Experiment 1

Object: To estimate the quantity and quantity of gluten in wheat flour sample.
Theory:
Gluten
Gluten, a category of storage proteins formally referred to as prolamins, naturally occurs in
specific grains such as wheat, barley, and rye. Various prolamins fall within the gluten category,
with notable examples including glutenins and gliadins in wheat, secalins in rye, and hordeins in
barley. In the realm of culinary applications, gluten plays a crucial role in providing desirable
textures to grain-based foods.
In the context of bread, gluten proteins contribute to the creation of an elastic network that
stretches and captures gases, facilitating the rising process and enhancing moisture retention.
Given these distinctive physical properties, gluten is often incorporated into processed foods to
improve their texture and promote the retention of moisture.
The amalgamation of water with flour initiates the hydration process, wherein proteins like
gliadin and glutenin combine to form the composite protein known as gluten. This resultant
gluten substance exhibits toughness, rubberiness, and elasticity, enabling it to stretch and rise
when influenced by baking powder or yeast. Consequently, when water is introduced to flour,
the gluten swells, forming a continuous network of fine strands.
It's important to note that while gluten imparts beneficial functions to various bread products,
individuals with celiac disease are unable to tolerate it.
Foods that contain gluten
Gluten may be found in a variety of whole and processed foods, including:
 Grains: whole wheat, wheat bran, barley, rye, triticale, spelt, kamut, couscous, farro,
semolina, bulgur, farina, einkorn, durum, wheat germ, cracked wheat, matzo, mir (a cross
between wheat and rye)
 Processed grain-based products: crackers, bread, breadcrumbs, pasta, seitan, wheat-
containing soba noodles, some veggie burgers and other meat substitutes, cookies,
pastries
 Other foods and beverages: barley malt, malt vinegar, soy sauce, certain salad
dressings, sauces or gravies thickened with flour, bouillon and some broths, certain spice
blends, flavored chips, beer, certain kinds of wine and liquor, some processed meats.

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Because gluten is often used in food production as a thickener or stabilizer, it’s not always clear
whether a particular food contains it.
Gluten Estimation
Gluten washing tests are analytical procedures conducted in laboratories to assess both the
quantity and quality of gluten present in wheat flour. These tests play a crucial role in evaluating
the baking characteristics of hard and soft wheat flours utilized in the production of bakery items.
Presently, there are two primary gluten washing tests available to bakers and millers:
1. Manual or hand washing method: This technique directly measures the quantity of
gluten.
2. Automatic gluten washing: Typically conducted with a Glutomatic, this method
provides information not only about the quantity but also the quality (strength) of the
flour.
The determination of wet and dry gluten, as well as the Gluten Index, is carried out through the
utilization of a Perten Glutomatic System. This system adheres to the International Code Council
(ICC) Standard No. 155, No. 158, and the American Association for Cereal Chemist (AACC)
method 38-12 (Operational Manual Glutomatic System). Employing a glutomatic gluten washer
with a sieve size of 170 mesh (88 microns) and a gluten centrifuge, this method yields
information on both the quantity and quality of the obtained gluten. Additionally, a glutork dryer
is employed to estimate the dry gluten content.
The wet and dry gluten values are determined using specific formulas, contributing to a
comprehensive understanding of the gluten characteristics in the analyzed wheat flour
WET GLUTEN:
Wet Gluten Content (%) = WEIGHT OF GLUTENWEIGHT OF SAMPLE x 100
DRY GLUTEN:
Dry Gluten Content (%) =WEIGHT OF GLUTEN AFTER DRYING - WEIGHT OF EMPTY
CARD BOARDWEIGHT OF SAMPLE x 100

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Procedure:
 Take 25g of flour.
 Add 10 ml of water in it and kneed the flour.
 Add more water if it is required for kneeding.
 After kneading the flour, make a shape of ball.
 Wash the flour ball by using hand in tap water until the water becomes clear, showing
that the only thing present in your hand is the “gluten”.
 Weight the wet gluten obtained after washing and perform qualitative analysis by
checking different physical properties i.e., stretch ability, elasticity, strength etc.
 Now, place gluten inoven for 24 hours.
After 24 hours, weigh the dry gluten obtained.
Observation, Calculation & Result:
WET GLUTEN (%) = WEIGHT OF GLUTENWEIGHT OF SAMPLE x 100
Weight of wet gluten = 7.3 gm
Whole wheat flour = 7.325 X 100 = 29.2 %
DRY GLUTEN (%) =WEIGHT OF GLUTEN AFTER DRYING - WEIGHT OF EMPTY
CARD BOARDWEIGHT OF SAMPLE x 100
Weight of dry gluten = 5.180 gm
Whole wheat flour = 5.180-2.525 X 100 = 10.72 %

SAMPLES GLUTEN %
WET GULTEN PERCENTAGE 29.2 %
DRY GLUTEN PERCENTAGE 10.72 %

Result
The wet gluten percentage flour is 29.2%.
The dry gluten percentage flour is 10.72%.

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Discussion:
In this experiment, we employed refined flour to assess the quantities of wet and dry gluten and

make a comparison between different flour samples. The wet gluten concentration in refined

flour typically falls within the range of 19.2 percent to 36.3 percent, while the dry gluten content

is approximately 8-11 percent. Notably, refined flour contains less gluten compared to whole

wheat flour, and the specific variety of wheat used influences these differences. All-purpose

flour, commonly used in various recipes, is derived from refined wheat, specifically the

endosperm.

Our experimental results align with the expected range of wet and dry gluten percentages,

indicating consistency within the specified limits. Generally, whole wheat flour contains more

gluten than refined flour. The distinctive characteristics of refined flour, including greater

elasticity, stickiness, and bounce, result from its exclusive use of the endosperm, which is rich in

gluten. In the refining process, the removal of germ and bran concentrates gluten in refined

wheat, enhancing its elastic properties.

Conversely, the presence of bran and germ in whole wheat flour weakens the gluten structure,

leading to reduced elasticity, stickiness, and bounce compared to refined flour. This difference in

gluten content and structure is a key factor in the preference for refined flour in dough

manufacturing processes.

Experiment 2

Object: To assess the physical properties of different rice grain.

