Unti 4

Unit-4
AC Analysis of BJT Circuits & Small Signal Amplifier
Basic Electronics
(3110016)
2nd Semester
Computer/Electrical Engineering
Unit-4. AC Analysis of BJT Circuits & Small Signal Amplifier
4.1 Transistor as an Amplifier

(RC coupled transistor CE amplifier with coupling and bypass capacitor)
Amplification is a process of increasing the signal strength by increasing the amplitude of a given
signal without changing its characteristics. A single stage RC coupled CE amplifier using NPN
transistor is as shown in figure.
R1 and R2 resistors are used for providing proper biasing to the bipolar transistor. R1 and R2 form
a voltage divider biasing network which provides necessary base voltage to drive the transistor
in active region.
Input ac signal, required to be amplified is connected to the base of transistor through a coupling
capacitor.
Coupling capacitor:
The capacitors C1 and C2 are called the coupling capacitors. A coupling capacitor passes an ac
signal from one side to the other. At the same time, it does not allow the DC voltage to pass
through. Hence, it is also called a DC blocking capacitor. Coupling capacitor removes unwanted
DC component which may be inserted due to biasing voltage. So that only actual ac input signal
can be amplified properly.
Bypass capacitor:
Capacitor connected in parallel with emitter resistance RE is called emitter bypass capacitor
The capacitor CE works as a bypass capacitor. It provides low resistance path to ac signal. It
bypasses all the ac currents from the emitter to the ground. If the capacitor CE is not put in the
circuit then ac voltage developed across RE will affect the input ac voltage and may reduce ac
gain, because of negative feedback. Bypass capacitor avoids reduction in ac voltage gain.
Working of transistor amplifier:
When ac input signal is not applied and only dc biasing voltage is connected the dc base
current IB, collector current ICQ and VCEQ voltage corresponding to Q point will be established.
Q point can be stabilized at the middle of dc load line using voltage divider biasing circuit.
Prof. Manoj N. Popat (E.E. & E.C. Dept.) Basic Electronics (3110016) 1
Now, when small ac signal which is applied to the input of transistor through coupling
capacitor, then ac base current will be established. This ac base current will
ride/superimposed on dc base current. Hence ac base current varies above and below Q point
value of base current.
This variation in base current results in proportional variation in collector current because
collector current IC ≈ βIB. Hence if IB increases them IC will also increases and if IB decreases
them IC will also decreases. So IB and IC are in same phase but IC is amplified/magnified version
of IB.
The collector-emitter voltage VCE is given by equation VCE = VCC - ICRC. Hence if IC increase then
VCE will decreases and if IC decrease then VCE will increases. So IC and VCE are in opposite phase
(1800 out of phase). Various voltage and current waveform at different points are shown in
figure.
Features of CE amplifier:
- High voltage gain as well as high current gain
- Moderate/high input impedance
- Low output impedance
- There is phase shift of 1800 between input and output.
4.2 Selection of Q point in transistor for faithful amplification and effect of Q point
position.
Faithful Amplification
The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification. This amplification when
done without any loss in the components of the signal, it is called Faithful amplification.
Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input signal by increasing
the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its input.
As shown in first graph, the input signal applied is completely amplified and reproduced
without any losses. This can be considered as Faithful Amplification.
The operating point is so chosen that it lies in the active region/middle of the DC load line and
it helps in the reproduction of complete signal without any loss.
If the operating point is considered near saturation point, then the amplification will be as
follows:
When Q point is set near saturation, then negative half cycle of output voltage gets
distorted/clipped as shown in graph.
If the operation point is considered near cut off point, then the amplification will be as follow:
When Q point is set near cut-off, then positive half cycle of output voltage gets distorted/clipped
as shown in graph.
4.3 Concept of AC load line. Derivation of AC Load Line for transistor CE amplifier and
comparison with DC Load Line
A single stage RC coupled CE amplifier using NPN transistor is as shown in figure.
R1 and R2 resistors are used for providing proper biasing to the bipolar transistor. R1 and R2 form
a voltage divider biasing network which provides necessary base voltage to drive the transistor
in active region. Input ac signal, required to be amplified is connected to the base of transistor
through a coupling capacitor. Output is taken across load resistor RL.
For the circuit shown in figure, both DC and AC currents flows through it. DC current is due to
the biasing/battery voltage. AC signal is applied at the input. AC signal will superimpose/ride on
the DC. Hence Load lines can be used separately for both DC and AC analysis.
The DC load line is the load line of the DC equivalent circuit, which can be derived by
(i) Reducing all AC source to zero
(ii) Replacing capacitors by open circuits and inductors by short circuits.
It is used to determine the correct DC operating point, often called the Q point.
DC equivalent circuit and DC load line is as shown in figure.
The AC load line is the load line of the AC equivalent circuit, which can be derived by
(i) Reducing all DC source to zero
(ii) Replacing capacitors by short circuits.
AC load line will also pass through the same Q point.

