CHAPTER 1

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Subtopics:

1.1 Functions
• Properties of functions
• Domain and range
• Operations on functions
• Graphs (Family) of functions

1.2 Limits
• Introduction (An intuitive approach)
• One sided limit and two-sided limits
• Infinite limits and limits at infinity
• Computing limits
• Computing limits: end behavior

1.3 Continuity
• Continuity at a point
• Limits and continuity of trigonometric functions

1.1 FUNCTIONS

1.1.1 Properties of Functions

Function is used to describe the relationship between two variables. One quantity depends on
another quantity is called function (one-to-one and many-to-one).

A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one

element, called f(x), in a set E

D and E are sets of real number. The set D is called the domain of the functions. The number
f (x) is the value of f at x (read as “f of x”). The range of f is the set of all possible values of f
(x) as x varies throughout the domain.

Simple way! x is an input value and f (x) is the corresponding output value (function
machine concept).

x f f (x)

Example 1

The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule that connects r and A is
given by the equation A = r 2 . With each positive number r there is associated one value of
A, and we say that A is a function of r. A is the dependent variable and r is the independent
variable.
Example 2

One-to-one function, also called injective function, never maps element of its domain to the
same element of its codomain (range).

P = 4x → for every value of x there is one and only one value of P.

Many-to-one function, if there are y values that have more than one x value mapped onto
them.

f(x) = x2 → when x = 3, then f(x) = 9 and when x = -3, then f(x) = 9 too.

1.1.2 Domain and Range

The domain and range of a function are the components of a function. The domain is the
set of all the input values of a function and range is the possible output given by the function.
Domain→ Function →Range. If there exists a function f: A →B such that every element of A
is mapped to elements in B, then A is the domain and B is the co-domain (range).

(Ref: CueMath.com)
Notes!
• Domain of any polynomial function (linear, quadratic, cubic, etc) is R (all real numbers).
• Domain of a square root function x is x  0.
• Domain of an exponential function is R.
• Domain of logarithmic function is x  0.
• To find the domain of a rational function y = f(x), set the denominator ≠ 0.
• Range of a linear function is R.
• Range of a quadratic function y = a(x − h)2 + k is:
y  k , if a  0
y  k, if a  0

• Range of a square root function is y ≥ 0.

• Range of an exponential function is y > 0.
• Range of logarithmic function is R.
• The range of a rational function y = f(x) → solve it for x and set the denominator ≠ 0.

(Ref: CueMath.com)
Example: How to find domain and range of the function?

a) f(x) = x 2 + 5 b) f(x) = 2x + 1

 1  1
Domain: ( −  ,  ) /  Domain:  − ,   / x  −
 2  2
Range: [5, ) / f(x)  5 Range: [0, ) / f(x)  0
c) f(x) = 4x d) f(x) = log4 (x − 9)

Domain: ( −  ,  ) /  Domain: (9, ) / x  9

Range: (0, ) / f(x)  0 Range: ( − ,  ) / 
3 x +1
e) f(x) = f) f(x) =
x +1 3−x

Domain:
Domain: ( −  ,3)  (3, ) / x  3 or x  3
( −  , − 1)  ( −1, ) / x  −1 or x  −1 Range:
Range: ( −  , − 1)  ( − 1, ) / f(x)  −1 or f(x)  −1
( −  ,0)  (0, ) / f(x)  0 or f(x)  0
Exercise 1

1. Find the domain and range of the following functions:

a) f(x) = x + 3

2
b) f(x) =
x2 − 1

c) f(x) = 3 − 9x

Given the function f(x) = x

2. ,x  h and g(x) = 2x − 2 ,x  k where h and k are constants.
4−x
Find the values of h and k.

