tube into the the partner known as female, followed by
ssion of the zygote develop zygospore to be resist adverse condition
and often fat to the bottom of the pond or water body. When condition
is over, the zygospore germinate into a new lament.

Reproduction In Earthworm

The Earthworm is a well develop invertebrate with segmented

body. it is an hermaphrodite because it possess both male and female
reproductive system together. It can only reproduce sexually. It possess
a pair of female reproductive segment on the 14th segment

and the male reproductive opening on the 15th. It has a structure called
clitellum which covers segment 32- 37. The clitellum is very important in
reproduction because it produces material for holding, mating worm
pairs together and also secrete the cocoon in which eggs are laid.
Reproduction in Cockroach

Cockroach carries out sexual reproduction and its life history is based an
I complete metamorphosis. Metamorphosis is de ned as series of
gradual changes that occur during the development of an animal
organism from the zygote to the adult stage or to a mature adult.
Cockroach uses internal fertilization after mating, the sperm of the male
cockroach are stored in a structure in the female abdomen called sperm
theca or sperm pouch. Fertilization of the egg with the spermtheca take
place in a pouch on the 7th segment, it is the pouch that later form the
dark brown pouch ootheca or egg case. The ootheca contains
between10- 16 eggs. After some days, the female deposits the egg in a
dark corner. The length of incubation period depends on a number of
factors including temperature and moisture but it usually takes a
month.

When the eggs hatch, the young one produced called nymph resemble
the adult cockroach but the colours is pale and small in size. The nymph
grows and mount several times by a process called ECDYSIS to allow for
increase in size until it becomes an adult. Cockroach is said to undergo
incomplete metamorphosis because the young one does not undergo
change to forms in the course of life history

Reproduction in House y

The adult male and female house ies mate, the fertilize eggs are laid
within two- three days.

House y is an insect that reproduces by complete metamorphosis i.e.

egg larva pupa adult or imago. It lives on a decay organic
matter where it assumes di erent forms in the course of its
development. Fertilization in house y is internal and the egg colour is
pale white and are in batches ,each batch is made up of about 100 – 150
eggs. The eggs hatch after 24 hours into larva (larvae) called MAGGOT.
The maggot has twelve segments, it is cylindrical in shape but larger
towards the anterior region. Eyes and legs are absent. The rst
segments form the THORAX

There are some pads on the segment which are locomotion. The rst
thoracic segment which also aid locomotion bears a pair of posterior
spiracle is found on the segment twelve. On the rst segment is a mouth
with hook with which the larva feed continuously. It moults twice before
metamorphosing into a pupa after 5 days. The pupa is formed when
the larva moves to a dry spot, shorten and its skin harden to make it
assume a barrel shape.

The skin of the lava forms a puparium where internal reorganization

takes place. The anterior and posterior spiracle are still present for
respiration.

In a period of about 5 days in warm weather the cap of the

puparium is forced open by ptilinum which helps the y to come out of
the soil. On reaching the surface, the y rests until its wings are
unfolded and the body wall hardens. It ies o in search of food. After
few days, it nds a partner and mate.

Reproduction in Snail .The snail is hermaphrodite but there are no

separate testis and ovaries. It has a single organ responsible for the
production of sperm and egg called OVOTESTIS. The ovotestis contains
units called tubules. The tubule contains follicles that are responsible for
the production of sperm and egg. Although, sperms and eggs are
produced in the same place, they do not pass out at the same time. So
there is no change for self fertilization. A common duct leaves the
ovotetis and separate into two as it approaches the albumen gland into
OVIDUCT and VAS DEFERENCES which carry the sperms and oviduct.
The vas deferens joins the PENIS which has agellum and a retractor
muscle. A agellum is responsible for shaping of the sperm. During
courtship, the snail takes shift to introduce sperm in
another.Fertilization is internal and it takes places in the mouth of
receptacle which stores sperms called SEMINAL RECEPTACLE. The
matured fertilized eggs are laid in NEST DUG out of moist soil. It lays
several dozen eg then covers them with soil where they stay until they
are ready to hatch.

ASSIGNMENTS

1.De ne reproduction

ii.state the two major types of reproduction

iii.list all forms of reproduction taking place lower organisms.

iv.explain the process of conjugation in(a)paramecium(b)spirogyra

v.discuss the life cycle/life history of house y.