AC equivalent circuit is as shown in figure.
AC equivalent circuit can be simplified to
For ac equivalent circuit, if we apply KVL at output loop
𝑖𝑐 r𝑎𝑐 + 𝑣𝑐𝑒 = 0 ---- (1)
As per superposition theorem, total current in the circuit is sum of current due to AC and DC.
Hence total current is
𝑖𝐶 = 𝒊𝑐 + I𝐶𝑄
---- (2)
and
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝒗𝑐𝑒 + V𝐶𝐸𝑄
----- (3)
Where,
𝑖𝐶 is total collector current 𝑣𝐶𝐸 is total collector emitter voltage
𝑖𝑐 is ac collector current 𝑣𝑐𝑒 is ac collector emitter voltage
I𝐶𝑄 is dc collector current for Q point V𝐶𝐸𝑄 is dc collector emitter voltage for Q point
Now, if we put the value of ac collector current ic and ac collector emitter voltage vce from
equation (2) and (3) into equarion (1) then
Equation (1) can be written as
[ 𝑖𝐶 − I𝐶𝑄 ] r𝑎𝑐 + [ 𝑣𝐶𝐸 − V𝐶𝐸𝑄 ] = 0 ----- (4)
Rearranging equation (4)
𝑖𝐶 r𝑎𝑐 − I𝐶𝑄 r𝑎𝑐 + 𝑣𝐶𝐸 − V𝐶𝐸𝑄 = 0
V𝐶𝐸𝑄 𝑣𝐶𝐸
𝑖𝐶 = I𝐶𝑄 + −
r𝑎𝑐 r𝑎𝑐 ---- (5)
Equation (5) is the equatiion of AC Load Line.
In equation (5) when 𝑣𝐶𝐸 =0, then 𝑖𝐶 is maximum. which is saturation point for ac load line and
can be written as
V𝐶𝐸𝑄
𝑖𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑖𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = I𝐶𝑄 +
r𝑎𝑐 ---- (6)
In equation (5) when 𝑖𝐶 = 0, then 𝑣𝐶𝐸 is maximum. which is cut=off point for ac load line and
can be written as
𝑣𝐶𝐸(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑣𝐶𝐸(𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑜𝑓𝑓) = V𝐶𝐸𝑄 + I𝐶𝑄 r𝑎𝑐 ---- (7)
Line joining cut-off and saturation is called AC Load Lone
Now, comparision od DC and AC load line is as shown in following graph.
4.4 Various methods/models used for transistor AC analysis
Various Models/Methods used for transistor ac analysis are
(i) Small signal re model

(ii) Small signal hybrid model ( h parameters model)
(iii) Small signal hybrid Π model
4.5 Two port network and Hybrid Model (h parameter model).
A two port network can represented as follow
Where,
input current at port 1 is 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑖 output current at port 2 is 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑜
input voltage at port 1 is 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑖 output voltage at port 2 is 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜
There are four variables. Any variable can be represented in terms of other two known variable,
then one of the possible set/pair of equation are
V𝑖 = ℎ11 I𝑖 + ℎ12 V𝑜 ---- (1) OR V1 = ℎ11 I1 + ℎ12 V2 ---- (1)