1.1.3 Graph Functions

There are many different types of functions that can be used to model relationships:

a) Linear Function (identity function)

b) Polynomial Function (quadratic or square function and cubic function)
c) Absolute Value Function
d) Rational Function (Reciprocal Function)
e) Square Root Function
f) Exponential Function
g) Logarithmic Function
h) Trigonometric Function

Linear Function Square Function

Cubic Function Absolute Value Function

 Rational Function Square Root Function

Exponential Function Logarithmic Function

Trigonometry Function (Sine) Trigonometry Function (Cosine)

1.1.4 Operations on Functions

Given two functions, f (x) and g (x):

Operations Formula

a) Sum (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

b) Difference (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

c) Product (Multiply) (f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

 d) Quotient f f (x)
( )(x) =
g g(x)

e) Composite (f g)(x) = f (g(x))

Example: Given f (x) = 3x − 1 and g(x) = x 2 . Find

a) (f − g)(x) b) (f + g)( −1)

Ans: - 3
f d) (f g)(4)
c) ( )(x)
g

Ans: 47
1 f) (g f )(0)
e) (g2 )( )
2

1
Ans: Ans: 1
16

Exercise 2

1. Let f (x) = x2 − 2x + 2 , g(x) = x − 1 and h(x) = 3x − 1 . Find:

a) the domain of f (x) and g (x)

(Ans: Df = ( −  ,  ) Dg = 1,  ) )
b) the value of x when (g h)(x) = 5
(Ans: x = 9 )
 1 1
2. Given that f (x) = , g(x) = and h(x) = 2x − 5 .
x −4
2
x −1

a) Find the domain of f

(Ans: Df = ( −  , − 2 )  ( − 2,2)  (2, ) )
b) Find (g h) and its domain
1 5 
(Ans: (g h)(x) = D(g h) =  ,3   (3, ) )
2x − 5 − 1 2 

1
3. Let f (x) = 9 − x and g(x) = . Find
x +2
2

a) The domain of f (x) and g (x)

(Ans: Df = ( −  ,9] Dg = ( −  ,  ) )
b) (g f )(x)
1
(Ans: (g f )(x) = )
11 − x

x
4. Let f (x) = , g(x) = x2 + 5 and h(x) = x − 7 .
x −x−2
2

a) Find the domain of f (x) and g (x)

Df = ( −  , − 1)  ( − 1,2)  (2, )
(Ans: )
Dg = [ 7, )
b) (g h)(x)
(Ans: (g h)(x) = ( x − 7)2 + 5 )

1.2 LIMITS

1.2.1 Introduction (An intuitive approach)

Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a (This means that f is defined
on some open interval that contains a, except possibly at a itself). Then we write

lim f (x) = L
x →a

and say “the limits of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”

if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like)
by restricting x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.

Means that, the values of f (x) tend to get closer and closer to the number L as x gets
closer and closer to the number a (from either side of a) but x  a
1.2.2 One sided limit and two-sided limits

Definition:

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x →a− x →a+

and say “the left-hand (or right-hand) limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left (or right)) is equal to L”

if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently

close to a with x less than a.

Definition:

lim f (x) = L  lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L

x →a x →a x →a

If there is no sign of limit (either – or +), then it is two-sided limit. The two-sided
limit only exists if the value of limit from the right side equal to the value left
side.

Notes: remember that x → a − means that we consider only values of x that are
less than a and similarly x → a + means that we consider only values of x that
are greater than a (x > a).

Example 1

From the given graph, find the following:

a) f ( −4)

b) lim f (x)
x →−4−

c) lim f (x)
x →−4+
d) lim f (x)
x →−4

e) f (1)

f) f (6)

g) lim f (x)
x →6

h) lim+ f (x)
x →1

i) lim f (x)
x →1

Example 2: Try this!

From the given graph, find the following:

a) lim− g(x)
x →0

b) lim+ g(x)
x →0

c) lim g(x)
x →0

d) lim− g(x)
x →2

e) lim+ g(x)
x →2

f) lim g(x)
x →2

g) lim g(x)
x→4
1.2.3 Infinite limits and limits at infinity

Definition

An infinite limit of a function f (x) is one where f (x) →  or f (x) → − .