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Theory
Rice, a staple food for a significant portion of the world's population, is a versatile grain
cultivated in various varieties. Commonly grown in flooded fields known as paddies, rice comes
in white, brown, and other colored varieties, each with distinct nutritional profiles. White rice is
milled to remove the bran and germ, while brown rice retains these nutritious components. As a
rich source of carbohydrates, rice serves as a primary energy provider. Its mild flavor and ability
to complement a wide array of dishes make it a culinary staple in diverse cuisines globally.
Additionally, rice cultivation plays a vital role in shaping cultural practices and economies in
many regions.
Rice Quality
The perceived characteristics of good-quality rice are uniformity of size and shape, whiteness,
long and thin uncooked grains (i.e., long and slender), and round and fat cooked grains (i.e., bold
cooked grains).
Quality factors
Rice comes in various types, catering to diverse consumer preferences with distinct qualities.
Factors such as grain length, stickiness, aroma, texture, and flavor contribute to the overall
quality of rice. Oryza sativa, commonly known as Asian rice, is categorized into indica (long-
grain) and japonica (short-grain) groups, with additional variations like glutinous rice and
aromatic rice. Another variety, Oryza glaberrima, known as African rice, encompasses both
long- and short-grain types. The post-harvest processing of rice, whether as white or brown rice,
impacts flavor, texture, and nutritional content. All rice varieties may experience breakage
during milling, and a higher percentage of broken grains typically results in reduced prices due to
acknowledged quality reduction.
Short-grain
In short-grain rice varieties, including japonica varieties of Asian rice, grains tend to stick
together when cooked. This is not to be confused with glutinous (or ‘sticky’) rice, described later
on this page. Japanese rice (uruchimai or ‘sushi rice’) is a short-grain variety. Another popular
short-grain variety is Arborio. Short-grain rice refers to rice with grain length up to 5.2 mm.

Long-grain

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Long-grain rice exhibits a characteristic of not clumping together when cooked, maintaining a
distinct and fluffy texture. Predominantly cultivated in southern Asia, particularly in countries
like India and Thailand, Indica rice represents the majority of the rice produced in the region.
Basmati rice, primarily grown in India and Pakistan, and Jasmine rice, exclusive to Thailand, are
well-known examples of aromatic long-grain rice varieties. Long-grain rice, defined by grains
exceeding 6.0 mm in length, offers a unique culinary experience with its separated and non-
sticky texture.
Medium-grain
Medium-grain rice refers to rice with grain length above 5.2 mm up to 6.0 mm.
Rice Dockage
Dockage refers to material other than paddy and includes chaff, stones, weed seeds, soil, rice
straw, stalks, etc. These impurities generally come from the field or from the drying floor.
Unclean paddy increases the time taken to clean and process the grain.
Head rice
Refers to the whole grains of milled rice that can be obtained from a given quantity of clean
paddy. Broken rice larger than 3/4 of a grain is also considered as head rice.
Chalkiness
Occurrence of chalkiness in rice is attributed to genetic and environmental factors, especially
high temperature (HT). The HT induces heat stress, which in turn compromises many grain
qualities, especially transparency.
Broken rice is fragments of rice grains, broken in the field, during drying, during transport, or
during milling. Mechanical separators are used to separate the broken grains from the whole
grains and sort them by size. Broken rice is fragmented, not defective; so there is nothing wrong
with it.

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Procedure:
Assess the following physical property of each rice sample by using the method mentioned
below:
 Dimension: Take 20-25 complete rice grain and measure its length and width by using
vernier caliper. For dimension take ration of length to width of each rice grain and take
mean.
 Dockage: Take 100g sample in large petri dish, remove all the particles other than rice
grains and weigh them to calculate their percentage.
 Head rice: Take 100g sample and separate the grains that are broken 25% or less than
25% (broken from head), weigh them to calculate their percentage.
 Broken rice: Separate complete and head rice from the 100g sample and weigh the
remaining kernels (broken 50% or more than that) and calculate its percentage.
 1000 kernel weight: Count 250g complete kernels and weigh them and multiply it with
factor 4.
 Damaged kernels: Take 50g from rice samples and collect yellow rice and rice having
black tips, weigh them to calculate their percentage.
 Chalkiness: Take 50g sample and collect rice with bright white color (chalky
appearance), weigh them to calculate percentage
Observation, Calculation & Result
Sampling is based on price of rice.
Sample A: Rs. 200 per Kg
Sample B: Rs. 220 per Kg
Sample C: Rs.240 per Kg

Physical properties A B C
Dimension 4.5 5.1 6.95
Dockage (%) 0.099 0.1 0
Head rice (%) 2.38 66 68
Broken rice (%) 94 30 1.4
1000 kernel weight (g) 9.6 13 20.8
Damaged rice (%) 1.49 6 0.8
Chalkiness (%) 1.68 4 1.6

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Discussion
In our experiment, various rice types were examined, and their physical characteristics were

assessed through manual counting. The selection of rice varieties was based on their cost,

initially categorizing them according to price. Dockage, encompassing non-paddy elements like

chaff, stones, weed seeds, dirt, rice straw, and stalks, serves as impurities often found in the field

or on drying floors. Our findings reveal a correlation between the price of rice and the reduction

in dockage, indicating that higher-priced rice tends to have lower impurities.

Broken rice comprises fragmented grains resulting from breakage in the field, during drying,

transport, or processing. Notably, our observations show a significant decrease in the quantity of

broken rice as we transition from cheaper to more expensive rice varieties. Rice with a majority

of broken grains exhibits the lowest price. Additionally, contrary to the expected Chalkiness

Pattern, higher chalkiness is observed in rice priced at 200 Rs/Kg. Moreover, there is an increase

in the weight of 1000 kernels as we move from cheaper to more expensive rice, indicating a

higher quality in the latter.

In conclusion, our findings suggest a direct proportionality between price and quality. Higher-

priced rice tends to exhibit better overall characteristics, including lower dockage, fewer broken

grains, and increased kernel weight.