I𝑜 = ℎ21 I𝑖 + ℎ22 V𝑜 ---- (2) I2 = ℎ21 I1 + ℎ22 V2 ---- (2)
Where, coefficients ℎ11 , ℎ12 ℎ21 , ℎ22 are called hybrid parameters (h parameters).
Expression for various h parameters:
(1) Expression for ℎ11
In equation (1) when V2 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ11 is derived as
follow:
V1
ℎ11 =
𝐼1 V2=0
ℎ11 is called the Input Impedance which is the ratio of input voltage V1 and input current I1. It’s
unit is ohm Ω.
In equation (1) when I1 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ12 is derived as
follow:
𝑉1
ℎ12 =
𝑉2 I1=0
ℎ12 is called the Reverse voltage gain which is the ratio of input voltage V1 and output voltage
V2. It is unit less.
In equation (2) when V2 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ21 is derived as
follow:
𝐼2
ℎ21 =
𝐼1 V2=0
ℎ21 is called the Forward current gain which is the ratio of output current I2 and input current
I1. It is unit less.
In equation (2) when I1 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ22 is derived as
follow:
𝐼2
ℎ22 =
𝑉2 I1=0
ℎ22 is called the Transconductance or Output Admittance which is the ratio of output current
I2 and output voltage V2. It’s unit is mho Ʊ.
Why h parameters are called hybrid parameters?
The four parameters associated with this model are Input impedance, Reverse voltage gain,
Forward current gain and Output admittance. Since unit of these parameters are completely
different from each other, this set of parameters are called hybrid parameters.
Merits and Demerits of h parameters.
Merits of hybrid model/h parameters:
- h parameters can be easily measured.

- Can be calculated also from static characteristic of transistor.
- Manufacturer provides h parameters in data sheets.
- Can be used easily and conveniently in circuit analysis and design.
Demerits of hybrid model/h parameters:
- h parameters are defined only for a particular set of operating conditions.
4.6 Hybrid equivalent circuit.
Based on equations, the equivalent circuit for input as well as output can be derived as follows.
set/pair of equation are
V𝑖 = ℎ11 I𝑖 + ℎ12 V𝑜 ---- (1)
I𝑜 = ℎ21 I𝑖 + ℎ22 V𝑜 ---- (2)
Alternate way of representing h parameters is
ℎ11 → ℎ𝑖 (input impedance)

ℎ12 → ℎ𝑟 (reverse voltage gain)
ℎ21 → ℎ𝑓 (forward current gain)
ℎ22 → ℎ𝑜 (output admittance)
Now, h parameter model can be also represented as follow
h parameters for different configuration:
Sr.
Parameters CB CE CC
No.
1 Input impedance ℎ𝑖𝑏 ℎ𝑖𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑐
2 Reverse voltage gain ℎ𝑟𝑏 ℎ𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑐
3 Forward current gain ℎ𝑓𝑏 ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑐
4 Output admittance ℎ𝑜𝑏 ℎ𝑜𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑐
4.7 Transistor Hybrid Model.
(1) Hybrid model for CE configuration:
For CE configuration of transistor

