Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-023-00538-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Hybrid biochar production from biomass and pigmented plastic

for sustainable waste‑to‑energy
Adewale George Adeniyi1,2 · Victor Temitope Amusa3 · Ebuka Chizitere Emenike4 · Kingsley O. Iwuozor4

Received: 12 May 2023 / Accepted: 14 July 2023 / Published online: 1 August 2023
© Qatar University and Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Abstract
Municipal solid waste (MSW) management, which primarily consists of biomass and plastic, is a global concern that every
city faces. The concept of waste-to-energy is proposed as a means of fully utilizing MSW as an energy source to meet the
increasing demand for energy. Herein, a thermal energy recovery strategy from biomass and spent pigmented plastic bottles
was investigated using a low-temperature char-optimized reactor. Daniella oliveri leaves and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
were co-carbonized to produce biochar, which was characterized using FTIR, SEM–EDS, TGA/DTA, and BET analysis.
Product yields were 32.87 and 38.6 wt% for biomass and hybrid biochar, respectively, at peak temperatures of 279 and 259 °C.
The biochar samples contained several polar groups, indicating that they might be used as soil amendments and adsorbents
for pollutant removal. The biomass biochar had more carbon, but the hybrid biochar contained many inorganic components,
according to EDS analysis. The biomass and hybrid biochars had BET surface areas of 114 and 342.1 ­m2/g, respectively. A
comparison with other feedstocks was made for the process, which has been able to simultaneously recycle the two most dif-
ficult MSW components for sustainable energy and the environment, as well as create new products for several applications.

Keywords Polyethylene terephthalate · Daniella oliveri · Biochar · Sustainability · Waste management

1 Introduction Biomass is recognized as an important energy source

due to its potential to reduce global warming. It is the sole
Managing municipal solid waste (MSW) has been a global renewable energy source that can be utilized to create bio-
challenge for decades, and it is becoming increasingly criti- fuel or chemical feedstock [6, 7]. Daniella oliveri (African
cal due to population growth and urbanization [1, 2]. MSW balsam) is a tropical plant belonging to the Fabaceae family.
consists primarily of waste biomass, which is well known It is widely distributed across several countries in Africa,
for its adverse environmental effects. Burning of MSW has including Nigeria, Ghana, and Cameroon [8]. The plant is
been a common practice to reduce waste volumes and gen- known for its many medicinal properties and has been tra-
erate energy, but this method has been criticized due to the ditionally used to treat a variety of ailments [9, 10]. Recent
production of greenhouse gases and other harmful emissions studies have shown that Daniella oliveri contains high levels
[3–5]. of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which makes it an
ideal feedstock for bioenergy production [11]. The use of
Daniella oliveri leaves as a feedstock for biochar production
* Adewale George Adeniyi
adeniyi.ag@unilorin.edu.ng is a favorable strategy for promoting the sustainable usage of
biomass resources and waste management. Its incorporation
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty into waste-to-energy systems can provide a cost-effective,
of Engineering and Technology, University of Ilorin, P. M. environmentally friendly, and socially responsible solution
B., 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
to the growing global energy demand [12, 13].
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Landmark University, Another major component of MSW aside from bio-
Omu‑Aran, Nigeria
mass is plastic. The indiscriminate disposal of plastics in
3
Waste Bazaar LTD, Plot 1‑7, Ganmo Afon Expressway, drainages, waterways, and landfill, as well as their non-
Laduba, Kwara State, Nigeria
biodegradable nature, has created a critical environmen-
4
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi tal problem [14, 15]. One such plastic waste is post-used
Azikiwe University, P. M. B., 5025, Awka, Nigeria

