DAVUILEVU THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE

TERM PAPER

Ethical Issues Associated with Transgenic

Jone Saraqia

THE 132

Lecture: Rev. Vuetanavanua S.

Date of Submission: 14/11/2022

In this paper, I will be writing on the theme, “Ethical Issues Associated with Transgenic”.

This is one of the topics that is challenging to be discussed on any platform. However, I will

try to discuss it in this paper.

Firstly, I will define the terms that we will come across in this field, the purpose, and the

background of Genetic Engineering.

Secondly, I will look into the ethical issues that cover this topic.

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2.0 The Definitions, Purpose, and Background of Genetic Engineering

This section has two sub-sections. The first sub-section deals with the definitions and the

purpose of the scientific terminologies that will be used in this paper and the second sub-

section will shed light on the history of genetic engineering.

2.1 Definition and Purpose?

In this section, I will break down the purpose and the intrinsic terminologies of the

biotechnological terms which we will encounter in this paper.

Firstly, the organic molecule that contains the biological instructions that make each species

including humans unique. Generally, it is simply called by the acronym DNA, thus, the full

name of DNA is Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Miquel 2000). These instructions are found

inside every cell and are passed down from parents to their children.

DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate

group, a sugar group, and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A),

thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) ((Live Science, 2013). The order of these bases is

what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code. Similar to the way the order of letters in

the alphabet can be used to form a word, the order of nitrogen bases in a DNA sequence

forms genes, which in the language of the cell, tells cells how to make proteins. Another type

of nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, translates genetic information from DNA into

proteins. The entire human genome contains about 3 billion bases and about 20,000 genes.

Secondly, a biological term was coined back in the year 1920 and it is often described as the

information repository of an organism and this is known as genome (Goldman and

Landweber 2016, 1). An organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of the genes, makes

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up the genome. Each genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain

that organism.

One of the most important components of biotechnology has been discussed above and that is

to first define and understand the intrinsic terminologies that are used in this field.

2.2 Background of Genetic Engineering

It is interesting to comprehend that the use of technology in the advancement of genetics

continues to be made at an ever-increasing rate. As a result, human beings continually pursue

greater knowledge about themselves and their world. Before moving further into the subject I

would like to take us back in time to the origin and development of genetic engineering. This

will shed light to have a clear perspective on the subject.

Since long before the principles of classical genetics had been scientifically established,

human beings have brought about deliberate genetic changes in plants and animals through

traditional reproductive methods. Many of the domestic animals, crops, and ornamental

plants in existence today are human creations, achieved through selective breeding aimed at

enhancing desired characteristics (Starke 1982. 8). However, scientists are restlessly and

enormously striving for new horizons.

Accordingly, in late 1860 Swiss chemist, Friedrich Miescher was the first to identify

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Then, in the decades following Miescher's discovery, other

scientists, notably, Phoebus Levene and Erwin Chargaff carried out a series of research

efforts that revealed additional details about the DNA molecule, including its primary

chemical components and how they joined with one another (2008, 1). Without the scientific

foundation provided by these pioneers, James Watson and Francis Crick may never have

reached their groundbreaking conclusion of 1953, that the DNA molecule exists in the form

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of a three-dimensional double helix (2008, 1). These developments have inspired scientists

and offered them opportunities for revolutionizing human welfare activities.

Moreover, enrichment via the inputs from genomic research and biotechnology is a major

force for development in all countries. Entwined with culture and socio-ethical values,

biotechnology contributes to solving problems like food and water insecurity that impede

national development and threaten peace in the developing world (DaSilva, Baydoun, and

Badran 2002, 1). Therefore, genetic engineering or transgenic simply means the use of a

variety of tools and techniques from biotechnology and bioengineering to modify an

organism’s genetic makeup.

2.3 Current Development

This section will explore and describe four areas where transgenic is been practiced and they

are, transgenic livestock, foods and plants, and medicine.

2.3.1 Transgenic Livestock

Transgenic animals are genetically modified organisms containing foreign genes or DNA in

their genome transplanted from another species. They are created by a process called

transgenesis, in which a foreign gene (transgene) is introduced into an animal to give it a new

property (hopefully to benefit mankind), and hopefully, this new property is transmitted to its

offspring (Blanco and Ratanpara 2012, 5).