input current is 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑏 output current is 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑐
input voltage is 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑏𝑒 output voltage is 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒
Hence set/pair of equation are
V𝑏𝑒 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 I𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 V𝑐𝑒 ---- (1)
I𝑐 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 I𝑏 + ℎ𝑜𝑒 V𝑐𝑒 ---- (2)
Expression for various h parameters for CE configuration:
(1) Expression for ℎ𝑖𝑒
In equation (1) when V𝑐𝑒 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ𝑖𝑒 is derived
as follow:
V𝑏𝑒
ℎ𝑖𝑒 =
𝐼𝑏 Vce=0
ℎ𝑖𝑒 is called the Input Impedance which is the ratio of input voltage Vbe and input current Ib. It’s
unit is ohm Ω.
(2) Expression for ℎ𝑟𝑒
In equation (1) when I𝑏 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ𝑟𝑒 is derived as
follow:
𝑉𝑏𝑒
ℎ𝑟𝑒 =
𝑉𝑐𝑒 Ib=0
ℎ𝑟𝑒 is called the Reverse voltage gain which is the ratio of input voltage Vbe and output voltage
Vce. It is unit less.
(3) Expression for ℎ𝑓𝑒
In equation (2) when V𝑐𝑒 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ𝑓𝑒 is derived
as follow:
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑒 =
𝐼𝑏 Vce=0
ℎ𝑓𝑒 is called the Forward current gain which is the ratio of output current Ic and input current
Ib. It is unit less.
(4) Expression for ℎ𝑜𝑒
In equation (2) when I𝑏 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ𝑜𝑒 is derived as
follow:
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑒 =
𝑉𝑐𝑒 Ib=0
ℎ𝑜𝑒 is called the Transconductance or Output Admittance which is the ratio of output current
Ic and output voltage Vce. It’s unit is mho Ʊ.
Hybrid equivalent circuit for CE configuration is
(2) Hybrid model for CB configuration:
For CB configuration of transistor

input current is 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑒 output current is 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑐
input voltage is 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑒𝑏 output voltage is 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐𝑏
V𝑒𝑏 = ℎ𝑖𝑏 I𝑒 + ℎ𝑟𝑏 V𝑐𝑏 ---- (1)
I𝑐 = ℎ𝑓𝑏 I𝑒 + ℎ𝑜𝑏 V𝑐𝑏 ---- (2)
Expression for various h parameters for CB configuration:
(1) Expression for ℎ𝑖𝑏
In equation (1) when V𝑐𝑏 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ𝑖𝑏 is derived
as follow:
V𝑒𝑏
ℎ𝑖𝑏 =
𝐼𝑒 Vcb=0
ℎ𝑖𝑏 is called the Input Impedance which is the ratio of input voltage Veb and input current Ie. It’s
unit is ohm Ω.
(2) Expression for ℎ𝑟𝑏
In equation (1) when I𝑒 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ𝑟𝑏 is derived as
follow:
𝑉𝑒𝑏
ℎ𝑟𝑏 =
𝑉𝑐𝑏 Ie=0
ℎ𝑟𝑏 is called the Reverse voltage gain which is the ratio of input voltage Veb and output voltage
Vcb. It is unit less.
(3) Expression for ℎ𝑓𝑏
In equation (2) when V𝑐𝑏 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ𝑓𝑏 is derived
as follow:
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑓𝑏 =
𝐼𝑒 Vcb=0
ℎ𝑓𝑏 is called the Forward current gain which is the ratio of output current Ic and input current
Ie. It is unit less.
(4) Expression for ℎ𝑜𝑏
In equation (2) when I𝑒 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ𝑜𝑏 is derived as
follow:
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑏 =
𝑉𝑐𝑏 Ie=0
ℎ𝑜𝑏 is called the Transconductance or Output Admittance which is the ratio of output current
Ic and output voltage Vcb. It’s unit is mho Ʊ.
Hybrid equivalent circuit for CB configuration is
(3) Hybrid model for CC configuration:
For CC configuration of transistor

