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Content Abstraction

Subject: Science, Technology, and Society Discussion No.: 1

Class Schedule/s:
Course & Year Day Time
AB 1-A Sat 1:00PM – 4:00PM
AB 1-B TTh 5:30PM – 7:00PM
AB 1-C MW 5:30PM – 7:00PM

Topic: Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society

Objectives:
Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of scientific revolution
Analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East, and
Africa

DISCUSSION PROPER:
This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the society. It is the goal
of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.

I. Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and where science began. From
the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and observations about the
natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical
world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge that deals
with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and activities done by
human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive
in life. It is interwoven with people's lives.
Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything around them. They have
persistently observed and studied the natural and the physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many
questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to
certain phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th century in Europe. Why
in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various
places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests. This does not mean, however,
that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science,
technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had their own sophisticated
traditions and activities related to these disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of
modern science as a result of these developments from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this period
enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast
human interests to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying
moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried
to preserve their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early

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works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially scientists
to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of
human beings, transformation of the society, and in the formulation of
scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific
investigations, experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution
also led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted
the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many
ways, scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world
of ideas.

II. Some Intellectuals and Their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to examine the different
individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period—the truths of their
time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and
natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.
Scientists are not driven by
clamor for honor and publicity.
They are ordinary people doing
extraordinary things. Some
scientists were never appreciated
during their times, some were
sentenced to death, while others
were condemned by the Church
during their time. In spite of all the
predicaments and challenges they
experienced, they never stopped
experimenting, theorizing, and
discovering new knowledge and
ideas.
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there were many scientists who worked
before and after these individuals. However, it is important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken
the world.

A. Nicolaus Copernicus
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus
Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged
since the great days of Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the
scene (Gribbin, 2003). This continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way,
resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers—he did not do anything extensive
such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an
example of what is presently called as a thought Copernicus experiment. By the time he
finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his
interest in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome
published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller's
observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of
Ptolemy.

Copernicus' idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a
summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof
that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally.

Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally publish his work and
advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution.

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 In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates
(Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are
surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus' model of
the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus
outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the
Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model,
he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would form a sequence
from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the
planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the
position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere.

Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes sense now, during those times, it was
judged to be heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the
Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century.

B. Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution: He changed our concept
of the world's creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius
who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed, his
interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would
also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin, 2003). According to
Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student.
He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him.
Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-
year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is
considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected
many significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence.
His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and presented traits
and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials and data
that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his theory.

Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of plants and animals
into the realms of humans. His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of
all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a
religious or biblical design that places human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory
of evolution scientifically questioned this view.

Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he made major
contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable
was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His
unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. Darwin provided a different framework for
doing scientific activities. It is a science marked by observation and experiment.

C. Sigmund Freud
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also
described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his
share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.

However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the
scientific world through the development of an important observational method to gather
reliable data to study human's inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of
psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental
version of this method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to
study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his
works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had
great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.

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 Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective
in understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was
unorthodox—focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed immense challenges to scholars and
ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.

Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to knowledge can be seen in
many aspects of the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a
psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered
nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.

III. Cradles of Early Science

A. Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of
Central America from Southern Mexico up to the
border of South America. There is no doubt that the
Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge
prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous

civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
These people are known for their works in astronomy.
They incorporated their advanced understanding of
astronomy into their temples and other religious
structures. This allows them to use their temples for
astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at Figure 3. Chichen Itza
Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the
Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as evidenced by their
knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for
measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning
their activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary
machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.

Furthermore. they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field of arts. The Mayans
built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed
to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous
as one of the world's first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in
mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept
of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did.

