Chapter 2 Introduction-1

Remy Tshibangu Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept.
Civil Engineering; CPUT 2024
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT, WATER USES AND SOURCE
2.1 Background
Two significant events worldwide merit mention and concern. One is the
United Nations Decade for Women (1976-1986), and the other is the
International Drinking Water supply and Sanitation Decade - IDWSSD (19981-
1990). Recently the UN millennium development goals (MDGs), still consider
the supply of adequate safe drinking water a priority goal. Although the latter
has resulted in increase in the number of persons with access to reliable safe
drinking water, the intended objectives of IDWSSD are yet to be fully realised.
Many quarters have observed that few of the objectives of either event have
so far been achieved especially in the developing world. Over half of the
people in the developing world are still without all-year round access to potable
water. In the African continent many people die because of poor water quality
or irregular quantity available to them.
2.2 Reasons for water treatment
• To protect the consumers health

• To make the water acceptable
2.2 Waters requiring treatment
• Surface waters streams, rivers, lakes

• Limited treatment for groundwater
2.3 Water uses
The use of water depends on the quality and some uses require treated
water whilst others may need raw water. The criteria for any use define
specific quality characteristics that are necessary to support various uses.
Some sources of water may be suitable for specific uses.
2.3.1 Major uses
o Potable water (or drinking water)

o Irrigation
o Industrial
o Power generation
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Chapter 2 Introduction
Remy Tshibangu Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept. Civil Engineering; CPUT 2024
2.3.2 Potable Water
Potable water (drinking water) needs to be chemically and microbiologically

safe for human consumption and should be taken from best-quality source
that can be developed feasibly, in view of minimizing risk of transmitting
waterborne diseases.
2.3.3 Industrial Water
The quality for industrial use will depend with the type of industry e.g. low
quality water for quenching in the steel industries to high quality water
required for electronics industries.
2.4 Sources of Water
• Surface Water (lakes and rivers/streams)

• Groundwater
• Wastewater effluent
• Water harvesting
2.4.1 Surface Water
This include streams/rivers, lakes and oceans and is the major source in
South Africa. The surface run-off from rainfall contributes to the surface
water with some baseflow inflow from groundwater. When the available
yield of the surface water does not satisfy the demand, or when the rivers
are non-perennial, then there will be a need to store the surface run-off
through the construction of dams. Surface water currently contributes
about 75% of the raw water requirements for the City of Cape. Major
sources (dams) in Cape Town are listed in Table below.
• Theewaterskloof
• Wemmershoek
• Voelvlei
• Palmiet River
• Berg River
• Steenbrass Lower
• Steenbrass Upper
Evaporation and sedimentation reduces the volume of water stored in

dams. Connecting reservoirs in low evaporating regions with those in high
evaporation areas reduces evaporation losses.
Soil erosion is the major contributor to sedimentation or channel siltation.

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The rate of siltation can be reduced significantly by reducing the rate of

deforestation in the catchment area of the river systems. Afforestation
should then be accelerated to improve the vegetation cover
2.4.2 Water Harvesting
Water harvesting is also another way of storing surface run-off. Impervious

surfaces are utilized like rock outcrops and roofs of houses. The collected
surface run-off is collected in a tank e.g. jojo tank. The first flush collection
is of poor quality because it contains debris like vegetation, dust and
sediments and therefore should be wasted.
Fig. 1 Roof top water harvesting
However, water harvesting may only be effected on a seasonal basis.
2.4.3 Groundwater
Groundwater is the water stored in a permeable geological formation
(aquifer). Most of the aquifers are replenished naturally by precipitation
(natural recharge). Groundwater is generally potable in its normal state
and is a cheaper alternative water source compared to the other sources
of water. Groundwater constitutes the major reliable and economic source
for potable water in the majority of rural communities in Africa. It can be
extracted through springs, boreholes or hand-dug wells.
Groundwater resources in Cape Town are limited and account for about
1.8% of the total resources and the major aquifer is Atlantis. The Cape
Flats and Newlands aquifers are not yet developed.
Springs: -If a well is drilled into a confined aquifer, the water level rises
to the same level as the recharge source. If the water level
is above the ground level at the location of the well, the water
will flow on its own without pumping hence the term spring.
Wells: Hand dug wells and usually of shallow depth and of larger
diameter.
Boreholes: Mechanical equipment like rotary and percussion drills are