input current is 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑏 output current is 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑒
input voltage is 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 output voltage is 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑒𝑐
V𝑏𝑐 = ℎ𝑖𝑐 I𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑐 V𝑒𝑐 ---- (1)
I𝑒 = ℎ𝑓𝑐 I𝑏 + ℎ𝑜𝑐 V𝑒𝑐 ---- (2)
Expression for various h parameters for CC configuration:
(1) Expression for ℎ𝑖𝑐
In equation (1) when V𝑒𝑐 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ𝑖𝑐 is derived
as follow:
V𝑏𝑐
ℎ𝑖𝑐 =
𝐼𝑏 Vec=0
ℎ𝑖𝑐 is called the Input Impedance which is the ratio of input voltage Vbc and input current Ib. It’s
unit is ohm Ω.
(2) Expression for ℎ𝑟𝑐
In equation (1) when I𝑏 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ𝑟𝑐 is derived as
follow:
𝑉𝑏𝑐
ℎ𝑟𝑐 =
𝑉𝑒𝑐 Ib=0
ℎ𝑟𝑐 is called the Reverse voltage gain which is the ratio of input voltage Vbc and output voltage
Vec. It is unit less.
(3) Expression for ℎ𝑓𝑐
In equation (2) when V𝑒𝑐 is set to zero, by short circuiting output terminal, then ℎ𝑓𝑐 is derived
as follow:
𝐼𝑒
ℎ𝑓𝑐 =
𝐼𝑏 Vec=0
ℎ𝑓𝑐 is called the Forward current gain which is the ratio of output current Ie and input current
Ib. It is unit less.
(4) Expression for ℎ𝑜𝑐
In equation (2) when I𝑏 is set to zero, by open circuiting input terminal, then ℎ𝑜𝑐 is derived as
follow:
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑜𝑐 =
𝑉𝑒𝑐 Ib=0
ℎ𝑜𝑐 is called the Transconductance or Output Admittance which is the ratio of output current
Ie and output voltage Vec. It’s unit is mho Ʊ.
Hybrid equivalent circuit for CC configuration is
4.8 Analysis of transistor CE configuration of amplifier using Hybrid Model (h

parameter model) and derivation of Input impedance, output impedance, voltage
gain and current gain
The circuit diagram of CE amplifier is as shown in figure.
h parameter equivalent circuit (ac equivalent circuit) for CE configuration is derived as
As value of ℎ𝑟𝑒 is very small and can be neglacted. Then approximate equivalent circuit will
be
(a) Input impedance

From the equivalent circuit, it has been observed that resistance observed at the base is ℎ𝑖𝑒 .
Hence input impedance looking from input terminal of overall circuit is
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝑅1∥ 𝑅2 ∥ ℎ𝑖𝑒

---- (1)
(b) output impedance
From the equivalent circuit, it has been observed that impedance observed at the collector
terminal is 1/ℎ𝑜𝑒 .
Hence output impedance looking from output terminal of overall circuit is
1
𝒁𝒐 = 𝑅 𝑐 ∥
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ---- (2)
(c) Voltage Gain
Voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage Vo and input voltage Vi.
From the equivalent circuit, it has been observed that output voltage is
𝑉𝑜 = −𝐼𝑐 ( 𝑅𝑐 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 )
and input voltage is
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑏 ℎ𝑖𝑒
Hence voltage gain is

−𝐼𝑐 ( 𝑅𝑐 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑨𝑽 =
𝐼𝑏 ℎ𝑖𝑒 --- (3)
but as we know that

𝐼𝑐
𝒉𝒇𝒆 =
𝐼𝑏
So, equation (3) can be written as
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 ( 𝑅𝑐 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑨𝑽 =
ℎ𝑖𝑒 ---- (4)
Negative sign indicates that output voltage Vo is 1800 out of phase with input voltage.
(d) Current Gain
Current gain is the ratio of output current IL and input current Is.
𝐼𝐿
𝑨𝒊𝒔 =
𝐼𝑠
Also,
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑏
𝑨𝒊𝒔 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑠
Let, parallel resistance in equivalent circuit is ( 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 ) = 𝑅𝐵
Now, current gain is
−𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝐵
𝑨𝒊𝒔 = 𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑥
𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐵 + ℎ𝑖𝑒
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝐵
𝑨𝒊𝒔 =
(𝑅𝑐 + 𝑅𝐿 ) (𝑅𝐵 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 ) ---- (5)
4.9 Common Base Amplifier circuit (CB amplifier)
The circuit diagram of CB amplifier is as shown in figure. AC signal source is connected to

emitter through coupling capacitor C1 and load is connected at collector. Base terminal is ac
grounded through capacitor C. in given circuit R1 and R2 are biasing resistor and C1 are well
as C2 are coupling capacitors.
Working of CB amplifier:
Input signal Vs is applied at emitter terminal. When input voltage increases, base voltage VBE
decreases because base is negative with respect to emitter. So base current IB will decrease
and it results in decrease in collector current also. If collector current Ic decrease then voltage
at collector Vc and output voltage Vo will increase.
Thus increase in input voltage results in increase in output voltage also. Hence output voltage
is in same phase with input voltage in CB amplifier.
Features of CB amplifier:
- It has very low input impendence almost (20 Ω).
- It has very high output impendence almost (1 MΩ).
- It has a current gain of unity or (< 1).
- It has a large voltage gain.
- It has no phase reversal between output and input.

