[FS2215] – Human Nutrition

SESSION 4
MACRONUTRIENTS III - FAT
Course Coordinator:
Widya Indriani, S.T.P., M.Sc. (MedSci)
Email:
widya.indriani@i3l.ac.id
LEARNING GOAL & COURSE OUTLINE

LG4: Able to understand the functions, digestion, absorption and metabolism

processes of fats in humans.

Course outline:
• Naturally occurring dietary fat
▪ Dietary fats altered during food processing
• Digestion, absorption and transport of fat
• Recommended intake of dietary fat
• Health effects of dietary fat
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Fats and their role in the body

Fats are a group of compounds that dissolve in organic solvents but are
usually insoluble in water.

Fats are a major source of energy that can be stored for a prolonged period.
• Fats stored in the adipose tissue can act as body insulation.
Some fats are essential nutrients
• Include some fat-soluble vitamins
Fats are required for a range of metabolic and physiological processes
• To maintain the structural and functional integrity of all cell membranes.
Naturally occurring dietary fats
dairy products

Naturally occurring
dietary lipids are
derived from animal
and plant sources;
Animal source Plant source visible or non-visible.
inside the meat also has fat (non-visible) coconuts, legumes, nuts (peanuts), seeds

• Glycerides and fatty acids

Forms of • Phospholipids
lipids • Sterols
• Others
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Glycerides and fatty acids

Triacylglycerols (TAGs) make up

about 95% of dietary lipids.

• A triacylglycerol molecule is formed from a

molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids
(FAs) attached

The physical and biochemical

properties of TAGs are determined by
the nature of the constituent FAs.
Formation of triacylglycerol molecule
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Glycerides and fatty acids
carbon bond fully saturated with the hydrogen atoms
bad fat
Saturated fatty acids are those in which carbon-
carbon bonds are fully saturated with hydrogen
atoms

When two hydrogens are absent, the carbons form

double bonds with each other and resulted in double bond between carbon --> loss hydrogen atom
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids.
2 or more double bonds

The position of the unsaturated bonds in mono-

and polyunsaturated fatty acids have a profound
influence on their nutritional properties and health
effects.
Structure of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Glycerides and fatty acids

Fatty Acids

Saturated Unsaturated

Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated

Omega-6 Omega-3

Lauric acid
Myristic acid Linolenic acid
Oleic acid Linoleic acid
Palmitic acid EPA
(Omega-9) Arachidonic acid
Stearic acid DHA
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Glycerides and fatty acids

Common name Nomenclature Occurrence

Saturated
Acetic 2:0 Vinegar
Butyric 4:0 Dairy fat
Caproic 6:0 Dairy fat
Lauric 12:0 Palm kernel oil
Monounsaturated
Palmitoleic 16:1ω7 Fish and animal fats
Oleic 18:1ω9 All plant and animal fats
Eicosenoic 20:1ω9 Rapeseed and animal fats
Erucic 22:1ω9 Rapeseed and animal tissue
Polyunsaturated
Linoleic (LO) 18:2ω6 Plant oils: cottonseed, sesame, soybean, corn
α-Linolenic (LN) 18:3ω3 Plant oils: soybean, mustard, walnut, linseed
γ-Linolenic (GLA) 18:3ω6 Plant oils: borage, blackcurrant
Arachidonic (AA) 20:4ω6 Small amounts in animal tissues
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Phospholipids

Phospholipids occur in all animal and vegetable foods.

• Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) is the most abundance

phospholipid in nature.

It functioned as an emulsifier for cellular membrane

integrity.
• The amphipathic nature (having both polar and non-
polar characteristics) of the phospholipid enables it to
act at the interface between aqueous and lipid media.
Base groups: choline, inositol,
It is an important source of essential fatty acids. serine, ethanolamine
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Sterols

Cholesterols are the principal sterol of animal tissues and

are found only in animal foods, such as eggs, meat, dairy
products, fish and poultry.

Cholesterol plays in structural role in membranes and

lipoproteins, and functions as a precursor of bile acids,
steroid hormones, and vitamin D.