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1482 Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste bottles. PET is bottles with rice straw enhanced the properties of biochar
a commonly used plastic material for packaging various produced.
food products, including water and beverage bottles, owing The leaves of Daniella oliveri are the most prevalent
to its unique features, such as being lightweight, pressure- forms of organic waste frequently found scattered across
resistant, and capable of accommodating large volumes the campus (University of Ilorin) and often end up mixed
[16, 17]. PET bottles offer easy opening and reclosing, with plastic waste, particularly discarded PET bottles, hence
thus reducing the need for contamination [18]. In addition, their choice for this study. The accumulation of these wastes
PET possesses remarkable mechanical properties, acts as leads to problems such as clogged water drainage, environ-
an effective oxygen barrier, and protects the quality of mental disturbances, and improper disposal practices. Find-
products contained in pigmented bottles by reducing the ing an environmentally friendly and sustainable means of
detrimental effects of light exposure [18]. This extensive managing the waste is crucial. Therefore, this study aims to
use of PET has resulted in an elevated accumulation of its investigate a thermal energy recovery strategy using a low-
waste with landfilling being the only viable means of dis- temperature optimized reactor to produce biochar from the
posal. Several studies, however, have recommended mini- leaves of Daniella oliveri and pigmented PET plastic bot-
mizing landfilling and incineration of MSW and maximiz- tles. The properties of the resulting biochar were ascertained
ing recycling and energy recovery from the waste [19–21]. using multiple methods, including FTIR, SEM–EDS, TGA/
In recent years, the concept of waste-to-energy has been DTA, and BET analysis. The findings of this study will help
proposed as an alternative means of fully utilizing MSW in developing sustainable waste-to-energy practices, particu-
as an energy source to meet the increasing demand for larly in the management of difficult-to-recycle plastics and
energy [22, 23]. This concept aims to create energy from biomass waste.
waste, while simultaneously decreasing the quantity of
waste sent to landfills, thereby minimizing the environ-
mental impact of MSW [16, 24]. One way to achieve this 2 Methodology
is by co-carbonizing biomass and plastic waste to produce
biochar, which is a solid form of biofuel that can be uti- 2.1 Material collection
lized directly as fuel, as a soil enhancer, or as an adsorbent
for pollutant removal. The co-conversion process has been Dried leaves of Daniella oliveri were procured from the Uni-
shown to enhance the characteristics of the end product as versity of Ilorin community, while spent polyethylene tere-
compared to the products obtained through the separate phthalate (PET) bottles were collected from a waste man-
conversion of individual feedstocks [25, 26]. agement factory in Ilorin. Bamboo stalks were utilized as
Given that plastic materials completely degrade at the combustion fuel for the reactor, and were cut into small
higher temperatures, co-pyrolysis of mixed biomass and pieces (3–5 cm in length) to fit into the reactor chambers and
plastic waste has been proposed as the most practical supply heat evenly.
method for valorizing such waste streams [27]. However,
there are limits to the amount of fossil fuel-based material 2.2 Experiments
allowed in biomass blends for biochar production [28].
These limits vary from 0.25 to 15% wt%, depending on The study used two different reactors, one with a height of
the entity that establishes the standard [28]. However, only 48.5 cm for biomass conversion and another with a height of
few studies have previously demonstrated the co-conver- 53 cm for the hybrid co-conversion of biomass and plastic.
sion of plastic, particularly PET, and biomass for the gen- The dimensions of the reactors are shown in Fig. 1. The
eration of biochar. Mishra et al. [29] conducted research conversion processes were conducted simultaneously using
on the co-pyrolysis of Samenea saman seeds and PET and approach outlined by Adeniyi et al. [31]. The weight ratio
analyzed the kinetics and synergistic effects between the of the biomass-to-plastic feedstock for the hybrid co-conver-
two feedstocks. Their findings showed improved fuel both sion was 9:1. Temperature measurements were taken at four
in volume and quality produced in an environmentally different points (Ta, Tb, Tc, and Td) during the process using
conscious manner. Similarly, Izzatie et al. [30] explored a CASON CA380 infrared thermometer with an accuracy
the co-pyrolysis of rice straw and PET using a fixed-bed of ± 0.1 °C and a maximum temperature of 380 °C. Table 1
drop-type pyrolyzer at varying temperatures. The study provides the precise measurements of all the dimensions
observed that lower temperatures resulted in the produc- depicted in Fig. 1.
tion of increased amounts of char, whereas higher tem- The reactors in their configuration contain a central
peratures led to a higher yield of pyrolysis oil. Oh and conversion chamber and a few small air openings at the
Seo [17] also observed that co-pyrolysis of spent PET bottom. The conversion feed is situated in the chamber
whereas the fuel required to generate heat (Bambusa

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Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490 1483