Application of CB amplifier:
- It is used as a preamplifier in communication circuit.
4.10 Analysis of transistor CB configuration of amplifier using Hybrid Model (h

parameter model) and derivation of Input impedance, output impedance, voltage
gain and current gain
The circuit diagram of CB amplifier is as shown in figure.
As value of ℎ𝑟𝑏 is very small and can be neglacted. Then approximate equivalent circuit cab
be redrawn as shown in figure. h parameter equivalent circuit (ac equivalent circuit) for CB
configuration is derived as
(a) Input impedance
From the equivalent circuit, it has been observed that resistance observed at the emitter base
is ℎ𝑖𝑏 . Hence input impedance looking from input terminal of overall circuit is
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝑅𝐸 ∥ ℎ𝑖𝑏
---- (1)
(b) output impedance
From the equivalent circuit, it has been observed that impedance observed at the collector
terminal is 1/ℎ𝑜𝑒 .
Hence output impedance looking from output terminal of overall circuit is
1
𝒁𝒐 = 𝑅 𝑐 ∥
ℎ𝑜𝑒 ---- (2)
(c) Voltage Gain
Voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage Vo and input voltage Vi.
From the equivalent circuit, it has been observed that output voltage is
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝑐 ( 𝑅𝑐 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 )
and input voltage is
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑏
Hence voltage gain is

𝐼𝑐 ( 𝑅𝑐 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑨𝑽 =
𝐼𝑏 ℎ𝑖𝑒 --- (3)
but as we know that

𝐼𝑐
𝒉𝒇𝒃 =
𝐼𝑒
So, equation (3) can be written as
ℎ𝑓𝑏 ( 𝑅𝑐 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑨𝑽 =
ℎ𝑖𝑏 ---- (4)
4.11 Common Collector Amplifier circuit (CC amplifier)/Emitter Follower:
The circuit diagram of CC amplifier is as shown in figure. AC signal source is connected to

base through coupling capacitor C1 and load is connected at emitter through coupling
capacitor. In given circuit R1 and R2 are biasing resistor and C1 are well as C2 are coupling
capacitors.
It is also known as Emitter follower circuit because output voltage at emitter is

approximately same as input voltage at base. Thus output follows the input, hence called
Emitter follower.
Working of CC amplifier:
Input signal Vs is applied at base terminal through coupling capacitor. When input voltage
increases, base voltage VBE will also increase. It results in increase in base current and
subsequently increase in collector current also. Increase in collector current causes emitter
current to increase. Hence voltage at emitter output terminal also increases.
Thus increase in input voltage results in increase in output voltage also. Hence output voltage
is in same phase with input voltage in CC amplifier. Also output voltage at emitter is
approximately same as input voltage at base. Thus output follows the input, hence called
Emitter follower. So voltage gain in CC configuration is approximately unity.
Features of CC amplifier:
- It has very high input impendence almost (1 MΩ).
- It has very low output impendence almost (200 Ω).
- It has a voltage gain of unity or (< 1).
- It has a large current gain.
- It has no phase reversal between output and input.
Application of CC amplifier:
- It is used as an impedance matching circuit in communication system.
4.12 Application of transistor as a Switch.
A transistor can be operated in three modes, active region, saturation region and cut-off
region. In the active region, transistor works as an amplifier. The two operating regions of
transistor Saturation Region (fully-ON) and the Cut-off Region (fully-OFF) are used to
operate a transistor switch.
For the given circuit, applying KVL low at output loop,
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ---- (1)
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
Rearranging equation (1)
1 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = (− ) (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) + ( ) ---- (2)
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
Equation (2) is like the equation of straight line i.e. y = mx + C
The straight line represented by equation (2) is called DC Load Line.