Substantially, genetic modification of farmed animals to increase the efficiency of food

production, increase animal health and welfare, yet reduce the environmental footprint, has

been a goal for many decades. Genetically engineered (GE) livestock were first reported in

1985, and yet only a single GE food animal, the fast-growing AquAdvantage salmon, has

been commercialized (Eenennaam, Silva, Trott, Zilberman 2021, 453). Researchers have

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been working tirelessly in achieving their goal, yet, results have proven that genetic

modification does not apply to livestock and the cost of this research is very expensive. In

1992, the cost of producing a single founder transgenic pig was estimated at $25,000 and

producing a single functional transgenic calf cost more than $500,000 (2021, 456). The high

cost of producing transgenic livestock has been and continues to be a hurdle, and a major

factor limiting those interested in exploring the potential of this technology.

2.3.1 Foods and Plants

Agriculture is going through another revolution, but this time it is part of the larger revolution

in genetics, which has been proclaimed as the third technological revolution following the

industrial and computer revolutions (Abelson 1998). Modifying plants is an ancient practice

that is carried out through traditional reproductive methods. However, this has been

revolutionized by the agriculture sector through the implementation of the present technology

of moving individual genes through biotechnology which is more appropriately called genetic

engineering. Plants have been engineered to resist attack from insects and diseases, to be

tolerant to herbicides, or to have a longer shelf life (2002, 847). The promises of transgenic

crops are profound to pest resistance, tolerance to other biotic and abiotic stresses, healthier

food, and more environmentally compatible production practices.

Scientists at the National Institute for Plant Genome Research (NIPGR) in New Delhi, India

have developed and genetically modified a high-protein potato nicknamed 'protato' that

contains 60 percent more protein than a wild-type potato and has increased levels of several

amino acids (Glenn 2013). Furthermore, in the Philippines, scientists genetically modified a

biofortified crop and named it, “golden rice”. Golden Rice is genetically modified to produce

beta-carotene, used by the body to make vitamin A, which is not normally present in rice.

Lastly, Biologist Kyle Taylor a founder of Glowing Plant is working on a glowing gene that

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was extracted from a lightning bug or beetle called firefly and splicing it into the plants and

trees (Cully 2014, 27). This gene enables the firefly to produce luminescent light when it is

dark. One of the proposed goals is to create trees that could illuminate streets and pathways,

thereby saving energy and reducing our dependence upon limited energy resources. However,

the public release of such plants has sparked a heated debate centered around the potential

environmental impacts of introducing highly genetically engineered plants into natural

ecosystems.

2.3.1 Medicine

Transgenic combinations may also include plantanimalhuman transgenes, such as when the

DNA of human tumor fragments is inserted into tobacco plants to develop a vaccine against

nonHodgkin’s lymphoma (2013). NonHodgkin’s lymphoma is a type of cancer that begins in

the lymphatic system, which is part of the body's germ-fighting immune system.

For instance, xenotransplantation, or the transplantation of living tissues or organs from one

species to another, is often seen as a potential way to alleviate the shortage of human hearts

and kidneys. Pigs have a similar physiology and organ size, making porcine (pig) organs

ideal candidates for transplantation into human recipients (2013). Researchers are also

exploring the use of cell transplantation therapy for patients with spinal cord injury or

Parkinson’s disease.

Genetic engineering and transgenics represent fields with many potential practical

applications that are of value to patients and physicians, as well as potentially lucrative

research and innovation streams for commercial and industrial consideration.

3.0 The Ethical Issues

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In this section, I will explore and analyze the theories concerning the ethical issues of genetic

engineering. According to one of the famous ethicists, Donald J. Quigg once said, “I know

I'm not supposed to get on a soapbox, but how can anybody say this kind of development is

unethical or wrong?" (Mark 1991, 247-248). Therefore, I will look at the advantages and the

disadvantages and weigh them on a moral scale and seek answers from the various ethical

approaches.