Experiment 3

Object: To study the rate of carbon dioxide production and measure the quantity of
gas produced during fermentation of dough.
Theory
Fermentation

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Fermentation is a natural metabolic process harnessed by humans for centuries to transform and
preserve foods and beverages. Microorganisms like yeast, bacteria, or molds break down sugars
and starches, producing byproducts such as alcohol, acids, and gases. This transformative
process not only imparts distinct flavors and textures to foods but also enhances their nutritional
profiles. From leavening bread to fermenting yogurt and brewing beer, the art of fermentation
has been a cornerstone of culinary traditions worldwide. In addition to its culinary applications,
fermentation plays a pivotal role in various industries, contributing to the production of
pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and other industrial products.
Purpose of fermentation:
Fermentation involves the breakdown of sugar molecules into simpler compounds to generate
substances usable in the production of chemical energy. In addition to fermentation, organisms
also derive chemical energy by breaking down sugar molecules like glucose through both
aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
These are three distinct types of fermentation that people use.
 Lactic acid fermentation. Yeast strains and bacteria convert starches or sugars into lactic
acid, requiring no heat in preparation.
 Ethanol fermentation/alcohol fermentation.
 Acetic acid fermentation.
Lactic acid fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation is a biological process in which microorganisms, often lactic acid
bacteria, metabolize sugars to produce lactic acid as a byproduct. This anaerobic fermentation
occurs in the absence of oxygen and is integral to the production of various fermented foods. In
this process, sugars such as lactose in milk or glucose in vegetables are enzymatically converted
into lactic acid, which imparts a tangy flavor and serves as a natural preservative. Commonly
utilized in the preparation of yogurt, sauerkraut, and kimchi, lactic acid fermentation not only
enhances the taste and texture of these foods but also contributes to their extended shelf life
through the acidification and preservation effect of lactic acid.
Alcohol Fermentation:
In the process of alcoholic fermentation, the NADH molecule also donates its electrons to
pyruvate which forms ethanol. This two-step process. Firstly a carboxyl group is removed from

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pyruvate to release carbon dioxide, which produces a molecule called acetaldehyde. Secondly,
NADH transforms its electrons to acetaldehyde to form ethanol.
Yeast
Yeast, specifically the single-cell organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae, thrives on a combination
of food, warmth, and moisture. Engaging in fermentation, yeast transforms sugars and starches
into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The production of carbon dioxide is particularly essential in
causing the leavening effect that makes baked goods rise.
Yeast stands as a crucial fermenter in various products and foods, contributing to the pH
reduction during fermentation. Its involvement enhances the overall quality, encompassing
texture, taste, nutritional values, odor, and functional properties of fermented items. Whether
used alone or in conjunction with other bacteria, yeast plays a significant role in the fermentation
of foods like alcoholic beverages (fruit, palm, and rice wines), non-alcoholic beverages
(fermented tea), leavened cereal-based products, legume products, milk products, fermented
meat, and fish products.
There are two primary forms of yeast: brewer's yeast, primarily employed in beer making, and
baker's yeast, utilized in baking. Yeast's ability to convert sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide
through fermentation is central to its role in these processes.
Yeast is a microorganism, made up of just a single cell. Yeast cells grow in a very different way
and a lot faster, than animals (like humans) do. They can grow through a process called budding
in which a small yeast cell grows on the outside of a mature one, until it is fully grown and ready
to separate.
There are four types of yeast: active dry yeast, instant yeast, rapid rise yeast, or, if you're a
serious baker, fresh yeast. Understanding the difference, knowing which yeast is the best baking
yeast, and where to buy yeast, is not easy.

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Procedure:
 Prepare a dough using 100g flour, 3g yeast, 5g sugar, and 5g fat with viable amount of
water.
 Place the dough in a sealed container.
 Connect the gas outlet of container to the gas flow rate measuring apparatus.
 Take at least 5 readings in an interval of 10 minutes. The mean value of these five
readings should be used to calculate velocity of CO .2

 Take readings for at least 100 minutes.

 Note the inner diameter of the glass tube by the help of vernier caliper.
 Calculate the area of cross section.
 Calculate the volumetric flow rate of gas.
Working Formulae:
Area of cross section: π/4 D 2

Volumetric flow rate: v. A

Where, D is the diameter of the glass tube, v is the velocity of CO produced, and A is the area of
2

cross section of glass tube.

Observation

Time (minutes) Volume (cm ) Volumetric flow rate (velocity × area)

3

0 0 0
10 0 0
20 2 1.39
30 6 2.77
40 8 2.77
50 10 2.77
60 16 3.69
70 20 3.96
80 27 4.67
90 30 4.62

Discussion
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Yeast performance in dough preparation is influenced by various factors, with the choice of flour

being a key variable. Whole grain or whole wheat flour contains a higher proportion of

fermentable sugars like sucrose and fructans compared to all-purpose flour, which has a lower

content of free saccharides and fermentable sugars. The majority of these sugars arise from

broken starch granules, converted to maltose by yeast and wheat endogenous enzymes. As yeast

exhibits a preference for maltose over glucose, fermentation occurs at a slower rate, leading to a

more gradual carbon dioxide (CO2) generation.

Yeast engages in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration, with fermentation producing

comparatively less ATP while generating ethanol. Dough components such as externally applied

salt, sugar, fat, and enzymes contribute to the formation of a flexible dough, influencing yeast

activity and fermentation. Despite similar amounts of these additions, their impact on yeast

performance remains consistent. Surprisingly, the actual CO2 generated by yeast was lower than

expected, potentially influenced by water composition, sugar type, or the quality of the yeast

used in the experiment.

Experiment 4

Object: To assess the physicochemical properties of natural and modified starch.

Theory
Starch
Starch stands as a vital complex carbohydrate found abundantly in numerous plant-based foods,
constituting a major energy reservoir for both plants and humans. Composed of glucose units
linked together, starch manifests in two primary forms: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose
features a linear chain structure, while amylopectin exhibits a branched configuration,
contributing to the overall complexity of starch molecules.