In equation (2) when 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0,
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
This is maximum possible current through transistor. Hence
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
𝑅𝐶 ---- (3)
Equation (3) is maximum possible current through transistor. So it is called Saturation point.
Hence
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) =
𝑅𝐶
Now, in equation (2) when 𝐼𝐶 = 0,

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶
This is maximum possible voltage across transistor. Hence
𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ---- (4)
Equation (4) is maximum possible voltage across transistor. So it is called cut-off point.
Hence
𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶
Line joining the Saturation and cut-off point is called DC Load Line. it is a straight line as
shown in figure. Any point/value corresponding to 𝐼𝐶 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 will be on this DC Load Line
The DC Load Line is shown with output characteristic of transistor.
Cut-off Region (OFF Switch):
The operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current (IB=0), zero output
collector current(IC=0), and maximum collector voltage (VCE) which results in a large
depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is
switched to “Fully-OFF”. Hence transistor behaves as an OFF switch.
Cut-off Characteristics:
- The input and Base are grounded ( 0 v )
- Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
- Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
- Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
- Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
- No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
- VOUT = VCE = VCC
- Transistor operates as an “Open switch”/ OFF Switch
Saturation Region (ON Switch):
In this region, the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current (IB)
is applied, resulting in maximum collector current (IC=VCC/RL) and then resulting in the
minimum collector-emitter voltage (VCE ~ 0) drop. At this condition, the depletion layer
becomes as small as the possible and maximum current flowing through the transistor.
Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”. Hence transistor behaves as an ON switch.
Saturation Characteristics
- The input and Base are connected to VCC
- Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7 v
- Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
- Base-Collector junction is forward biased
- Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
- Max Collector current flows ( IC = VCC/RL )
- VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
- VOUT = VCE = ”0″
- Transistor operates as a “Closed switch” / ON Switch
Exercise: Question Bank _Unit-4
Marks
Explain the importance of coupling and bypass capacitor in transistor
Q:1 4
amplifier circuit.
Draw the circuit diagram of single stage RC coupled CE amplifier and
Q:2 explain it in detail with necessary waveforms and importance of coupling 7
and bypass capacitor.
What is AC load line? Derive the equation of AC load line and draw it. Also
Q:3 7
compare AC load line with DC load line.
What do you mean by faithful amplification? Explain the effect of shifting the
Q:4 location of operating point Q towards cut-off and saturation in transistor 7
amplifier.
Q:5 What is two port network? Derive h parameters for two port network. 7
Why h parameters are called hybrid parameters. Enlist merits and

Q:6 4
demerits of h parameters.
Q:7 Draw h parameter equivalent/hybrid equivalent circuit for two port network. 3
How transistor can be used as a two port network? Draw and explain h
parameter model for CE amplifier.
Q:8 OR 7
Derive h parameters for transistor CE amplifier. Also Draw and explain h
parameter equivalent model for CE amplifier.
Q:9 Draw and explain h parameter model for CB configuration. 4
Q:10 Draw and explain h parameter model for CC configuration. 4
Derive the equation of Input Impedance, Output Impedance, Voltage Gain

and Current Gain for CE amplifier.
OR
Draw h parameter equivalent circuit for CE amplifier and derive the
Q:11 7
equation of Input Impedance, Output Impedance, Voltage Gain and Current
Gain.
OR
Explain transistor AC analysis using h parameter model.
Draw and explain the operation of CB amplifier circuit with necessary
Q:12 7
waveforms.
Draw and explain the operation of CC amplifier circuit with necessary
waveforms.
Q:13 OR 7
Draw and explain the operation of Emitter Follower circuit with necessary
waveforms
Derive the expressions of Input Impedance, Output Impedance and Voltage

Gain for Common Base circuit (CB amplifier).
Q:14 OR 7
Draw h parameter equivalent circuit for CB amplifier and derive the equation
of Input Impedance, Output Impedance and Voltage Gain.
Derive the expressions of Input Impedance, Output Impedance and Voltage

Gain for Common Collector circuit (CC amplifier).
Q:15 OR 7
Draw h parameter equivalent circuit for CC amplifier and derive the equation
of Input Impedance, Output Impedance and Voltage Gain.
Write short note on transistor as a switch.
OR
Q:16 7
Explain the operation transistor as a Switch with necessary
diagram/waveforms.

