TRANSFORMER TESTS:

Reliable delivery of electric power is, in great part, dependent on the reliable operation of
power transformers in the electric power system. Power transformer reliability is enhanced
considerably by a well written test plan, which should include specifications for transformer
tests. Developing a test plan with effective test specifications is a joint effort between
manufacturers and users of power transformers. The written test plan and specifications
should consider the anticipated operating environment of the transformer, including factors
such as atmospheric conditions, types of grounding, and exposure to lightning and switching
transients. In addition to nominal rating information, special ratings for impedance, sound
level, or other requirements should be considered in the test plan and included in the
specifications. Selection of appropriate tests and the specification of correct test levels, which
ensure transformer reliability in service, are important parts of this joint effort. Transformers
can be subjected to a wide variety of tests for a number of reasons, including:

• Compliance with user specifications

• Assessment of quality and reliability

• Verification of design calculations

• Compliance with applicable standard

1.0 Standards

BIS & IEC standards for power transformers specifies requirements that apply generally to all
power and distribution transformers. These standards are particularly relevant and useful for
those needing information on transformer testing:

BIS 2026 series, Indian Standards and IEC 60076 series, and CBIP manual are mainly followed
for testing guidelines and process.

The standards cited above are very important documents because they facilitate precise
communication and understanding between manufacturers and users. They identify critical
features, provide minimum requirements for safe and reliable operation, and serve as
valuable references of technical information.

2.0 Classification of Tests

According to BIS and IEC standards, all tests on power transformers fall into one of four
categories: (1) routine tests, (2) Type tests or design tests, (3) Special or other tests, and (4)
Tests during construction stage. All these tests, the test levels, and the accept/reject criteria
represent an important aspect of the joint test plan development effort made between the
manufacturer and the purchaser.

2.1. Sequence of Tests

i) Tests before tanking

• Preliminary ratio, polarity, and connection of the transformer windings

• Core insulation tests & Core loss

• Ratio and polarity tests of bushing-current transformers

ii) Tests after tanking (final tests)

 Routine Tests

1. Measurement of winding resistance

2. Measurement of voltage ratio, polarity and check of voltage vector relationship
3. Measurement of no-load loss and excitation current
4. Measurement of short-circuit impedance and load loss
5. Measurement of insulation resistance
6. Tests on on-load tap-changers, where appropriate

Dielectric tests

7. Switching impulse withstand voltage test, transformer winding Um > 170 kV

8. Lightning impulse withstand voltage test, transformer winding Um > 72.5 kV
9. Separate source withstand voltage test
10. Induced AC over voltage withstand test
iii) Type Tests
11. Lightning impulse voltage withstand test, transformer winding Um <72.5 kV
12. Temperature rise test
iv) Special Tests
13. Lightning impulse test on neutral terminal
14. Long-duration induced AC voltage test (ACLD) transformer winding 72.5 < Um < 170 kV
15. Short-circuit withstand test
16. Measurement of zero-sequence impedances on three phase transformers
17. Measurement of acoustic sound level
18. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current
19. Measurement of the power taken by the fan and oil pump motors

v) Additional Tests
20. Test with lightning impulse chopped on the tail

21. Magnetic circuit (Isolation) test

22. Determination of capacitances and dissipation factor between winding-to-earth and
between windings
23. Magnetic balance test on three-phase transformers
24. Determination of transient voltage transfer characteristics

25. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) of oil filled in the transformer before and after
temperature rise test

26. Recurrent surge oscillographic (RSO) test

27. Determination of core hot spot temperature
28. Frequency response analysis ( FRA ) test > 170 kV
29. Measurement of magnetization current at low voltage
30. Functional tests on auxiliary equipment
31. Tests on oil filled in transformer
32. Dew point measurement before despatching
The dielectric tests may be routine, type or special tests depending upon the voltage rating,
specific customer requirements and referred standards.