The Inca civilization is also

famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made
advanced scientific ideas considering
their limitations as an old civilization. The
following were scientific ideas and tools
that they developed to help them in
everyday life:
o roads paved with stones,
o stone buildings that surmounted
earthquakes and other disasters,
o irrigation system and technique
for storing water for their crops to
grow in all types of land,
Figure 4. A marvel of Inca engineering

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 o calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season,
o the first suspension bridge,
o quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret, and
o Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.
Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also
made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their
contributions are the following:
o Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on
education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their
social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of
universal or inclusive education.
o Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed
chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture,
they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the
cacao beans highly and made it as part of their
tribute to their gods.\ Figure 5. The ancient Aztec civilization
o Antispasmodic medication. They used a type
of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
o Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas
and surrounded by canals.
o Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
o Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

B. Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural,
economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations
have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their
contributions to the development of knowledge during their time.

India
India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern boarders.
The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives. They are known for
manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in the
whole of Roman Empire.

India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient
India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants
that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the Susruta Samhita, describes different
surgical and other medical procedures famous in Ancient India.

Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration of the universe,
the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that
their interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written in the 12th century.
According to Sama (2008), this ancient text covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the
planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and
settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars;
and the paths of the Sun and Moon.

Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of mathematical
knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to
Bisht (1982), tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro
ruler.

Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his
Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628
AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero
as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the

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world (Clifford, 2008; Hose, 1998). Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).

China
China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy,
science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its
neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong
to the old Silk Road.

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the Chinese
people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An
example is the practice of acupuncture.

In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous discoveries and inventions
of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West only
by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995). They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller,
among others. They developed a design of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first
seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).

In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and
comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world
(Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily
activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in
times of natural calamities.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions is overwhelming.
These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented
these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science. According to Needham (1986), it may have been the
religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries,
a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common language
of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were contributory to the
intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But
contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments.
This led to the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using
experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. A Muslim scientist
named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of
light.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm
while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the
Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number
system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry (Durant, 1980).
In particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the "Father of Chemistry" (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).
In the field of medicine, lbn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to
conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of
Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th century. Among his
many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical
pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000).

There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the field of science, mathematics,
astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences . The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th to
13th century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions were
destroyed.

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 C. Development of Science in Africa
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long before the
Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early
civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers, too.

The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the fields of astronomy,
mathematics, and medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout
and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of geometry were developed and used to
build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture of Egypt. These early science activities in Egypt were developed to
improve the quality of life of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The great structures of the
Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced civilization.

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry. They tried to
study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and
prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of
studying science.

Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans used three types of
calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three.

Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times, North Africa and the Nile Valley imported
iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until
the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures.

Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent. The Lebombo Bone
from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from
35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills.
They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period
was also benefiting from mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry,
and trigonometry.

Summary:
Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth of science as a discipline and as a
field of inquiry and gave birth to the development of the scientific method. It was a time in the history of science where many
scientific ideas and discoveries, which were considered innovative and useful, were developed. Some of these ideas were
also controversial in the scientific community and in the political arena. The scientific revolution significantly changed how
people study science and do scientific activities. It inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving away, from thought
experiments to data-driven and experiment-based ideas.

There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science during the period of scientific revolution.
Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates.
He placed the Sun in the center of the universe and all the planets were surrounding or orbiting it. Copernicus' model of
planets orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. Charles Darwin made significant
contribution in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. His theory of evolution by natural selection is very
useful in many fields until now. Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human
behavior especially neurological conditions.

Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these
continents invented tools to help them in everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly bodies,
built structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a tool and as a discipline. Science provided different
ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. It also enabled human beings to
develop various technologies that helped them in their everyday tasks.

Reference:
Serafica, J.P.J., Pawilen, G.T., Caslib, B.N., & Alata, E.J.P. (2018). Science, Technology, and Society. Rex Book Store, Inc.

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Prepared by:

RANULFO F. CALA
Instructor

Checked by:

BEVERLY D. PADIN, LPT, MA Lit. MARY JESHIEL F. ALEGRADO

BAEL Department Head IMD Coordinator

Approved:

ROBERT L. CASTRO EDWARD MAGLUCOT

Director for Quality Assurance Dean for Academic Affairs

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