This can happen as x → a or x → a + or x → a − , where a is a finite number

Definition

A limit at infinity of a function f (x) is one where x is approaches  or −  . A

limit at infinity maybe finite or infinite

Example:

Infinite Limit: Limit at Infinity:

5x + x3 2
5x − 7 5
a) lim = lim =
x → 3x + 2 x → 3x + 2 3

1 7 − 3x 2
b) lim− = − lim = −3
x →0 x x →− x 2 − 5x + 1

1.2.4 Computing limits

Properties of limit, called the Limit Laws, is used to calculate limits.

Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
x →a x →a

a) lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) (Sum law)

x →a x →a x →a

b) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x) (Difference law)

x →a x →a x →a

c) lim [c f (x)] = c lim f (x) (Constant multiple law)

x →a x →a

d) lim [f (x) g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) (Product law)

x →a x →a x →a

f (x) lim f (x)

e) lim [ ] = x→a if lim g(x)  0 (Quotient law)
x →a g(x) lim g(x) x →a
x →a
Notes: To evaluate limit, we can used 2 methods: Direct Substitution and
Factorization of the numerator or denominator

Example 1 (Direct Substitution)

x3 + 2x 2 − 1
Evaluate lim
x →−2 5 − 3x

Solution

lim (x 3 + 2x 2 − 1)
= x →−2
(law no. 5)
lim (5 − 3x)
x →−2

lim x 3 + 2 lim x 2 − lim 1

= x →−2 x →−2 x →−2
(law no. 1, 2 and 3)
lim 5 − 3 lim x
x →−2 x →−2

( −2)3 + 2( −2)2 − 1
= (directly substitute x = −2 )
5 − 3( −2)

1
=−
11

Example 2 (Factorization)

x2 + x − 6
Evaluate lim
x →2 x−2

Solution

lim (x 2 + x − 6)
= x →2
(law no. 5)
lim (x − 2)
x →2

lim (x − 2)(x + 3)
= x →2
(factorize the numerator) → both have a common factor
lim (x − 2)
x →2

= lim (x + 3) (cancel the common factor)

x →2

= ((2) + 3) (compute the limit by direct substitution)

=5
1.2.5 Computing limits: end behavior

Describing end behavior using limit notation: to find out what happens to a function as
x goes to positive or negative infinity.

Example 1
10x 10x 10x
Let say we have, f (x) = , determine lim and lim
x−2 x → x − 2 x →− x − 2

Solution

10x 10x
= lim = lim
x → x−2 x→ −  x−2

10x 10x
= lim x = lim x
x → x − 2 x→ −  x − 2

x x
10 10
= lim = lim
x → 2 x→ −  2
1− 1−
x x

10 10
= = 10 = = 10
1− 0 1− 0

Solution on graph:

y = b is a horizontal asymptote for the graph y = f (x) if lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b
x → x→ − 
Example 2

5x3 − x 2
Find lim
x → 3x + 2

Solution

5x 3 x 2
−
= lim x x (Divide each by highest power of x in denominator)
x → 3x 2
+
x x

5x 2 − x 
= lim = =
x →
3+
2 3 + 0
x

Example 3
x(x − 2)
Find lim
x → (x + 1)(x + 2)

Solution
Example 4

x2 + 5 − 3
Find lim
x →2 x2 − 4

Solution

x2 + 5 − 3  x2 + 5 + 3 
= lim   (Multiply with the conjugate of radical)
x →2 x2 − 4  x 2 + 5 + 3 

x2 + 5 − 9
= lim
x →2
x 2 − 4( x 2 + 5 + 3)

x2 − 4
= lim (simplify)
x →2
x 2 − 4( x 2 + 5 + 3)

1
= lim (Substitute x = 2 into x)
x →2
x2 + 5 + 3

1 1
= =
(2) + 5 + 3
2 6

Example 5
4x − 5
Find lim
x→ − 
3x 2 − x

Solution
4x 5
−
= lim −x −x (Divide by – x because x approaches - ∞)
x→ − 
3x 2 x
2
− 2
x x