Fig. 1  A description of the reac-

tor’s size and locations where
temperature measurements were
taken

2.3 Characterization
Table 1  Dimensional values for the reactor
The morphology and elemental compositions of both the
Dimension Biomass conversion (cm) Hybrid conversion (cm)
biochar produced individually and the hybrid biochar were
h1 15.00 18.50 analyzed using a scanning electron microscope coupled
h2 21.50 23.00 with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDX).
h3 48.50 53.00 The functional groups and complexes were identified using
r1 12.25 14.50
r2 10.25 12.00 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The bio-
r3 2.50 2.50 chars’ thermal characteristics were analyzed using ther-
mogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermal
analysis (DTA). The combination of DTA and TGA detects
changes caused by reactions that are absent during mass
loss or gain. The biochars’ surface area and pore volume
vulgaris) is placed in the “heating gap” between the reac- were analyzed through various methods, including the
tor and the chamber. The upward flow of combustion gases Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Langmuir, and Barette-
is facilitated by a vertically oriented exhaust pipe. At the Jovner-Halenda (BJH) methods. The Dubinin-Radushkevich
bottom of the reactor, there are circular and triangular (DR) technique was used to estimate the micropore volume,
apertures that allow oxygen/air to flow up to the combus- whereas the total pore volume was computed following the
tion front at the top of the heating gap. The two tests were BJH and DFT (density functional theory) techniques [31].
conducted concurrently and took approximately 100 min The BJH technique was employed to determine the pore size.
to complete. The process is only over once the surrounding
temperature has been re-established since the system self-
regulates. The process is known as retort-heating system 3 Results and discussion
because it precisely recycles thermal energy from regu-
lated biomass combustion to carbonize waste materials 3.1 Temperature profile and biochar yield
into valuable goods. Ash was produced from the fuel, and
the heating materials (biochar) were removed and stored in Temperature readings were recorded every 10 min at four
sealed boxes. The biomass yield for each of the processes different points in the reactor: Ta, Tb, Tc, and Td. These
was calculated using Eq. 1. points corresponded to the base, middle, top, and center of
WCB the reactor, respectively. The temperature profiles for both
Yield (%) = × 100% (1) biomass and hybrid conversions are displayed in Fig. 2 A
WRB
and B, respectively. The temperature at Td is the most pre-
where WCB represents the mass of biomass that has under- cise indicator of the temperature inside the reactor, while
gone carbonization and WRB refers to the initial mass of the the readings at Ta, Tb, and Tc help track the movement of
biomass before carbonization. the combustion zone within the heating area as it moves

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1484 Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490

Fig. 2  Temperature profile for A

Daniella oliveri biochar and B
Daniella oliveri and PET hybrid
biochar

downward from the top to the bottom of the reactor. A tem- system was 38.6 wt%. This demonstrates an improvement in the
perature increase was noticed at Td, which is the center of the biomass biochar yield as a result of the PET plastic’s impact. This
reactor. This indicates that the cylindrical heating gap had a minor improvement in biochar yield is consistent with a prior
combined heating effect on the reactor’s contents. The tem- work by Rathnayake et al. [28], which found that incorporating
perature peaks over time followed a sequence of Tc > Tb > Ta, small amounts of plastic to biomass can boost the yield of biochar,
indicating the downward movement of the combustion zone especially when pyrolyzed at a lower temperature (< 400 °C).
from the top where it was first ignited (top-lit). The process While the hybrid char yield is higher than the yield (27.3 wt%)
continued for 100 min in both reactors, with peak tempera- reported by Adeniyi et al. [34] for elephant grass and low-density
tures of 279.4 °C and 259 °C for the biomass and hybrid polyethylene (LDPE) hybrid biochar, it is less than the 71.4 wt%
systems, respectively. The difference in the peak temperature obtained by Ighalo et al. [33] in the co-carbonization of almond
reflects the self-regulating nature of the process. leaves and LDPE. The results revealed that Daniella oliveri is an
The biochar yield for biomass conversion was 32.9 wt% at the excellent feedstock for the production of biochar.
highest temperature of 279.4 °C. This yield is greater than that of
most reported biochar yields for biomass produced through simi- 3.2 SEM analysis
lar processes, including plantain fibers (7.0 wt%) [32], elephant
grass (14.3 wt%) [31], and almond leaves (28.6 wt%) [33]. At SEM was used to examine the samples for structural
a peak temperature of 259 °C, the biochar yield for the hybrid details of the biochar. In Fig. 3 a and b, respectively, the