vi) Mechanical Tests

33. Oil pressure test on completely assembled transformer
34. Jacking test and Dye-penetration test
35. Pressure relief device test
vii) Recommended Field Tests
1. Dew point measurement for large transformer filled with dry air or nitrogen filled
2. Winding resistance measurement
3. Vector group and polarity
4. Measurement of voltage ratio test
5. Measurement of magnetizing current
6. Magnetic balance test on three phase transformer
7. Magnetic circuit (isolation) test
8. Measurement of short circuit impedance at low voltage
9. Insulation resistance measurement
10. Measurement of capacitance and dissipation factor on transformers above 72.5 kV
class
11. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) on transformers
12. Tests on oil filled in transformer as per IS 1866 /IEC 60442
13. FRA test.
The purpose, interpretation and explanation for specific conditions of the tests are briefly
described below. The tests and their sequence shall be mutually agreed between the
manufacturer and the user.

viii) Other tests as required Tests before shipment

• Dew point of gas

• Core-ground megger test

• FRA test
3.0 Tests and its significance:

(i) Ratio, Polarity, and Phase-Relation Tests

Tests for checking the winding ratios, and for checking the polarity and phase relationships of
winding connections, are carried out on all transformers during factory tests. The purpose of
these tests is to ensure that all windings have the correct number of turns according to the
design, that they are assembled in the correct physical orientation, and that they are
connected properly to provide the desired phase relationship for the case of polyphase
transformers. If a transformer is equipped with either a off load or on load tap changer, then
ratio tests are also carried out at the various positions of the tap changer(s). The objective of
ratio tests at different tap positions is to ensure that all winding taps are made at the correct
turns and that the tap connections are properly made to the tap-changing devices.

(ii) Insulation Condition

The Purpose of Insulation Condition Tests at 10KV (Tanδ tests) and 5KV (IR) to verify the
condition of the insulation system. Initial measurements at the factory can be recorded and
compared with later measurements in the field to assess changes in the condition of the
transformer insulation. The quality of the transformer insulation and the efficacy of the
insulation processing for moisture removal are evaluated through the results of insulation
power-factor tests and insulation resistance tests.

(iii) Dielectric Withstand

In actual operation on a power system, a transformer is subjected to both normal and

abnormal dielectric stresses. A power transformer is required to operate continuously at 105%
of rated voltage when delivering full-load current and at 110% of rated voltage under no-load
for an indefinite duration under normal operating condition. The voltage stresses associated
with normal conditions as defined above, although higher than stresses at rated values, are
nonetheless considered normal stresses. A transformer may be subjected to abnormal
dielectric stresses, arising out of various power system events or conditions. Sustained power-
frequency overvoltage can result from Ferranti rise, load rejection, and ferroresonance. These
effects can produce abnormal turn-to-turn and phase-to-phase stresses. On the other hand,
line-to-ground faults can result in unbalance and very high terminal-to-ground voltages,
depending upon system grounding. Abnormal transient overvoltage of short duration arise
out of lightning-related phenomena, and longer duration transient overvoltage can result
from line-switching operations. Even though these dielectric stresses are described as
abnormal, the events causing them are expected to occur, and the transformer insulation
system must be designed to withstand them. To verify the transformer capability to withstand
these kinds of abnormal but expected transient and low-frequency dielectric stresses,
transient and low-frequency dielectric tests are routinely performed on all transformers. The
tests according to BIS & IEC are Separate source AC withstand Voltage and Induced AC voltage
combined with Partial Discharge tests.

(iv) Transient Dielectric Tests

Transient dielectric tests consist of lightning-impulse tests and switching-impulse tests. They
demonstrate the strength of the transformer insulation system to withstand transient
voltages impinged upon the transformer terminals during surge-arrester discharges, line-
shielding flashovers, and line-switching operations. Power transformers are designed to have
certain transient dielectric strength characteristics based on basic impulse insulation levels
(BIL). Standard provides a table listing various system voltages, BIL, and test levels for selected
insulation classes. The transient dielectric tests demonstrate that the power transformer
insulation system has the necessary dielectric strength to withstand the voltages indicated in
the tables.