5
−4 +
x −4 + 0 4
= lim = =−
x→ −  1 3−0 3
3−
x
Example 5

4 3x 2 − 2
Find lim
x→  3 (1 − 8x)

Solution

Example 6

x 2 − 16 x 2 + 3x − 4
Let h(x) = and g(x) = . Find lim h(x) − lim g(x)
x 2 − 4x x −1 x→ −  x→ − 4

Solution

x 2 − 16 x 2 + 3x − 4
= lim − lim
x → −  x 2 − 4x x→ − 4 x −1

(x − 4)(x + 4) (x − 1)(x + 4)
= lim − lim
x→ −  x (x − 4) x→ − 4 x −1

(x + 4)
= lim − lim x + 4
x→ −  x x→ − 4

x 4
+
= lim x x − lim x + 4
x→ −  x x→ − 4

4
1+
= lim x − [( −4) + 4] = 1 + 0 − [0] = 1
x→ −  1
Example 7
17 + 2x
Let f (x) = . Find lim f (x) − lim f (x)
x − 2x + 1
2 x→ 2 x→ − 

Solution

Example 8 Theorem:
sin x
Find lim
sin 5x lim =1
x→ 0 x
x→ 0 x

Solution 1 − cos x
lim =0
x→ 0 x

Example 9
sin 3x
Find lim
x→ 0 sin 6x

Solution
Exercise 3
1. Evaluate the following:
x 6 − 10x 4 + 25x 2  1 
a) lim  64 
x→  64x 6 + 8x 5  
x2 − 7 − 3 4
b) lim 3
x→ 4 x−4  
x 2 − sin x
c) lim
x→ 0
( − 1)
x

2. Evaluate the following limits:

2x − x 3
a) lim (− )
x→  x2 + 9
x2 + 6 − 7  1 
b) lim
x +1 − 
x→ − 1
 7
3 cos 8x
c) lim (3)
x→ 0 2 − cos x

3. Evaluate the following limits:

5x 2 + 2
a) lim
x→  x−3
( 5)
2x + 1 − 3  1 
b) lim  
x→ 1 x −1  3
x 2 − sin2 x
c) lim (0)
x→ 0 3x 2

4. Evaluate the following limits:

x2 + 4  1
a) lim 6
x→ +  6x − 5  
3x − 5 − 4 3
b) lim 8
x→ 7 x−7  
x 4 − 4x 2 sin x
c) lim ( − 4)
x→ 0 x3

5. Evaluate the following limits:

x2 − 1
a) lim ( 2)
x→1 x −1
x−2
b) lim ( 4)
2− 6−x
x→ 2

2x − 1
c) lim 2
x →  x + 3x + 5
(0)
6. Evaluate each of the following limits:
27x 6 + 6
a) lim 3 (3)
x→  x 6 − 16x 3
sin 4x + x
b) lim
x→ 0
(1)
5x
x −2  1
c) lim 3
x→1 x − 4  

7. Evaluate each of the following limits:

x2 − 9 6
a) lim 5
x→ 3 2x 2 − 7x + 3  
5x − 3
b) lim
x→ 
(5)
x2 + 1
sin x
c) lim
x→ 0
(0)
2 x

8. Evaluate each of the following limits:

x2 + x − 2 3
a) lim 2
x→ 1 x2 − 1  
1 + 9x 2
b) lim (1)
x→ −  1 − 3x
6x − sin(4x)
c) lim
x→ 0
(1)
2x

9. Evaluate each of the following limits:

x 2 − 3x − 4 5
a) lim 8
x→ 4 x 2 − 16  
8x 6 − 3
b) lim 3
( 2)
x→  x 6 + 2x 3
x 2 + 3 sin(5x)
c) lim
x→ 0
(15 )
x