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In the realm of culinary applications, starch plays a pivotal role in food preparation through a
process called gelatinization. When heated in the presence of liquid, starch granules undergo
absorption of water, swelling, and eventual rupture, releasing starch molecules into the
surrounding medium. This phenomenon thickens liquids, providing the desired texture to various
dishes such as sauces, gravies, and puddings. Common sources of dietary starch encompass
grains like rice, wheat, and corn, along with starchy vegetables like potatoes and legumes.
Beyond its culinary significance, starch undergoes enzymatic breakdown during the process of
digestion. Enzymes in the digestive system break down starch into its constituent glucose
molecules, facilitating the absorption of energy in the human body. This dual role of starch, as
both a culinary thickening agent and a source of dietary energy, underscores its importance in
both nutrition and food science.
Starchy foods are our main source of carbohydrate and have an important role in a healthy diet.
Starchy foods – such as potatoes, bread, rice, pasta, and cereals – should make up just over a
third of the food you eat.
What is Starch?
Starch is a long-chain polymer of glucose molecules joined together. As the plant adds one
glucose molecule to the starch polymer, one molecule of water is released. Plants create starch
polymers, for example in grains of wheat, to store the glucose made by photosynthesis.
There are two forms of starch: amylose and amylopectin. Structurally they differ in that amylose
is a linear polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin is branched.
Depending on the sources, food starches are classified into three: 1. Natural Starches – Amylose
and Amylopectin’s 2. Modified Starches 3. Waxy Starches.
Native/Natural Starches
Native or natural starch refers to starch that has not undergone significant modification or
processing. It is extracted directly from its original source, typically plants such as corn, wheat,
potatoes, or cassava. The term "native" emphasizes the minimally processed state of the starch,
retaining its inherent properties and structures as found in nature.
Native starches consist of two main components: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is
characterized by a linear arrangement of glucose units, while amylopectin has a branched
structure. The ratio of amylose to amylopectin varies among different types of native starches,
influencing their functional properties in various applications.

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These unmodified starches find wide application in the food industry as thickeners, stabilizers,
and gelling agents due to their ability to undergo gelatinization—a process where starch granules
absorb water and swell, leading to the thickening of liquids. Native starches are commonly used
in the preparation of sauces, soups, and other food products, contributing to texture and
mouthfeel.
It's worth noting that native starches may exhibit limitations in certain industrial processes due to
factors like retrogradation (the tendency of starch to revert to a more crystalline state) and
susceptibility to high temperatures. As a result, modified starches, where the properties of native
starches are altered to enhance certain characteristics, are sometimes employed to overcome
these limitations in specific applications.
Modified Starch
Modified starch undergoes deliberate alterations through chemical, physical, or enzymatic
processes to enhance its properties for specific applications. Chemical modifications introduce
changes to the starch molecule through reactions that improve stability, viscosity, or other
desired characteristics. Physical modifications focus on altering the structure of starch granules,
while enzymatic modifications leverage enzymes to modify specific components of the starch.
These intentional changes make modified starches highly versatile and adaptable to diverse
industrial and culinary needs.
In the food industry, modified starches serve as valuable additives, functioning as thickeners,
stabilizers, and emulsifiers. They find application in a wide range of products, including
processed foods, sauces, and soups, where their enhanced textural and stability features are
beneficial. Beyond the culinary realm, modified starches play crucial roles in non-food industries
such as papermaking, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. The intentional modifications enable these
starches to exhibit improved functionality, prolonged shelf stability, and increased tolerance to
various processing conditions, making them indispensable in situations where native starches
might fall short.
Procedure:
Assess the following physicochemical properties of both native and modified starch sample by
using the method mentioned below:
 Swelling power: Take 0.6g of starch sample in 30ml distilled water, shake well and pour
it in a centrifuge tube and place it in water bath at 90℃ for 20-30 minutes, shake the tube

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 after each 5 minutes. After that centrifuge the starch at 6000rpm for 10 minutes. Collect
the solid mass by discarding the supernatant. Weigh the solid mass.
 Solubility: Put the centrifuge tube in oven.
 Paste clarity: Make 50ml of 1% starch solution and pour it in a centrifuge tube. Place the
tube in water bath at 90℃ for 20-30 minutes, make sure that you shake the tube after each
5 minutes. Now, find light transmission at 640nm.
 Texture: Make 50ml of 10% starch solution and pour it in a beaker. Place the beaker in
water bath at 90℃ for 20-30 minutes, make sure that you shake the beaker with the help
of spatula after each 5 minutes. Transfer the starch from beaker to cup and refrigerate for
1-2 days and after that observe its harness
Observation:
NATIVE
PARAMETERS MODIFIED STARCH
STARCH
Swelling Power 8.33% 11.333%
Solubility 0.91 0.95
Paste clarity ( absorbance) 0.56 0.96
Texture Hard Soft

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Discussion
In our experiment, we investigated the physiochemical parameters of both native and modified

starch. Starch derived from grains and vegetables like wheat, maize, and potatoes serves as the

basis for modified starches, which undergo enhancements to acquire specialized properties,

imparting specific textures and structures to dishes. In contrast, native starches represent starch

in its purest form and are naturally found in foods like corn, wheat, potato, rice, cassava, and

tapioca. These native starches exhibit varying degrees of solubility and swelling in cold water,

contingent upon their type and temperature.

Native starch, being entirely natural without any additions or genetically modified components,

may not always offer desired features and is not consistently utilized to its full potential in

various products. This has created a robust market for modified starch, which, according to our

findings, demonstrates superior properties compared to native starch. Modified starch exhibits

higher swelling potential, increased solubility, and superior texture when compared to its natural

counterpart. In summary, the experiment suggests that modified starch holds an advantage over

natural starch in terms of its overall characteristics.

Experiment 5

Object: To study the effect of fat content in bread making.

Theory
Fats
Fat, also known as lipids, is a crucial macronutrient essential for various physiological functions
in the human body. It is a concentrated source of energy, providing more than twice the caloric
content per gram compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Dietary fats are classified into
saturated fats, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated), and trans fats, each with
distinct chemical structures and effects on health.