Table 1 - Requirements and tests for different categories of windings

Category Highest Tests

of voltage for Lightning Switching Long Short Separate
winding equipment impulse impulse duration duration Source
Um (LI) (SI) AC (ACLD) AC AC
(ACSD)
Uniform Um≤72.5 Type Not Not Routine Routine
Insulation applicable applicable
Uniform 72.5<Um≤170 Routine Not Special Routine Routine
and Non- applicable
Uniform 170<Um<300 Routine Routine Routine Special Routine
insulation (Note) (Note)
≥ 300 Routine Routine Routine Special Routine
(Note)
NOTE: If the ACSD test is specified, the SI test is not required. This should be clearly stated
in the bidding document.

Table 2 - Rated withstand voltages for transformer windings

Highest voltage Rated lightning Rated Switching Rated short-

for equipment, Um impulse withstand Impulse withstand duration induced
KV r.m.s. test voltage voltage, Phase to or Separate source
KV (Peak) Earth AC withstand
KV (Peak) voltage
KV r.m.s.
1.1 - - 3
3.6 20 - 10
7.2 60 - 20
12 70 - 28
17.5 95 - 38
24 125 - 50
36 170 - 70
72.5 325 - 140
145 650 - 275
245 950 650 395
420 1300 1050 570

(v) Performance Characteristics

a) No-Load Loss and Excitation-Current Measurements

A transformer dissipates a constant no-load loss as long as it is energized at constant voltage,
24 hours a day, for all conditions of loading. This power loss represents a cost to the user
during the lifetime of the transformer. Maximum values of the no-load loss of transformers
are specified and often guaranteed by the manufacturer. No-load-loss measurements are
made to verify that the no-load loss does not exceed the specified or guaranteed value.
However, as per IS & IEC, the tolerance value is +15% of declared value is acceptable.

b) Load Loss and Impedance Measurements

A transformer dissipates a load loss that depends upon the transformer load current. Load
loss is a cost to the user during the lifetime of the transformer. Maximum values of the load
loss of transformers at rated current are specified and often guaranteed by the manufacturer.
Load-loss measurements are made to verify that the load loss does not exceed the specified
or guaranteed value. A tolerance of +15% is allowed over declared loss as per relevant IS &
IEC.

c) Winding Resistance Measurements

Measurements of dc winding resistance are of fundamental importance because they form

the basis for determining the following: Resistance measurements, taken at known
temperatures, are used in the calculation of winding conductor I2 R losses. The I2 R losses at
known temperatures are used to correct the measured load losses to a standard reference
temperature. Resistance measurements, taken at known temperatures, provide the basis to
determine the temperature of the same winding at a later time by measuring the resistance
again. From the change in resistance, the change in temperature can be deduced. This
measurement is employed to determine average winding temperatures at the end of heat run
tests. Resistance measurements across the transformer terminals provide an assessment of
the quality of internal connections made to the transformer windings. Loose or defective
connections are indicated by unusually high or unstable resistance readings.

d) Heat Run Tests

The maximum allowable average and hottest-spot temperature rises of the windings over
ambient temperature and the maximum allowable temperature rise of the top oil of the
transformer are specified by standards and are guaranteed by the manufacturer. The purpose
of temperature-rise tests is to demonstrate that the transformer will deliver rated load
without exceeding the guaranteed values of the temperature rises of the windings and oil.
According to the standards, these tests are performed at the minimum and maximum load
ratings of a transformer.

e) Short-Circuit-Withstand Tests

Short-circuit currents during through-fault events expose the transformer to mechanical

stresses caused by magnetic forces, with typical magnitudes expressed in thousands of
kilograms. Heating of the conductors and adjacent insulation due to I 2R losses also occurs
during a short-circuit fault. The maximum mechanical stress is primarily determined by the
square of the peak instantaneous value of current. Hence, the short-circuit magnitude and
degree of transient offset are specified in the test requirements. Fault duration and frequency
of occurrence also affect mechanical performance. Therefore, the number of faults,
sometimes called “shots,” during a test and the duration of each fault are specified. Conductor
and insulation heating is for the most part determined by the rms value of the fault current
 and the fault duration. Short-circuit-withstand tests are intended primarily to demonstrate
the mechanical-withstand capability of the transformer against manufacturer demonstrated
calculation on Thermal capability during engineering stage.