3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering

Transgenic biotechnology presents an exciting range of possibilities, from feeding the hungry

to preventing and treating diseases; however, these promises are not without potential peril.

Some of the issues that need to be considered are the following: social concerns, extrinsic

concerns, and intrinsic concerns.

3.1.1 Social Concern

There are various methods being used for the transgene. Yet, one of the methods used to

construct a transgenic animal is to insert human genetic material into the animal's genome

(1991, 259). Recently, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland USA

marked a landmark experiment that was the first of their kind to transfer successfully a

foreign gene into the genome of a human being. Although designed to aid in the development

of a promising cancer treatment, rather than to improve or perfect the human race, these

experiments are man's first attempt to change genetically the human species (1991, 261).

Splicing a foreign gene into the genome of a human being is the problem that surrounds the

above issue. Some individuals argue that crossing species boundaries is unnatural, immoral,

and in violation of God’s laws, which presumes that species boundaries are fixed and readily

delineated. This is the ethical problem of the above issue. However, weighing this issue or

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ethical problem on the moral scale heaves several ethical approaches that can be applied to

shed light on the issue.

Debates about the above issue often focus on the question of ‘how safe is safe enough.’ This

question extends the scope of analysis and debate to underlying concepts and approaches,

with regards to, notably, humanness, human diversity and biodiversity, naturalness, and the

value of living beings (European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies 2021,

85). Transgene is one of the strenuous subjects in the field of the ethics of biotechnology for

the reason that it is about crossing species’ boundaries. Therefore, when looking at transgene

from the ethical point of view, the question that one has to struggle with is, ‘how safe is safe

enough.’ In fact, ‘safety’ or ‘trustworthiness’ do not pertain solely to technologies but also to

institutions and forms of governance in societies, this includes matters of oversight as well as

of democracy and rule of law or the common good approach.

3.1.2 Extrinsic Concerns

It is generally accepted that transgenesis can improve our knowledge of natural processes, but

also leads to agricultural, industrial or socio-economical changes which could affect human

society at large and which may, consequently, require regulation. According to the Merriam-

Webster online dictionary, extrinsic is an adjective and it simply means coming or operating

from outside (Merriam 1831). Some of the consequences that we come across are beyond our

limits. However, we may ask questions like, “what, if any, health risks are associated with

transgenics and genetically modified foods? are their longterm effects on the environment

when transgenic or genetically modified organized are released in the field? should research

be limited and, if so, how should the limits be decided? how should the limits be enforced

nationally and internationally?

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These questions will surface some ethical approaches like the common good and utilitarian

approaches.

3.1.3 Intrinsic Concerns

The intrinsic value of something is said to be the value that that thing has “in itself,” or “for

its own sake,” or “as such,” or “in its own right.” Genetically engineered foods allow, for the

first time, foreign genes, bacterial and viral vectors, viral promoters, and antibiotic marker

systems to be engineered into food. According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary,

intrinsic is belonging naturally; essential (Merriam 1831).

There are questions that have to be asked, are there fundamental issues with creating new

species? are species boundaries “hard” or should they be viewed as a continuum? what, if

any, consequences are there of blurring species boundaries? are chimeras and transgenics

more likely to suffer than “traditional” organisms? will transgenic interventions in humans

create physical or behavioral traits that may or may not be readily distinguished from what is

usually perceived to be “human”? what, if any, research in genetic engineering should be

considered morally impermissible and banned (e.g., research undertaken for purely offensive

military purposes)? will these interventions redefine what it means to be “normal”?

The above questions will lead to the appearance of the various ethical approaches that will

enable us to apply them to ethical problems.

4.0 Conclusion

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Genetic engineering, or genetic modification, uses a variety of tools and techniques from

biotechnology and bioengineering to modify an organism’s genetic makeup. Transgenics

refers to those specific genetic engineering processes that remove/extract genetic material

from a human, one species of plant, or animal and add it to a different species.

After going through this topic, it has shed a light for us to understand that transgene is one

thing that has been going on in the past, especially traditionally. This has posed before us a

challenge on how can we relate and translate transgene in our midst.

To conclude, this topic needs to be discussed thoroughly and introduced to all levels of life in

our community.

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