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Unit-4

AC Analysis of BJT Circuits & Small Signal Amplifier

4.1 Transistor as an Amplifier

Working of transistor amplifier:

A single stage RC coupled CE amplifier using NPN transistor is as shown in figure.

DC equivalent circuit and DC load line is as shown in figure.

AC load line will also pass through the same Q point.

AC equivalent circuit can be simplified to

For ac equivalent circuit, if we apply KVL at output loop

𝑖𝑐 r𝑎𝑐 + 𝑣𝑐𝑒 = 0 ---- (1)

Equation (1) can be written as

[ 𝑖𝐶 − I𝐶𝑄 ] r𝑎𝑐 + [ 𝑣𝐶𝐸 − V𝐶𝐸𝑄 ] = 0 ----- (4)

Rearranging equation (4)

𝑖𝐶 r𝑎𝑐 − I𝐶𝑄 r𝑎𝑐 + 𝑣𝐶𝐸 − V𝐶𝐸𝑄 = 0

Equation (5) is the equatiion of AC Load Line.

𝑣𝐶𝐸(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑣𝐶𝐸(𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑜𝑓𝑓) = V𝐶𝐸𝑄 + I𝐶𝑄 r𝑎𝑐 ---- (7)

Line joining cut-off and saturation is called AC Load Lone

Now, comparision od DC and AC load line is as shown in following graph.

4.4 Various methods/models used for transistor AC analysis

Various Models/Methods used for transistor ac analysis are

(i) Small signal re model

4.5 Two port network and Hybrid Model (h parameter model).

A two port network can represented as follow

V𝑖 = ℎ11 I𝑖 + ℎ12 V𝑜 ---- (1) OR V1 = ℎ11 I1 + ℎ12 V2 ---- (1)

Expression for various h parameters:

(1) Expression for ℎ11

(2) Expression for ℎ12

(3) Expression for ℎ21

(4) Expression for ℎ22

Why h parameters are called hybrid parameters?

Merits and Demerits of h parameters.

Merits of hybrid model/h parameters:

- h parameters can be easily measured.

Demerits of hybrid model/h parameters:

- h parameters are defined only for a particular set of operating conditions.

4.6 Hybrid equivalent circuit.

set/pair of equation are

V𝑖 = ℎ11 I𝑖 + ℎ12 V𝑜 ---- (1)

I𝑜 = ℎ21 I𝑖 + ℎ22 V𝑜 ---- (2)

Alternate way of representing h parameters is

ℎ11 → ℎ𝑖 (input impedance)

Now, h parameter model can be also represented as follow

h parameters for different configuration:

4.7 Transistor Hybrid Model.

(1) Hybrid model for CE configuration:

For CE configuration of transistor

Hence set/pair of equation are

V𝑏𝑒 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 I𝑏 + ℎ𝑟𝑒 V𝑐𝑒 ---- (1)

I𝑐 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 I𝑏 + ℎ𝑜𝑒 V𝑐𝑒 ---- (2)

Expression for various h parameters for CE configuration:

(1) Expression for ℎ𝑖𝑒

(2) Expression for ℎ𝑟𝑒

(3) Expression for ℎ𝑓𝑒

(4) Expression for ℎ𝑜𝑒

Hybrid equivalent circuit for CE configuration is

(2) Hybrid model for CB configuration:

For CB configuration of transistor

Hence set/pair of equation are

V𝑒𝑏 = ℎ𝑖𝑏 I𝑒 + ℎ𝑟𝑏 V𝑐𝑏 ---- (1)

I𝑐 = ℎ𝑓𝑏 I𝑒 + ℎ𝑜𝑏 V𝑐𝑏 ---- (2)