4.0 Measurement of Winding Resistance

General Resistance measurement helps to determine the following:

(a) Calculation of the I2R losses.

(b) Calculation of winding temperature at the end of a temperature rise test.

(c) As a benchmark for assessing possible damage in the field.

4.1. Determination of Cold Temperature

The resistance is measured at ambient (cold) temperature and then converted to resistance
at 750C, for all practical purpose of comparison with specified design values, previous results
and diagnostics. The cold temperature of the winding shall be determined as accurately as
possible when measuring the cold resistance. The following should be observed.

4.2. TRANSFORMER WINDINGS IMMERSED IN INSULATING LIQUID

The temperature of the winding shall be assumed to be the same as the average temperature
of the insulating liquid, provided:

(a) The windings are under insulating liquid without excitation and without current in the
winding for three to eight hours (depending upon the size of the transformer) before the cold
resistance measurement.

(b) The temperature of the insulating liquid has stabilized, and the difference between top
and bottom temperature does not exceed 5oC.

4.3. TRANSFORMER WINDINGS WITHOUT INSULATING LIQUID

The temperature of the winding shall be recorded as the average of several thermometers or
thermocouples inserted between the coils, with care taken to see that their measuring probes
are as nearly as possible in actual contact with the winding conductors. It should not be
assumed that the windings are at the same temperature as the surrounding air.

4.4. Measurement Method

Bridge methods or high-accuracy digital instrumentation are generally preferred because of

their accuracy and convenience. The current rating of the measuring instrument should not
be very low for large inductive objects. In case of delta connected windings of a large rating
transformer, the resistance meter should have adequate current rating.

For star connected windings with neutral brought out, the resistance may be measured by
two methods:

• Between line and neutral

For small transformer with star connected windings, the resistance may be measured
between phases (line to line), and then resistance of the individual windings shall be
determined by dividing the value by 2. This will rule out the effect of the resistance of the
neutral lead and bus bars which is significant in comparison to phase resistance of small
 transformers. However, for the delta connected windings, measurements shall be made
between pairs of line terminals. In this case the resistance per winding will be 1.5 X measured
resistance between the pair of line terminals.

The following precautions shall be taken to minimize errors while performing the test as
follows:

(a) Charged battery of sufficient capacity of at least 10 AH shall be used with the bridge to
avoid errors due to drop in battery voltage during measurements.

(b) To reduce the high inductive effect, it is advisable to use a sufficiently high current to
saturate the core. Therefore, the measuring instruments shall have high ranges as well as large
deflection.

(c) The polarity of the core magnetization shall be kept same during all resistance readings. A
reversal in magnetization of the core can change the time constant and result in erroneous
readings.

(d) The voltmeter leads shall be independent of the current leads and shall be connected as
closely as possible to the terminals of the winding to be measured. This is to avoid including
in the reading the resistances of current-carrying leads and their contacts and of extra lengths
of leads.

(e) Readings shall not be taken until after the current and voltage have reached steady state
values. (f) The current used shall not exceed 15% of the rated current of the winding whose
resistance is to be measured. Larger values may cause inaccuracy due to heating of the
winding and thereby changing its temperature and resistance.