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Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490 1485

Fig. 3  SEM photographs of a

Daniella oliveri biochar and b
a b
Daniella oliveri and PET hybrid
biochar

morphological pictures of the biomass and hybrid biochars Table 2  The elemental makeup of the biochars
are displayed. The SEM images showed that the biochars Element Biomass biochar Hybrid biochar
have diverse morphology in terms of smoothness, granu- name
larity, and heterogeneous surfaces. The biomass biochar’s Atomic Weight Atomic Weight
concentra- concentra- concentra- concentration
surface appears to be relatively even with scattered lump tion (%) tion (%) tion (%) (%)
particles and shards of various dimensions, leaving spaces
and voids. The hybrid biochar, on the other hand, showed Carbon 87.3 67.8 57.7 33.8
Silicon 6.68 12.1 17.3 23.6
a rough surface with several crevices and interstices, which Iron - - 4.70 12.8
gives the biochar a distinct non-uniform structure. The pho- Bromine 1.81 9.37 - -
tograph of the hybrid biochar’s surface also displays white Aluminum - - 6.96 9.15
particles, which could be associated with the different inor- Calcium - - 3.57 6.97
Potassium 4.23 10.7 1.64 3.12
ganic components present in the hybrid biochar, as verified Oxygen - - 3.61 2.81
by the EDX analysis. The rough surfaces of the hybrid bio- Titanium - - 0.88 2.04
char help to enhance its porosity, which, in turn, increases its Yttrium - - 0.33 1.44
potential for adsorption [35, 36] and capacity to hold water Phosphorus - - 0.93 1.41
Sulfur - - 0.57 0.89
when applied to soil [37]. Magnesium - - 0.64 0.76
Chlorine - - 0.32 0.55
3.3 EDX analysis Nitrogen - - 0.72 0.49
Sodium - - 0.17 0.19
The inorganic components found in both samples of bio-
char were identified using energy-dispersive X-ray spec-
troscopy. This is performed on a hydrogen-free basis as
hydrogen is not relevant in EDX analysis. This is because plastic introduced several other inorganic elements to the
the valence electron of hydrogen does not take part in hybrid biochar, which could possibly explain the reduc-
chemical reactions [38]. These inorganic elements along- tion in its carbon content. The presence of oxygen can
side their respective weight concentrations are depicted also be observed in hybrid biochar but is copiously absent
in Table 2. The associated EDX spectra for biomass and in biomass biochar. The lower biochar yield observed in
hybrid biochars are illustrated in Figures S1a and S1b the hybrid conversion could be due to the existence of
(supplementary data). As expected, both biochars pos- oxygen, which is known to react with carbon atoms in the
sess high carbon content, suggesting high-quality bio- base material to produce gaseous oxygenates (CO, ­CO2),
char. The introduction of PET plastic, however, led to a resulting in a decrease in biochar yield [34]. The exist-
decrease in the carbon content, as can be seen in the hybrid ence of elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
biochar in Table 2. This is quite a contrast to previous in considerable amounts indicates that the hybrid biochar
studies where co-carbonization of plastic with biomass can serve as a fertilizer to enhance soil fertility and nutri-
resulted in an increased carbon content [34, 39]. The bio- ent levels [40] and mitigation of greenhouse gases [41].
mass biochar also contains a relatively higher amount of Thus, the biochars produced from Daniella oliveri leaves
bromine than the hybrid biochar sample. Nonetheless, the and their co-carbonization with PET plastic have several