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Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature and are commonly found in animal
products such as meat, dairy, and certain tropical oils. Diets high in saturated fats have been
associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Unsaturated fats, on the other hand, are usually liquid at room temperature and are considered
heart-healthy. Monounsaturated fats are found in olive oil, avocados, and nuts, while
polyunsaturated fats include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, present in fatty fish, flaxseeds,
and vegetable oils.
In addition to being a source of energy, fats play a crucial role in nutrient absorption, hormone
production, and cell membrane structure. While excessive intake of certain types of fats can be
detrimental to health, moderate consumption of healthy fats as part of a balanced diet is essential
for overall well-being.
Role of Fat in Bread Making
In bread making, fat serves multiple essential roles, contributing to the overall quality and
characteristics of the final product. It acts as a tenderizing agent, softening the crumb and
creating a more delicate texture, particularly in enriched bread varieties. Additionally, fat
enhances the flavor profile, providing richness and a subtle, buttery taste, especially in breads
where butter or oil is intentionally added.
Fat also plays a critical role in moisture retention, preventing the bread from becoming dry and
extending its shelf life. It aids in gluten development to some extent, improving the dough's
extensibility and ease of handling during the mixing and shaping stages. Moreover, fats
contribute to the browning of the crust during baking, enhancing the visual appeal, and influence
the texture of the crust for a softer and flakier exterior.
Commonly used fats in bread making include butter, vegetable oil, and occasionally lard. The
amount and type of fat added can be adjusted based on the desired characteristics of the bread,
allowing for a versatile range of textures and flavors in the final product.
Procedure:
 Take 3 bowl and add 100g refined flour, add 3g yeast, 5g sugar and 1g salt in each and
mark them A, B and C.
 Add 3g fat, 5g fat in bowl B and C respectively, keep bowl an as blank sample.
 Make dough from the above ingredients by using required amount of water.
 After making dough, cover them with muslin cloth and leave for 60min.

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  Perform the process of punching and leave for 30min.
 Again, perform punching and leave for 15min and in the last perform the final punching
and put the dough in mould by slightly grease the mould.
 Leave for 30min so that dough attain maximum proofing height.
 Now, keep the mould along with dough inn oven at 220℃ for 30-35min.
Observation
PARAMETERS 0% FAT 3% FAT 5% FAT 10% FAT

Weight of dough 148 g 138 g 144 g 148g

Volume of dough 400.2 cm³ 343.9 cm ³ 345 cm³ 400cm3

0.417 g/
Specific volume v/ m 0.369 g/ cm³ 0.401g/ cm ³ 0.37g/cm3
cm³
Difficult to
Slicing pattern Easy to cut Easy to cut Easy to cut
cut

No of holes Compact Even holes Uneven uneven

Crumb texture + +++ ++++ ++

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DISCUSSION:
The experiment sought to explore the influence of different fat levels on bread properties,

considering factors like dough weight, volume, specific volume (v/m), slicing ease, number of

holes, and crumb texture at fat concentrations of 0%, 3%, 5%, and 10%.

The dough weight remained constant between 138g and 148g across fat percentages. However,

other parameters exhibited significant variations. Increasing fat content led to a noticeable

reduction in dough volume, suggesting that higher fat levels might contribute to a denser

structure. Specific volume (v/m) displayed an interesting pattern, initially rising from 0.369

g/cm³ at 0% fat to 0.417 g/cm³ at 5% fat, followed by a slight decline at 10% fat. This indicates

an optimal fat content for achieving an ideal specific volume.

Slicing became progressively easier with higher fat content, peaking at 10% fat. The number of

holes increased consistently with rising fat content, reaching a maximum at 5% fat and slightly

decreasing at 10% fat. Crumb texture also improved with higher fat content, indicating a positive

association between fat percentage and crumb quality.

The results suggest that an optimal fat content around 5% contributes to desirable bread

characteristics, including improved volume, specific volume, slicing ease, and crumb texture.

However, excessive fat content beyond this point may yield diminishing returns, as seen in the

decrease in specific volume at 10% fat. The experiment highlights the delicate balance needed in

adjusting fat levels to achieve the desired attributes in bread.

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 Experiment 6

Object: Effect of different concentrations of salt on bread.

Theory
Salt plays a crucial role in bread making, influencing the flavor, texture, and overall quality of

the final product. Here are some key aspects of the role of salt in bread:

1. Flavor Enhancement: Salt enhances the flavor of bread by suppressing bitterness and

accentuating the natural sweetness of the dough. Even a small amount of salt can have a

significant impact on the overall taste of the bread.

2. Dough Strengthening: Salt strengthens the gluten network in the dough, which is essential

for trapping carbon dioxide produced during fermentation. This contributes to the bread's

structure, ensuring a desirable volume and texture.

3. Regulation of Yeast Activity: Salt regulates yeast activity by controlling the fermentation

process. It helps to slow down yeast activity, preventing the dough from rising too quickly. This

controlled fermentation contributes to the development of complex flavors in the bread.

4. Improved Shelf Life: Salt acts as a natural preservative, extending the shelf life of bread by

slowing down the staling process. It helps to retain moisture within the bread, preventing it from

becoming dry and stale too quickly.

5. Crust Development: Salt influences the development of the crust in bread. It contributes to

the browning process during baking, enhancing the visual appeal of the bread and imparting a

desirable crust texture.

While salt is a fundamental ingredient in bread making, it's important to use it in moderation.

Too much salt can lead to overly salty bread and may have negative health implications. Finding

the right balance is key to achieving the desired taste and texture in the final product.

Page 20 of 35
Procedure:
 Take 4 bowl and add 100g refined flour, add 3g yeast, 5g sugar and 5gram of fat in each

and mark them A, B, C and D.

 Add 1.5%, 5%, 10% and 0% of salt in the bowls.

 Make dough from the above ingredients by using required amount of water.

 After making dough, cover them with muslin cloth and leave for 60min.

 Perform the process of punching and leave for 30min.

 Again, perform punching and leave for 15min and in the last perform the final punching

and put the dough in mould by slightly grease the mould.

 Leave for 30min so that dough attain maximum proofing height.

 Now, keep the mould along with dough inn oven at 220℃ for 30-35min.

Observation
Salt Baking Specific
Effect on bread
Conc. loss Volume
0% 12.2 2.9 Too Spongy

1.5% 10.2 2.03 even air pockets

5% 9.8 1.54 Best taster

To salty and
10% 19.3 0.65
dense

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Discussion

The experimental findings shed light on the intricate relationship between varying salt

concentrations and their impact on crucial baking parameters and overall bread quality. Each salt

concentration revealed distinct effects on baking loss, specific volume, and the resultant bread

characteristics.