The major sterols of plants (phytosterols) are β-sitosterol,

campesterol, and stigmasterol.
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Other constituents of dietary fat

• Fatty alcohols
• Gangliosides
Dietary fats • Sulphatides
may also • Cerebrosides
contain small
quantities of • Vitamin A
other lipids, • Vitamin E (tocopherols, tocotrienols)
such as: • Carotenoids (α- and β-carotene, lycopene,
and xanthophylls)
• Vitamin D
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Dietary fats altered during food processing

Hydrogenation will convert polyunsaturated oil which is liquid

into solid fat (at room temperature).
• Through the addition of hydrogen atoms
• Aimed to increase the degree of saturation of the fatty acids
in the oil
• Aimed to increase the melting points of the fat

Partial hydrogenation of oils is used to produce a fat consistency

appropriate to the texture and shelf-life of the products.
• It may also change the configuration of the natural cis
Structure of cis- and trans-
configuration to the trans configuration monounsaturated fatty acids
Naturally occurring dietary fats
Dietary fats altered during food processing

Trans-fatty acids behave like saturated fatty acids rather than as cis-unsaturated
fatty acids

Most trans-fatty acids now are hidden on processed foods such as cakes,
biscuits, pies, pastries, and crackers.
• Currently, margarines are produced using inter-esterification and blending
processes to avoid trans-fatty acids.

Trans-fatty acids are associated with increases in serum total- and low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and reduce high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol --- increasing the risk of coronary heart disease.
Major sources of various lipids
Digestion,
absorption and
transport of fat
Mouth and salivary glands
Fat hydrolysis by lingual lipase (small effect for most
fats, better result on milk fats).

Stomach
Hydrolysis by gastric lipase but only a small amount
of fat.

Small intestine
Hormone CCK stimulates the release of bile.
Formation of emulsified fat.
Pancreatic and intestinal lipase hydrolyse the
emulsified fat into monoglycerides, glycerol, and
fatty acids.

Large intestine
Some fat and cholesterol are trapped in fiber and
are excreted.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids

1. Dietary lipid leaves the stomach

and enters the upper region of
the small intestine.
• Bile acids, released from the
gallbladder, surround and
coat droplets of fat to form
emulsion particles.
• The emulsion particles
provide the surface area for
the pancreatic enzymes to
degrade the dietary lipids.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids

2. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) breaks

down each phospholipid (PL)
into a free fatty acid (FFA) and a
lyso-phospholipid (LPL).
3. Pancreatic lipase (PLps)
converts triacylglycerol (TAG)
into a monoglyceride (MG) and
two FFA.
4. Cholesterol esterase (Cease)
splits cholesterol ester (CE) into
free cholesterol (Chol) and a
FFA.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids

5. The products of lipid digestion

coalesce with bile acids into
mixed micelles.
6. The mixed micelles move close
to the mucosal cell surface,
where the lipids diffuse down a
concentration gradient into the
mucosal cells.
7. Bile acids are not absorbed.
8. Short- and medium-chain fatty
acids move immediately into
the portal circulation.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids

9. The breakdown products of lipid

digestion are resynthesized into
their parental lipids.
10. The lipids are combined with
apolipoproteins, to form
chylomicrons.
11. Chylomicrons leave the mucosal
cell via the lymphatic vessels.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
Lipid transport

1. Chylomicrons transport recently

ingested fats into the blood.
2. Upon entering the blood,
chylomicrons pick up
apolipoproteins C and E (apo C, E)
from high-density lipoprotein
(HDL).
3. Apolipoprotein C activates
lipoprotein lipase (LL) on the walls
of the capillaries causing
triacylglycerol to be broken down
to glycerol and three fatty acids.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
Lipid transport

4. During the breakdown of

triacylglycerol, some cholesterol
(C), cholesterol ester (CE), and
phospholipids (PL) along with apo
C and E pinch off to form HDL.
5. Following degradation of 70-80%
of the chylomicron’s TAG, the
resulting chylomicron remnant
binds to receptors on the liver
cells and is removed from the
circulation.
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
Lipid transport