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1486 Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490

applications owing to their high carbon content and pos- amendments and for soil reclamation purposes. They could
session of several inorganic matters. also be effective adsorbents for the elimination of pollutants
[48, 49]. The summary of these spectra is shown in Table 3.
3.4 FTIR
3.5 Pore characteristics
FTIR spectroscopy is commonly used to detect and con-
firm changes in the bonds and functional groups of biochar, The surface area, pore volume, and pore diameter of both
which is important for assessing its ability to remove pol- the biomass biochar and the biomass/plastic hybrid biochar
lutants from water [42]. The FTIR results of the biochar are shown in Table 4. As indicated in the table, the Dan-
created from biomass and the hybrid biochar are shown in iella oliveri biochar had a surface area of 114, 120, and 999
Figures S2a and S2b, respectively. The spectra illustrate that ­m2/g, as determined by the BET, BJH, and Langmuir meth-
the most prominent peaks for the biomass biochar are found ods, respectively. The BET model, which is the commonly
at 1565.5, 1416.4, 1312.0, 1051.1, and 782.7 ­cm−1. Addi- used method in surface area analysis, is an expansion of the
tionally, alkene = C–H stretching is noted at 3041.5 ­cm−1, Langmuir model, which considers the development of mul-
and aliphatic C–H stretching is detected at 2914.8 ­cm−1. tilayers [50–52]. The generation of biochar with enhanced
The identified functional groups corresponding to these surface area was achieved by co-carbonizing the biomass
distinctive peaks are aromatic C = C (1565.5 ­c m −1 ), with PET plastic. The BET, BJH, and Langmuir models
ester, ether, C–O (1416.4–1312.0 ­cm−1), organic alcohol showed an increase in surface area to 342, 385, and 1969
(1051.1 ­cm−1), and aromatic C–H (782.7 ­cm−1) [25, 43]. ­m2/g, respectively, indicating the impact of plastic on pore
The FTIR spectrum reveals a broad band within the range of characteristics. The process of carbonization leads to the
3577–3678 ­cm−1 that corresponds to the stretching vibration disintegration and volatilization of organic matter, which is
of − OH, indicating the existence of water, aromatic phe- known to result in increased pore structure in biochar [53,
nol, and alcohol impurities [44, 45]. The = C–H stretching 54]. Adeniyi et al. [34] reported a similar result, where the
of an alkene is responsible for the sharp peak at 3082 ­cm−1, BET surface area of elephant grass biochar rose from 356 to
which has shifted from the weaker peak seen at 3041 ­cm−1 427 ­m2/g after co-carbonization with low-density polyeth-
in the biomass biochar. Furthermore, the peaks observed ylene. The pore volume of the hybrid biochar also showed
at 2618 and 2584 ­cm−1 correspond to O–H stretching of improvement in all models employed, as shown in Table 4.
carboxylic acids, whereas those at 2102 ­cm−1 are associ- The co-carbonization of the biomass with the PET plastic,
ated with alkyne C = C stretching. Additionally, ketones and therefore, created enhanced pores on the product biochar.
aldehydes’ C = O (carbonyl) stretches are depicted by the
peaks at 1778 and 1684 ­cm−1 [46, 47]. The small peak at
1082 ­cm−1 is associated with the C–O stretching of alcohol Table 4  Pore characteristics of the biochars
and has moved from the strong peak at 1051.1 ­cm−1 found Properties Method Biomass biochar Hybrid biochar
in the FTIR spectrum of the biomass biochar. The decreased
intensity of this peak seen in the hybrid biochar might be due Surface area ­(m2/g) BET 114 342
Micropore volume BJH 120 385
to the greater concentration of functional groups in the PET (cc/g) Langmuir 999 1969
plastic compared to the Daniella oliveri biomass. Total pore volume DR 0.04 0.13
The existence of polar functional groups like ketones, (cc/g) BJH 0.06 0.19
aldehydes, esters, ethers, carboxylic acids, and alcohol Pore diameter (nm) DFT 0.03 0.10
BJH 2.15 2.13
in both biochars indicates their potential utility as soil

Table 3  Probable groups Peaks ­(cm−1) Functional group Probable assignment

assigned to the peaks
Biomass biochar Hybrid biochar

- 3577–3678 − OH Alcohol, phenol, aromatic

3041.5 3082 = C–H Alkene
2914.8 - Aliphatic C–H Alkane
- 2618–2584 O–H Carboxylic
- 2102 C≡C Alkyne
- 1778–1684 C=O Ketone, aldehyde
1565.5 - C=C Aromatic
1416.4–1312.0 1221 C–O Ether, ester
1051.1 1082 C–O Organic alcohol
782.7 - C–H Aromatic

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Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490 1487