At 0% salt concentration, the bread exhibited a remarkably spongy texture, suggesting

uncontrolled yeast activity. This underscores the pivotal role of salt in regulating fermentation

and influencing the crumb structure. Moving to 1.5% salt concentration, a reduction in baking

loss and maintenance of good taste indicate a positive influence on both structural and sensory

aspects.

The bread at 5% salt concentration emerged as the standout option, boasting the best taste,

significantly lower baking loss, and a specific volume indicative of a desirable texture. This

concentration showcased an optimal balance between yeast activity, gluten development, and

overall bread quality. Conversely, the 10% salt concentration resulted in adverse outcomes, with

high baking loss, denseness, and excessive saltiness, emphasizing the detrimental effects of

oversaturating the dough with salt.

In conclusion, the experiment underscores the critical role of salt in achieving the desired

balance of flavor, structure, and overall quality in bread. A moderate salt concentration (5%)

proves optimal, while extremes (0% and 10%) highlight the importance of careful consideration

in salt levels for successful bread making.

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 Experiment 7
Object: Role of different types of fat in cookies.

Theory

Fats

Fat, also known as lipids, is a crucial macronutrient essential for various physiological functions

in the human body. It is a concentrated source of energy, providing more than twice the caloric

content per gram compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Dietary fats are classified into

saturated fats, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated), and trans fats, each with

distinct chemical structures and effects on health.

Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature and are commonly found in animal

products such as meat, dairy, and certain tropical oils. Diets high in saturated fats have been

associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Unsaturated fats, on the other hand, are usually liquid at room temperature and are considered

heart-healthy. Monounsaturated fats are found in olive oil, avocados, and nuts, while

polyunsaturated fats include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, present in fatty fish, flaxseeds,

and vegetable oils.

Trans fats are artificially created through hydrogenation, a process that turns liquid oils into solid

fats. Trans fats are often found in processed and fried foods and are associated with an elevated

risk of heart disease.

In addition to being a source of energy, fats play a crucial role in nutrient absorption, hormone

production, and cell membrane structure. While excessive intake of certain types of fats can be

detrimental to health, moderate consumption of healthy fats as part of a balanced diet is essential

for overall well-being.

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Procedure
 Take the fat sample and sugar and mix them separately.

 Take 20 ml milk and mix 100g flour, 1g baking powder, 1g salt with the cream by using

milk and make proper dough.

 Mix the two of them together.

 Leave the dough for 15-20 min for proofing.

 Slightly grease the pan with oil or butter and place the dough in pan and put it in oven for

25min at 200℃.

 Perform the above method for oil and fat also and compare their results.

Observation:
PARAMETERS BUTTER OIL SHORTENING NO FAT

Weight 27.8 g 24.9 g 22 g 25.3g

Height 0.8 cm 0.7 cm 0.8 cm 0.7cm

Diameter 6.4 cm 7.1 cm 6.3 cm 6.5cm

Softness +++++ +++ +++++ +

Surface texture Soft fluffy Hard Soft and Fluffy Bouncy

++++
Spreading +++++ +++ ++++++++
+

Colour ++ ++++ +++++ ++

Bitterness +++++ ++++ + ++

Page 24 of 35
Discussion

In this experiment we used 4 different types of fat to make bread and observed the difference

between them. The experiment explored the influence of different fats—butter, oil, shortening,

and no fat—on various bread properties. In terms of weight, butter had the highest, likely due to

its solid form. While there were minimal variations in height, diameter differences indicated

distinct spreading behaviors during baking, with oil leading to a broader spread. Softness varied,

with butter and shortening resulting in the softest texture, while oil exhibited moderate softness,

and the no-fat control was the least soft. Surface texture showed significant differences, with

butter and shortening producing soft, fluffy textures, oil resulting in hardness, and the control

exhibiting a bouncy surface. Spreading abilities were notable, with butter and oil facilitating

excellent spreading, shortening exhibiting moderate spreading, and the control having the highest

spreading ability. Color variations indicated differences in browning during baking, with

shortening resulting in the darkest crust. Bitterness levels varied, with butter and oil contributing

the most bitterness, shortening having a moderate effect, and the control exhibiting minimal

bitterness. Overall, the experiment highlighted the diverse effects of different fats on various

aspects of bread properties.

Page 25 of 35
 Experiment 8
Object: To study the effect of bread improver on bread.
Theory
Bread improvers, also known as dough conditioners or bread enhancers, are additives used in the
baking industry to enhance the quality and characteristics of bread. These substances aim to
improve the overall performance of the dough during the various stages of bread production.
Here are some key aspects of bread improvers:

1. Ingredients: Bread improvers typically consist of a combination of ingredients such as

enzymes, emulsifiers, oxidizing agents, reducing agents, vitamins, and minerals. Each ingredient
serves a specific purpose in improving the dough's properties.
2. Dough Strengthening: Enzymes in bread improvers play a crucial role in strengthening the
gluten network in the dough. This results in better dough elasticity, increased volume, and
improved crumb structure in the final bread.
3. Enhanced Shelf Life: Bread improvers contribute to the extended shelf life of bread by
preventing staling. They help retain moisture in the bread, keeping it soft and fresh for a more
extended period.
4. Volume and Texture Improvement: The inclusion of emulsifiers aids in better gas retention
during fermentation, leading to increased bread volume. This, in turn, contributes to a softer and
more uniform crumb texture.
5. Dough Stability: Bread improvers enhance the stability of the dough, making it more tolerant
to variations in processing conditions. This is particularly valuable in commercial baking where
consistency is crucial.
6. Reduced Mixing Time: Improvers can reduce the overall mixing time required for dough
preparation. This efficiency is especially beneficial for large-scale bakery operations, saving time
and energy.
7. Nutrient Enrichment: Some bread improvers contain added vitamins and minerals,
contributing to the nutritional profile of the bread and addressing consumer demands for
enriched products.
8. Better Machinability: Bread improvers improve the machinability of the dough, making it
easier to handle during the production process. This is particularly relevant for automated baking
systems.

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9. Dough Relaxation: Improvers can help relax the dough, making it easier to shape and
reducing the likelihood of shrinkage during baking.
10. Customization: Bakers can tailor the use of bread improvers based on specific requirements,
allowing for flexibility in achieving desired bread characteristics.
In summary, bread improvers play a vital role in optimizing the dough and final product, offering
benefits such as improved volume, texture, shelf life, and ease of processing. They are widely
used in commercial baking to meet consumer expectations for high-quality, consistent bread
products.