5.0 Measurement of Voltage Ratio, Polarity and Check of Voltage Vector Relationship
5.1. Ratio Test
5.1.1. GENERAL ·
• The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the high-
voltage winding to that in the low-voltage winding.
• When the transformer has taps, the turn ratio shall be determined for all taps and
for the full winding.
• The ratio tests shall be made at lower voltage and the voltage shall be applied to
the winding with higher voltage rating.
• In case of three-phase transformers, when each phase is independent and
accessible, single-phase supply can be used; although, when convenient, three-
phase supply may be used.
5.1.2. The tolerances for ratio error is ±0.5% as specified in IS 2026 Part 1 and IEC 60076-
1.
5.1.3. Ratio Test Methods
Various types of ratio test methods are given in IS: 2026 Part 1 and IEC 60076 -
1. Out of these, Ratio Bridge method is most commonly adopted. In this method,
the turn ratio on each tapping between pairs of winding shall be measured by a
direct reading ratio meter. This method gives more accurate results as
compared to other methods described in aforesaid standards.
The modern ratio bridge can also be used to test polarity, phase relation and
phase sequence. More accurate results can be obtained using a ratio bridge that
provides phase-angle correction.
5.1.4. Polarity and Vector Group Verification
Polarity and phase-relation tests are of interest primarily because of their
bearing on paralleling or banking two or more transformers. Phase-relation tests
are made to determine angular displacement and relative phase sequence.
Phase-relation or vector group verification test is performed on a three-phase
transformer or on a bank of three single-phase transformers.

Fig-1: Polarity by Alternating voltage test

5.1.5. POLARITY BY ALTERNATING-VOLTAGE TEST

For a single-phase transformer having a ratio of transformation of 30 to 1 or less,
the polarity test shall be done as follows. The line terminal of high voltage winding
(1.1) shall be connected to the adjacent line terminal low-voltage winding (2.1) as
shown in Fig. 1
Any convenient value of alternating voltage shall be applied to the full high-voltage
winding and readings shall be taken of the applied voltage and the voltage between
the right-hand adjacent high-voltage and low-voltage leads.
When the later reading is greater than the former, the polarity is additive.
When the later reading is less than the former (indicating the approximate
difference in voltage between that of the high-voltage and low-voltage windings),
the polarity is subtractive.
5.1.6. Vector Group
To determine the phase relationship and polarity of transformers, typical test
connections and check measurements are shown below:
(a) Connect neutral point of star connected winding with earth.
(b) Join 1U of HV and 2U of LV.
(c) Apply 415V, 3 phase supply to HV terminals
Example 1
For HV-Delta/LV-Star Transformer: Connect 1U to 2U,
MEASURE 1W-2V, 1W-2W, 1U-2W, 1V-2V, 1V-2W
 VOLTAGE RELATION
1W-2V=1W-2W
1W-2V<1W-1U
1V-2V< 1V-2W
1V-2V < 1U – 1W

Example 2: For HV-Star/LV-Delta Transformer

Connect 1U to 2U
MEASURE 1W-2V, 1W-2W, 1U-2W, 1V-2V, 2W-
1V-2W
VOLTAGE RELATION
1U-N=(1U-2W)+(2W-N)
1W-2W = 1V-2W
1W-2V > 1V-2V

The test shall be conducted with three-phase supply and voltmeters.

By the measured voltage data it should ensure that the desired conditions of vector group and
polarity are fulfilled.
6.0 Measurement of No-Load Loss and Excitation Current
6.1. General
No-load (excitation) losses are those losses that are incident to the excitation of the
transformer. No-load (excitation) losses include core loss, dielectric loss and conductor
loss in the winding due to excitation current. These losses change with the change in
excitation voltage.

Excitation current (no-load current) is the current that flows in any winding used to excite
the transformer when all other windings are open-circuited. It is generally expressed in
percent of the rated current of the winding in which it is measured.

6.2. NO-LOAD LOSS TEST

The purpose of the no-load loss test is to measure no-load losses at a specified excitation
voltage and a specified frequency. The no-load loss determination shall be based on a
sinewave voltage. The average-voltage voltmeter method is the most accurate method
for correcting the measured no-load losses to a sine-wave basis and is recommended. This
method employs two-parallel-connected voltmeters; one is an average-responding
(possibly rms calibrated) voltmeter; the other is a true rms-responding voltmeter. The
readings of both voltmeters are employed to correct the no-load losses to a sine-wave
basis, using equation given in paragraph for waveform correction of no-load losses.