Table 5  Comparative analysis of biochar produced through carbonization using retorts

Biomass Process time (min) Peak temperature Biochar yield (wt%) BET surface area Pore diameter (nm) Ref
(°C) ­(m2/g)

Sugarcane bagasse 70 349 16.7 534 4.42 [62]

Sugarcane 90 250 45.5 511 3.68 [62]
bagasse + LDPE 80 371 13.8 356 2.14 [34]
Elephant grass 80 382 27.3 427 2.11 [34]
Elephant 90 494 28.6 450 10.7 [33]
grass + LDPE 90 362 71.4 297 5.45 [33]
Almond leaves 80 387 15.9 353 2.11 [39]
Almond 80 529 62.7 391 2.12 [39]
leaves + LDPE 100 279 32.9 114 2.15 Present study
Oil palm fibers 100 259 38.6 342 2.13 Present study
Oil palm fib-
ers + LDPE
Daniella oliveri
Daniella oli-
veri + PET

Despite a small decrease in pore diameter from 2.15 nm in [55]. The third stage (char formation stage), which occurs
the biomass biochar to 2.13 nm in the hybrid biochar, both due to secondary decomposition at high temperatures, starts
biochars can still be classified as mesoporous, which means immediately after the devolatilization stage for both biochar
they have pore diameters between 2 and 50 nm [12, 55]. samples. The findings showed that the biomass and hybrid
Overall, the substantial surface area of both biochars ren- biochars underwent degradation in three stages. In the first
ders them suitable for use as adsorbents in the removal of stage, 0.68% and 0.83% of the biomass and hybrid bio-
impurities from water, as surface area is a crucial factor in chars decomposed, respectively. In the second stage, 78.9%
adsorption processes [35, 56]. and 76% of the biomass and hybrid biochars decomposed,
respectively. Finally, in the third stage, 5.28% and 7.42% of
3.6 TGA/DTA analysis the biomass and hybrid biochars decomposed, respectively.
These results indicate that the biomass conversion produced
Thermogravimetric analysis is a technique employed to a more thermally stable char compared to the hybrid conver-
examine the lignocellulosic structure of biomass by observ- sion. Özsin and Pütün [61] also reported similar temperature
ing weight loss during the temperature-driven thermochemi- ranges for char produced through the co-pyrolysis of walnut
cal conversion. TG and DTA curves provide information shell and PET.
about phase transitions that occur during the process [57]. Additionally, it is evident that the DTA curves only have
The breakdown of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin frac- one peak, with the tip being found at 400 °C for biomass
tions of biomass, which affects the conversion process, is biochar and 416 °C for hybrid biochar. This suggests that the
represented by the significant weight loss typically seen presence of PET in the hybrid biochar reduced its thermal
in the TGA/DTA curves [58]. The three steps of drying, stability and expedited its degradation.
devolatilization, and char production are generally used to
describe the thermal degradation of biomass [59, 60]. 3.7 Comparison with other feedstock
The TGA curves for both the Daniella oliveri biochar
(Figure S3a) and the Daniella oliveri-PET hybrid biochar The findings of the present research were contrasted with
(Figure S3b) illustrate the mass loss and derivative mass those from studies using various biomass feedstocks.
loss curves under a nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of Although several factors can influence the yield and prop-
10 °C/min. These curves indicate that the biomass under- erties of a thermochemical conversion product, including
went degradation in three distinct stages. The initial step, the nature of feedstock, feed composition, and design of
which occurs as a result of the removal of moisture and light the reactor used, care was taken to limit the comparison to
volatile compounds, occurred from ambient temperature up studies that utilized similar processes and the same reac-
to 133 °C for the biomass biochar and up to 151 °C for the tor design. Table 5 compares the biochar produced herein
hybrid biochar. The devolatilization stage, which is the sec- with biochar generated from different types of biomass via
ond stage, begins at 140 to 548 °C and 172 to 501 °C for the a similar methodology. The results indicate that the biochar
biomass and hybrid biochars, respectively. During this stage, yield from Daniella oliveri leaves was greater than that of
larger molecules are broken down into smaller molecules all other singularly produced biomass biochars, indicating