Procedure:
 Take 4 bowl and add 100g refined flour, add 3g yeast, 5g sugar and 5gram of fat in each

and mark them A, B, C and D.

 Add different conc of bread improvers in them.

 A with no leavening agent, b with baking soda. C with baking powder and D with yeast.

 Make dough from the above ingredients by using required amount of water.

 After making dough, cover them with muslin cloth and leave for 60min.

 Perform the process of punching and leave for 30min.

 Again, perform punching and leave for 15min and in the last perform the final punching

and put the dough in mould by slightly grease the mould.

 Leave for 30min so that dough attain maximum proofing height.

 Now, keep the mould along with dough inn oven at 220℃ for 30-35min.

Page 27 of 35
Observation

Final Loaf Volume of Specific

Initial proof Weight
SAMPLE proof height bread(cm3 Volume
height(cm) (g)
height(cm) (cm) ) (cm3/g)

0.5% 4.3 4.6 4.7 73.6 334.2 4.54

1% 4.5 4.5 4.6 74.0 335 4.527

5% 4.1 4.7 4.5 71.8 239.9 3.34

10% 4.3 4.9 4.6 89 334 3.75

Sensory Analysis:

Characteristics 0.5g 1g 5g 10g

Crust color brown brown dark brown dark brown

Crust surface Smooth Smooth Rough Rough

Crumb color Creamy brown Creamy brown Creamy brown Creamy brown

Crumb texture Airy and soft soft Slightly heavy Dense

Aroma Good Good Good Good

Flavour Good Good Like nut bitter

Page 28 of 35
Discussion

A bread improver is an additive used in baking to enhance the quality of bread. It improves

dough strength and elasticity, leading to better structure and texture in the final bread. The use of

bread improvers contributes to increased bread volume, resulting in lighter and fluffier loaves.

Additionally, bread improvers help retain moisture, extending the shelf life of the bread and

preventing it from drying out quickly. This improved dough quality translates into a softer and

more uniform crumb texture, enhancing the overall eating experience. Bread improvers can

expedite the dough fermentation process, reducing overall mixing and proofing time in

commercial baking operations. Some bread improvers also include added vitamins and minerals,

contributing to the nutritional profile of the bread. Overall, bread improvers play a crucial role in

optimizing various aspects of the bread-making process, resulting in improved quality, increased

volume, extended shelf life, and a more efficient and consistent production process. This

experiment shows that bread improver is good for bread quality but only to an extent. At 5 and

especially 10% bread improver quality of bread degraded instead for being improved. This 0.5-

1% is the optimum value for bread improver and it was proved by this experiment.

Page 29 of 35
 Experiment 9
Object: To study the effect of different types of sugar on cookies.
Theory
Sugar plays a multifaceted and essential role in cookies, influencing various aspects of their
taste, texture, and overall quality. Here are the key roles of sugar in cookies:
1. Sweetness: Sugar is a primary source of sweetness in cookies, contributing to their palatability
and overall taste. The level and type of sugar used significantly impact the perceived sweetness
of the cookies.
2. Flavor Enhancement: When cookies are baked, sugar undergoes caramelization, imparting a
rich and complex flavor to the cookies. This process contributes to the golden brown color and
enhances the overall taste.
3. Texture Improvement: Sugar attracts and retains moisture, resulting in cookies with a soft
and tender texture. It helps prevent cookies from becoming dry and crumbly, contributing to a
more enjoyable eating experience.
4. Browning and Appearance: The presence of sugar promotes browning during baking,
creating a desirable golden color on the surface of cookies. This not only enhances their visual
appeal but also adds a pleasant crispiness to certain types of cookies.
5. Structure and Leavening: Sugar is often creamed with fats (such as butter or shortening) in
cookie recipes. This process helps incorporate air into the dough, contributing to the structure
and leavening of the cookies. The creaming method also influences the cookie's final texture.
6. Moisture Retention: Sugar is hygroscopic, meaning it attracts and holds onto moisture. This
quality helps cookies retain moisture, preventing them from drying out too quickly. It contributes
to the soft and chewy texture in certain cookie varieties.
7. Preservation: The hygroscopic nature of sugar also acts as a preservative, helping to extend
the shelf life of cookies by slowing down the staling process. Cookies with higher sugar content
tend to remain fresher for a more extended period.
8. Flavor Balance: Sugar plays a crucial role in balancing the flavors of other ingredients in
cookies. It helps offset the bitterness of certain ingredients (like cocoa or dark chocolate) and
enhances the overall flavor harmony.
In summary, sugar in cookies serves as more than just a sweetener. It contributes to flavor
complexity, texture improvement, browning, structure, and moisture retention, playing a central

Page 30 of 35
role in creating delicious and enjoyable cookies. The type and quantity of sugar used can be
adjusted to achieve the desired sweetness and characteristics in the final product.
Procedure

 Take the fat sample and sugar and mix them separately.

 3 different types of sugar are used, 1 will be sucrose, 2 nd glusoce syrup and 3rd will be

there mixture

 Take 20 ml milk and mix 100g flour, 1g baking powder, 1g salt with the cream by using

milk and make proper dough.

 Mix the two of them together.

 Leave the dough for 15-20 min for proofing.

 Slightly grease the pan with oil or butter and place the dough in pan and put it in oven for

25min at 200℃.

 Perform the above method for oil and fat also and compare their results.

Observation:
PARAMETERS Sucrose Glucose syrup Sucrose + Glucose syrup
Diameter Initial 5 cm 5 cm 5 cm
Diameter final 4.83 cm 5.6 cm 5.7 cm
Height initial 1 cm 0.6 cm 1.066 cm
Height final 1.36 cm 1 cm 1.1 cm
Weight initial 24.06 g 20.12 g 28.12 g
Weight final 19.8g 16.8g 24.1g
Surface texture No cracks Little cracks Little Cracks
Spreading ++ ++ +++
Color Fade Brown Brown
Softness ++ +++++ ++++++

Page 31 of 35
Discussion
Cookies made with sucrose and glucose syrup exhibit distinct characteristics that influence their

taste and texture. Sucrose, a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose, imparts a

straightforward sweetness to cookies, contributing to a delicate and crumbly texture by inhibiting

gluten development. These sucrose-based cookies often showcase enhanced browning through

caramelization during baking, resulting in a richer color and flavor profile. On the other hand,

cookies made with glucose syrup, primarily composed of glucose, offer a less intense sweetness

but contribute to a softer and chewier consistency. The hygroscopic nature of glucose syrup

attracts and retains moisture, ensuring a longer-lasting softness. While sucrose-based cookies

tend to be crisper, those incorporating glucose syrup exhibit a more tender and chewy bite.