6. Lipids synthesized in the liver and

those delivered to the liver by
chylomicron remnants are
packaged into very-low-density
lipoproteins (VLDL) and secreted
into the blood.
7. VLDL picks up apo C and E from
HDL.
8. LL breaks down VLDL and the FAs
are transferred to peripheral
tissue resulting in intermediate-
density lipoprotein (IDL).
Digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
Lipid transport

9. Nearly all of the TAG is

removed from IDL, producing a
cholesterol-rich LDL.
10. Cholesterol is delivered to the
cells when LDL binds to LDL-
receptors and is taken up into
the tissues.
11. Cholesterol ester transfer
protein redistributes
cholesterol esters from HDL to
VLDL, IDL, and LDL.
Recommended intake and
health effects of dietary fat
Recommendations concerning fat intake

• At least 15% of the total energy intake for adults

Total dietary • At least 20% of the total energy intake for women of reproductive age
fat intake • To fulfil 20-35% of total energy intake from fat

Essential • To have 2% of total energy in the form of omega-6

fatty acids • At least 0.5% energy from omega-3

Saturated
• To reduce saturated fat intake to less than 10% of energy intake
and trans- • To limit trans-fatty acids intake to less than 1% of energy intake
fatty acids
Health effects of dietary lipids

• Essential fatty acid deficiency is rare, except in those with severe,

Essential untreated fat malabsorption or those suffering from famine.
fatty acid • Most fatty acids can be made in the body, except for the essential fatty
deficiency acids linoleic and α-linolenic acids.
• If linoleic acid intakes are <2-5 g/day or <1-2% of total energy

• Dry, cracked, scaly and bleeding skin

Symptoms
• Excessive thirst due to water loss from the skin
of EFA
• Impaired liver function resulting from the accumulation of lipids in the
deficiency liver
Health effects of dietary lipids

Cardiovascular
• Are associated with excessive intake of dietary saturated
diseases, obesity, fatty acids or total energy intake from fat
and cancers

• The benefits of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids such

Growth and as arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in
development of formula milk.
infants • Premature infants fed on formula milk without AA and DHA
have delayed visual acuity development.
Nutritional determinants of lipid and lipoprotein levels in
the blood
Nutritional factor VLDL LDL HDL Notes
Obesity ↑ ↑ ↓
Saturated fat
Lauric (12:0) - ↑ ↑
Myristic (14:0) - ↑↑ ↑
Palmitic (16:0) - ↑↑ ↑
Stearic (18:0) - - -
Monounsaturated fat
Oleic (18:1 cis) - ↓ ↑
Elaidic (18:1 trans) - ↑↑ ↓
Polyunsaturated fat (ω-6) HDL may ↓ if 18:2ω-6 is >10% of
Linoleic (18:2ω-6) - ↓↓ (↑) total energy
Polyunsaturated fat (ω-3) ↑ in LDL if initial LDL is high
α-Linoleic (18:3ω-3) Eicosapentaenoic ↓↓ (↑) (↓) ↓ in HDL if fed in large quantities
(20:5rω-3) Docosahexaenoic (22:6ω-3) ↓↓ (↑) (↓)
↓↓ (↑) (↓)
↑, ↓, increase or decrease
↑↑, ↓↓, appreciable increase or decrease
LDL low-density lipoprotein; HDL high-density lipoprotein; VLDL very-low-density lipoprotein
Summary

• Lipids are a group of compounds that dissolve in organic solvents but are
usually insoluble in water.
• Lipids are available in various forms, i.e., glycerides and fatty acids,
phospholipids, sterols, and others. Triglycerides make up the bulk of dietary
lipids.
• Food processing may alter dietary fats to give desired food texture and
shelf-life but may also pose health consequences (in the case of trans-fatty
acids).
• In adults, dietary fat intake is at least 15% of total energy intake (for women,
20%) and 2% of total energy in the form of ω-6 and at least 0.5% energy
from ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
REFERENCE

• Mann J and Truswell AS. (2017). Essentials of Human Nutrition (5th Edition).
Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0-19-107793-7.
• Stanfield, C. (2012). Principles of human physiology. Pearson Education.