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1488 Emergent Materials (2023) 6:1481–1490

the high suitability of this feedstock for biochar production. 2. Y. Susmiati, The prospect of bioethanol production from agricul-
The hybrid process produces a higher yield than elephant tural waste and organic waste. Industria: J. Teknologi dan Manaje-
men Agroindustri 7(2), 67–80 (2018)
grass and LDPE, but not as high as other documented hybrid 3. S.O. Odeyemi, K.O. Iwuozor, E.C. Emenike, O.T. Odeyemi,
conversions. The research revealed that the biomass biochar A.G. Adeniyi, Valorization of waste cassava peel into biochar:
exhibited the lowest surface area compared to other feed- an alternative to electrically-powered process. Total Environ.
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4. R.D. Ismawanti, W.D.R. Putri, E.S. Murtini, H. Purwoto, Edible
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of other hybrid conversions. Additionally, Table 5 shows tic of formula’s viscosity, water content, and water vapor trans-
that the pore diameter of the Daniella oliveri biochar and mission rate. Industria: J. Teknologi dan Manajemen Agroin-
the hybrid biochar was moderate in comparison with other dustri 9(3), 173–183 (2020)
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municipal solid waste. The resulting biochar samples, which Oladejo, A. Yusuf-Babatunde, O. Ige, Phytochemical compo-
had a biomass conversion BET surface area of 114 ­m2/g and sition and antimicrobial activity of Daniella oliveri extracts on
selected clinical microorganisms. Int. J. Biochem. Res. Rev.
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great promise for a variety of environmental and industrial 10. M. Yousuf, A. Adeloye, Performance response in goats fed shed
applications, including soil amendment, carbon storage, pol- leaves (Vitellaria paradoxa-, Gmelina arborea- and Daniella oli-
lution removal, and greenhouse gas reduction. This is as a veri-) based diets. Niger. J. Anim. Prod. 38(1), 99–105 (2011)
11. A.G. Adeniyi, S. Ogunniyi, K.O. Iwuozor, E.C. Emenike, Ther-
result of various polar functional groups and inorganic ele- mochemical conversion of African balsam leaves-cow dung
ments in the biochars, as confirmed by the FTIR and SEM hybrid wastes into biochar. Biofuels, Bioprod. Biorefin. 17(3),
analyses, respectively. The justification of the study is found 510–522 (2023)
in its simultaneous recycling of more than one MSW for 12. E.C. Emenike, K.O. Iwuozor, S.A. Agbana, K.S. Otoikhian,
A.G. Adeniyi, Efficient recycling of disposable face masks via
sustainable energy and the environment. co-carbonization with waste biomass: a pathway to a cleaner
environment. Clean. Environ. Syst. 6, 100094 (2022)
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- 13. E.C. Emenike, K.O. Iwuozor, S.U. Anidiobi, Heavy metal pollu-
tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 42247-0​ 23-0​ 0538-4. tion in aquaculture: sources, impacts and mitigation techniques.
Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 1–17 (2021)
Declarations 14. A.G. Adeniyi, S.A. Abdulkareem, K.O. Iwuozor, M.T. Abdulka-
reem, C.A. Adeyanju, E.C. Emenike, M. Ndagi, O.J. Akande,
Ethics approval This article does not contain any studies involving Mechanical and microstructural properties of expanded polyeth-
human or animal subjects. ylene powder/mica filled hybrid polystyrene composites. Mech.
Adv. Mater. Struct. 1–10 (2022).
Consent to participate Not applicable. 15. I. Maflahah, D.F. Asfan, Quality characteristics of salt fortifica-
tion with dragon fruit peel in plastic packaging during storage
Consent for publication The authors have unanimously decided that period. Industria: Jurnal Teknologi Dan Manajemen Agroindus-
this manuscript be sent for possible publication. tri 9(1), 73–81 (2020)
16. J. Lee, T. Lee, Y.F. Tsang, J.-I. Oh, E.E. Kwon, Enhanced
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. energy recovery from polyethylene terephthalate via pyrolysis
in ­CO2 atmosphere while suppressing acidic chemical species.
Energy Convers. Manage. 148, 456–460 (2017)
17. S.-Y. Oh, T.-C. Seo, Upgrading biochar via co-pyrolyzation of
agricultural biomass and polyethylene terephthalate wastes.
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