Losses are measured at 90%, 100%, 110%, of rated voltage for checking G.T.P. and for
reference purpose.
6.2.1. VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY FOR NO-LOAD LOSS TEST
The operating and performance characteristics of a transformer are based upon rated
voltage and rated frequency, unless otherwise specified. Therefore, the no-load loss test
is conducted with rated voltage impressed across the transformer terminals, using a
voltage source at a frequency equal to the rated frequency of the transformer under test,
unless otherwise specified.
For the determination of the no-load losses of a single-phase transformer or a three-phase
transformer, the frequency of the test source should be within ± 0.5% of the rated
frequency of the transformer under test. If the excitation frequency is beyond the
specified tolerance, then the test voltage shall be adjusted to maintain the V/f ratio
corresponding to the ratio of rated voltage and rated frequency. The voltage shall be
adjusted to the specified value as indicated by the average-voltage voltmeter.
Simultaneous values of rms voltage, rms current, electrical power and the average
voltmeter readings shall be recorded. For a three-phase transformer the average of the
three voltmeter readings shall be the desired nominal value of the voltage.

Fig-4: Three phase transformer connections for No-Load Loss and excitation
current tests using three wattmeter method

6.2.2. Measurement of Excitation (no-load) Current

The excitation (no-load) current of a transformer is the current that maintains the rated
magnetic flux excitation in the core of the transformer. The excitation current is usually
expressed in per unit or in percent of the rated line current of the winding in which it is
measured. Measurement of excitation current is usually carried out in conjunction with
the tests for no-load losses. RMS current is recorded simultaneously during the test for
no-load losses using the average-voltage voltmeter method. This value is used in
calculating the per unit or percent excitation current. For a three-phase transformer, the
excitation current is calculated by taking the average of the magnitude of the three line
currents. The tolerance for no-load current is +30% of declared value as per IEC.
7.0 Measurement of Short-Circuit Impedance and Load Loss
7.1. General
The load losses of a transformer are those losses incident to a specified load carried by
the transformer. Load losses include I 2 R loss in the windings due to load current and stray
losses due to eddy currents induced by leakage flux in the windings, core clamps, magnetic
shield, tank walls and other conducting parts. Stray losses may also be caused by
 circulating currents in parallel windings or strands. Load losses are measured by applying
a short circuit across either the high voltage winding or the low voltage winding and
applying sufficient voltage across the other winding to cause a specified current to flow in
the windings. The power loss within the transformer under these conditions equals the
load losses of the transformer at the temperature of test for the specified load current.
The impedance voltage of a transformer between a pair of windings is the voltage
required to circulate rated current through one of two specified windings when the other
winding is short circuited, with the windings connected as for rated voltage operation.
Impedance voltage is usually expressed in per unit or percent of the rated voltage of the
winding across which the voltage is applied and measured. The impedance voltage is
measured during the load loss test by measuring the voltage required to circulate test
current in the windings. The measured voltage is the impedance voltage at the test
frequency and the power loss dissipated within the transformer is equal to the load losses
at the temperature of test and at rated load. The impedance voltage is corrected to the
rated frequency and the load losses are corrected to a reference temperature using the
formulas specified in this standard.
7.2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE VALUES OF LOAD LOSSES AND IMPEDANCE VOLTAGE
The magnitude of the load losses and the impedance voltage will vary depending on the
positions of tap changers, if any in various windings. These changes are due to the changes
in the magnitudes of load currents and associated leakage-flux linkages as well as being
due to changes in stray flux and accompanying stray losses.
7.2.1. Temperature
Load losses are also a function of temperature. The I2R component of the load losses
increases with temperature, while the stray loss component decreases with temperature.
7.2.2. Instrument Error at Low Power Factor
At low power factors, judicious selection of measurement method and test system
components is essential for accurate and repeatable test results. The phase-angle errors
in the instrument transformers, measuring instruments, bridge networks and accessories
affect the load loss test results. Procedures for correcting the load losses for meeting
phase-angle errors are described in IEC Publication 60076-8.
7.3. Methods for Measuring Load Losses and Impedance Voltage
Test Conditions
To determine the load losses and impedance voltage with sufficient accuracy, the
following conditions shall be met:
1. The temperature of the insulating liquid has stabilized and the difference between
top and bottom oil temperatures does not exceed 5 0C.
2. The temperature of the windings shall be taken immediately either before or after
the load losses and impedance voltage test. The average shall be taken as the
winding temperature for computation of losses.
3. The conductors used to short-circuit the low voltage, high current winding of a
transformer shall have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than the
corresponding transformer winding leads.
4. The test current shall be at least 50% of the rated current of the winding across which
the voltage is applied.
5. The measurement of losses shall be done at the earliest after excitation of the
transformer to the test current to avoid heating of the winding resulting in increase
in resistance.
7.4. WATTMETER-VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD FOR LOAD LOSS AND IMPEDANCE
VOLTAGE TEST For three-phase transformers, three wattmeter method is used as shown
in Fig-5.
7.5. MEASUREMENT WITH POWER ANALYSER
Now-a-days, digital power analysers or power meters are available for determination of
load losses. Selection of these power analysers shall be based on the desired accuracy at
low power factors. The new generation of power analysers are equipped with software
for automatic calculation of corrected losses based on the input data of voltage, current,
power, frequency and temperature.
7.6. Test Procedure
Load loss and impedance voltage tests are carried out using the apparatus and
connections shown in figure 5.
With one winding short circuited, and excited winding is connected through a balance
three phase source of power. If the three line currents cannot be balanced, their average
rms value may be considered and readings of wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeters should
be recorded.
7.7. Calculation of Load Losses and Impedance Voltage
Load loss measurement vary with temperature in general must be corrected to a
reference temperature. In addition, load loss measurement values must be corrected for
metering phase angle error. Impedance voltage measurement to vary with frequency and
values must be corrected for rated frequency.