10. Evaluate each of the following limits:

x 2 − 49 7
a) lim 5
x→ 7 x 2 − 4x − 21  
3x 2 − 5  3
b) lim  
x→  7 + 2x  2 
sin 4x
c) lim
x→ 0 2 x (1 + cos 3x)
(1)
1.3 CONTINUITY

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x →a

It requires three things if f (x) is continuous at x = a:

h) f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f)

ii) lim f (x) exists

x →a

iii) lim f (x) = f (a)

x →a

1.3.1 Continuity at a point

Example 1
− x 2 + 1 x0

2x + 1 0x3
Given g(x) = 
6 x=3
7 x3

Determine whether g (x) is continuous at a) x = 0 and b) x = 3

Solution

a) x = 0

i) Define f (a)

g(0) = −x2 + 1 = −(0)2 + 1 = 1

ii) Find lim g(x)

x →0

lim g(x) lim g(x)

x →0− x →0 +

= lim− ( − x 2 + 1) = lim+ 2x + 1
x →0 x →0

=1 =1

 lim g(x) = 1
x →0

iii) Since g (0) = lim g(x) = 1

x →0

∴ we said that g (x) is continuous at x = 0

b) x = 3

Example 2
The function f (x) is defined as follows:

1 − 3x x4

f (x) = mx 2 + 2x − 3 4x6
 2
− x + 9 x6

a) Find the value of m such that lim f (x) exist.

x →4
b) Determine whether f (x) is continuous at x = 6.

Solution
1.3.2 Limits and continuity of trigonometric functions

Example
Find the values of m and n if h (x) is continuous at x = 0.

 sin mx
 x x0

h(x) =  n x=0
 x+5 x0


Solution

Exercise 4

1. The function f (x) is defined as follows:


7x − 6 x  −3

f (x) = kx 2 −3  x 1
 8
 x 1
x − 4

a) Find the value of k such that f (x) is continuous at x = −3 (k = − 3 )

b) Using the value of k obtained in a), determine whether the function is
continuous at x = 1 (not continuous)

2. Find the possible value for each of the constants, a and b, that will make the
function f (x) continuous everywhere
2x 3 + x + 10 x  −2

f (x) = a(x + 2) + b −2 x 3
 2
x − 5 x3
 12 
a = 5 b = −8
 
3. The function f (x) is defined as follows:
x2 − 2 x  −3

f (x) = ax 2 − 3x + 7 −3  x 1
b − x x 1


Find the value of a and b such that f (x) is continuous everywhere.

(a = −1 b = 4)
4. The function h (x) is defined as follows:
x2 x2

h(x) = kx + 2 2x3
5 x3

Find the value of k if h (x) is continuous at x = 2. Hence, determine whether the function
is continuous at x = 3. (k = − 3 ) and continuous

5. Find the value (s) of A so that

 x 2 − 2 x 1
f (x) =  is continuous at x = 1.
 Ax − 4 x 1
( A = 3)
6. The function r (x) is defined as follows:
−2x x  −1
r (x) =  2
3x x  −1
Determine whether r (x) is continuous at x = −1
(not continuous)

7. The function f (x) is defined as follows:

− x + 3 x 1
f (x) =  2
 x x 1

a) Sketch the graph of the function f (x)

b) Explain why f (x) is discontinuous at x = 1

8. The function f (x) is defined as follows:

 6
 x2
 x + 1
f (x) = | x − 4 | x=2
 x+2
 x2
 x + 2

 lim f (x) = 0 lim f (x) = 3 

a) Find lim f (x) and lim f (x)  x→ − 
x→ −  x→ 7  x→ 7 

b) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 2

(continuous)
9. The function f (x) is defined as follows:

2x 3 + x + 4 x  −1

 2x
f (x) =  + 1 + w − 1 x  0
3
 2 5
3x + 3 x0

 2
a) Find the value of w such that lim f (x) exists w = 3
x→ −1  
b) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 0
(continuous)