Bakers often experiment with these sweeteners to achieve a balance between sweetness, texture,

and moisture retention, creating a diverse array of cookies to suit different preferences. Glucose

syrup cookies were found out to be more softer and chewier than the one made from sucrose.

Also, the mixture of glucose syrup and sucrose was the overall best.

Experiment 10

Object: To study the effect of different leavening agents on the cupcakes.

Theory
Leavening Agents:
A leavening agent is a substance that causes the expansion of dough and batters by releasing
gases, resulting in porous baked products. Various agents like air, steam, yeast, baking powder,
and baking soda are used.
Air leavening involves vigorous mixing to incorporate air bubbles, with egg white being
effective in creating voluminous foams for products like angel food cakes. Gluten, the elastic
protein in flour, can also be whipped to produce a foam, as seen in beaten biscuits.

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Puff pastes for flaky pastries expand through steam pressure during baking, creating a light
texture.
Fermentation, releasing carbon dioxide gas, is achieved with bakers' yeast in products like bread
and rolls. Sourdough methods use sugar-fermenting bacteria, and commercial sour cultures may
be used as substitutes.
Chemical leavening agents, like baking powder, release carbon dioxide. Modern baking powders
combine baking soda with dry acids or acid salts, with variations like single-acting and double-
acting powders. Baking soda is used when acid is present in ingredients, avoiding yellowing and
undesirable flavors when used alone. Quick handling is crucial to prevent gas loss before baking.
Baking Powder
Baking powder is a chemical leavening agent used in baking to help dough and batter rise by
releasing carbon dioxide gas. It typically consists of a combination of three main ingredients:
baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), an acid (usually cream of tartar or sodium aluminum sulfate),
and a starch (often cornstarch) to prevent clumping and provide stability during storage.
There are different types of baking powder:
1. Single-acting baking powder contains an acid that releases carbon dioxide gas at room
temperature. Mixtures with this type of baking powder must be baked immediately to prevent the
loss of gas.
2. Slow-acting baking powder contains phosphates that release some gas at room temperature
and the rest when heated. This type offers a bit more flexibility in terms of timing compared to
single-acting baking powder.
3. Double-acting baking powder, the most commonly used type, contains both fast-acting and
slow-acting acids, such as sodium aluminum sulfate and calcium acid phosphate. It releases a
small amount of gas when mixed into the batter and the remainder when heated.
Yeast
Bread’s taste and aroma are the result of its ingredients, the aromas originating from the yeast’s
fermentation, and the thermochemical reactions during baking. Yeast imparts the characteristic
flavor of bread and other yeast-leavened products. Sugars are metabolized when yeast produces
carbon dioxide. This produces a spectrum of intermediate metabolites, many of which are
precursors for flavor.

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Yeast fermentation products that can be detected both in dough and in the finished bread include
ethanol and higher alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids, which are by-products of the yeast’s
primary metabolic function in dough. Some of these by-products enhance the rate of browning
reactions and the formation of melanoids and caramels in the bread crust. Important substrates
for these types of reactions are sugars and amino acids
Baking Soda
Baking soda is a leavening agent used in baked goods like cakes, muffins, and cookies. Formally
known as sodium bicarbonate, it's a white crystalline powder that is naturally alkaline, or basic.
Baking soda becomes activated when it's combined with both an acidic ingredient and a liquid.
Baking soda, chemically known as sodium bicarbonate, is a baking ingredient that’s activated by
a liquid and an acid to help with leavening, or rising.
Procedure:
Recipe for cupcakes.
 % salt, 21 % sugar, 21 % flour, 21 % egg, 21 % oil, 2.5 % leaving agent and 10 % water.
 Prepare 4 batches one without leaving agent other with baking powder, baking soda and
yeast.
 First mix salt, sugar, egg and water grind for 2 minutes at slow speed then for high speed
for 3 minutes.
 Add mixture of flour and leaving agent.
 Then add oil and mix fir 1 minute.
 Pour batter in mould and bake at 220 degrees for 30 minutes.

Page 34 of 35
Observation:
NO LEAVING BAKING BAKING
PARAMETERS YEAST
AGENT SODA POWDER
Specific gravity 1.15 1.19 1.13 1.04
Height 1 5cm 2.1cm 2.4cm 1.6cm
Initial weight 37 g 37 g 37 g 37 g
Final weight 30.5 g 27.4 31.7 g 30.1 g
Bake loss 17.56 % 25.9 % 14.32% 18.64 %
Uneven large Even small Denser structure
No of pores No pores
pores pores less porous
Colour Fount Dark brown Light brown Dark brown
Crumb Hard Very soft Soft Less soft

Discussion

This experiment explored the impact of three different leavening agents on cupcakes. Leavening

agents, materials that cause doughs and batters to expand by releasing gases, result in porous

baked goods. Examples include air, steam, yeast, baking powder, and baking soda. While yeast is

commonly used in bread and rolls, its application in biscuits is limited. Baking powder emerges

as the predominant leavening agent for cupcakes. Comprising a base and a weak acid, baking

powder is widely used in baked goods by both commercial and home bakers. Results indicate

that yeast-based cupcakes were dense and had a soft texture, undesirable for cupcakes. Cupcakes

without a leavening agent were hard and unappealing in color. Conversely, cupcakes leavened

with baking soda and baking powder exhibited appealing characteristics. Baking powder was

identified as the superior leavening agent, even in small quantities, producing cupcakes with a

beautiful color. While the baking soda cupcake had greater volume, it was very soft with a less

appealing color, though better than yeast and no leavening agent cupcakes.

Page 35 of 35