Fig 5: Three phase transformer connection for Load Loss and Impedance Voltage
tests with three-wattmeter method.
7.8. Temperature correction of load losses
Both I2R losses and stray losses vary with temperature. The I2R losses PR (TM), of a
transformer are calculated from the ohmic resistance measurements (corrected to the
temperature TM, at which the measurements of the load losses and impedance voltage
was done) and the current that were used in the impedance measurement. These I 2R
losses subtracted from the measured load loss watt P(TM), give the stray losses, PS (TM), of
the transformer at the temperature at which the load loss test was made.
PS (TM) = P (TM) – PR (TM)
Where
PS (TM) is the calculated stray losses (watts) at temperature TM
P (TM) is the transformer load losses (watts), corrected in accordance with phase angle
error in wattmeter at temperature TM
 PR (TM) is the calculated I2R loss (watts) at temperature TM
The I2R component of load losses increases with temperature. The stray loss component
diminishes with temperature. Therefore, it is desirable to convert the load losses from the
temperature at which it is measured, TM, to another temperature, T, the two components
of the load losses are corrected separately.
Thus,
𝑇 +𝑇
P𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟(𝑇𝑀 ) [𝑇 𝑘+𝑇 ]
𝑘 𝑀

𝑇𝑘+𝑇𝑀
P𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠(𝑇𝑀 ) [ ]
𝑇𝑘+𝑇

Then

P(T) = PR (T) + PS(T)

Where

PR(T) = I2R loss (watts) at temperature T, 0C

PS(T) = Stray loss (watts) at temperature T, 0C

P(T) = Transformer load losses (watts) corrected to temperature T, 0C

TK = 2350C (copper)

TK = 2250C (aluminium)