used to drill boreholes and are very deep and of small
diameter. The water is extracted through the use of diesel or
electrical pumps and the water flows into the borehole
through a hydraulic gradient (there is no storage in volume in
the borehole compared to the wells).
Groundwater may contain salts hence may require some form of tertiary
treatment like desalinization.
2.4.4 Wastewater Effluent
The treated wastewater is generally called the wastewater final effluent. It

is treated to an acceptance level at the wastewater treatment plant.
Technologies are now available that makes it possible to use final effluent
from wastewater treatment plants as a source of water supply. Indirect
reuse of wastewater occurs when effluents that have been discharged and
diluted in river are withdrawn downstream for irrigation or as a public water
supply. Industrial effluent can be re-used directly in the industry.
Wastewater effluent has a low potential for use due to:

• Poor quality and the composition of the water changes frequently
• Risk of spread of water related diseases
• Difficult to treat
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• High capital investments required

• Unsustainable operation and maintenance costs.
• Perceptions and acceptance of the by the community in drinking
treated wastewater effluent.
The amount of wastewater generated in Cape Town is about 66% of the

bulk water demand, and only about 9% of the treated effluent is re-used
(Water Services Development Plan Cape Town, 2001).
2.4.5 Other sources (Unconventional)
• Desalination of sea and ocean waters

• Tapping of icebergs
The above sources are expensive and hence their contribution is minimal.
Desalination (de-ionization) may be practical for specific industries which
require high quality water like electronics.
2.5 Self-Assessing Questions
i. Why is the final wastewater effluent has a low potential for potable use?
ii. Describe the reasons for treating water for potable use.
iii. Compare and contrast surface and groundwater sources with regards to
water quality.
iv. What are the major advantages of water harvesting?
v. Describe the water quality requirements for domestic, industrial and
agricultural use.
References
1. Thiart A. (2011), Water and Wastewater Treatment
2. Water Services Development Plan, City of Cape Town, 2001
3. www.capetwon.gov.za/water/wsdp

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Remy Tshibangu Water & Wastewater Treatment: Dept.

Civil Engineering; CPUT 2024

INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT, WATER USES AND SOURCE

2.2 Reasons for water treatment

• To protect the consumers health

2.2 Waters requiring treatment

• Surface waters streams, rivers, lakes

2.3 Water uses

2.3.1 Major uses

o Potable water (or drinking water)

2.3.2 Potable Water

Potable water (drinking water) needs to be chemically and microbiologically

2.3.3 Industrial Water

2.4 Sources of Water

• Surface Water (lakes and rivers/streams)

2.4.1 Surface Water

Evaporation and sedimentation reduces the volume of water stored in

Soil erosion is the major contributor to sedimentation or channel siltation.

The rate of siltation can be reduced significantly by reducing the rate of

2.4.2 Water Harvesting

Water harvesting is also another way of storing surface run-off. Impervious

Fig. 1 Roof top water harvesting

However, water harvesting may only be effected on a seasonal basis.

Boreholes: Mechanical equipment like rotary and percussion drills are

2.4.4 Wastewater Effluent

The treated wastewater is generally called the wastewater final effluent. It

Wastewater effluent has a low potential for use due to:

• High capital investments required

The amount of wastewater generated in Cape Town is about 66% of the

2.4.5 Other sources (Unconventional)

• Desalination of sea and ocean waters

2.5 Self-Assessing Questions

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