7.9. Calculation for Impedance

The impedance shall be measured at rated frequency by applying an approximately
sinusoidal supply to one winding, with the terminal of other winding short circuited, and
with possible other winding open circuited. The supplied current should be equal to the
relevant rated current. However, in case of limitation in the rating of supply source the
current should not be less than the 50% of the rated current. Due to fluctuation in load
the supply frequency may not be always be the rated frequency. Then frequency
correction should be applied to calculate the actual impedance at rated frequency as
following. The formula for calculating the percentage impedance with current and
frequency correction is:
V𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 I𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑍 (%) = V𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑋 I𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑋 𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑
X 100

Where

Vtest = Test voltage

Vrated = Rated voltage

Irated = Rated current

Itest = Test current

ft = Test frequency

fr = Rated frequency
8.0 Measurement of Insulation Resistance

Insulation resistance tests are made to determine the insulation resistance from individual
winding to ground or between individual windings. The insulation resistance in such tests is
commonly measured in mega-ohms or may be calculated from measurements of applied
voltage and leakage current.

Note

(a) The insulation resistance of electrical apparatus is subjected to wide variation in design,
temperature, dryness, and cleanliness of the parts. When the insulation resistance falls below
prescribed values, it can, in most cases of good design and where no defect exists, be brought
up to that required standard by cleaning and drying the apparatus. The insulation resistance,
therefore, may offer a useful indication as to whether the apparatus is in suitable condition
for application of dielectric tests.

(b) Under no conditions, test should be made while the transformer is under vacuum

8.1. Instrumentation
Insulation resistance may be measured using the following equipment:
(a) A variable-voltage DC power supply with means to measure voltage and current
(generally in micro-amperes or milli-amperes)
(b) A mega-ohmmeter, motorised mega-ohmmeters are commonly available with
nominal voltages of 500 V, 1000 V, 2500 V, and 5000 V; DC or in multiples of 1000 V upto
10,000 V.
8.2. Voltage to be Applied
The DC voltage applied for measuring insulation resistance to ground shall not exceed a
value equal to the half of the applied power test voltage of the winding or 5 kV whichever
is lower.
8.3. Procedure
Insulation resistance tests shall be made with all circuits of equal voltage above ground
connected together. Circuits or groups of circuits of different voltages above ground shall
be tested separately. All external insulating parts of the transformer shall be cleaned
thoroughly to remove dust, moisture etc. before the test.
8.4. Examples
(a) High voltage to low voltage and ground, low voltage to high voltage and ground.
For two winding transformer, the following three measurements are to be taken:
- Between LV winding and tank, the HV winding being grounded
- Between HV winding and Tank, LV winding being grounded
- Between LV/HV winding collectively and tank grounded.
For three winding transformers five measurements are necessary:
- Between HV and Tank, IV & LV grounded
- Between IV and Tank, HV & LV winding grounded
- Between LV and Tank, HV & IV winding grounded,
- Between HV, IV winding and LV & Tank grounded
- Between HV, IV & LV and Tank grounded.
(b) Voltage should be increased in increments of usually one kilovolt and held for one
minute while the current is read.
(c) The test should be disconnected immediately in the event the current begins to
increase without stabilizing.
 (d) After the test has been completed, all terminals should be grounded for a period of
time sufficient to allow any trapped charges to decay to a negligible value.
8.5. Polarisation Index (PI)
The purpose of polarisation index test is to determine if equipment is suitable for
operation or even for an overvoltage test. The polarisation index is a ratio of insulation
resistance value at the end of 10 min test to that at the end of 1 min test at a constant
voltage. The total current that is developed when applying a steady state dc voltage is
composed of three components
(2) Charging current due to the capacitance of the insulation being measured. This
current falls off from maximum to zero very rapidly.
(3) Absorption current due to molecular charge shifting in the insulation. The transient
current decays to zero more slowly
(4) Leakage current which is the true conduction current of the insulation. It has a
component due to the surface leakage because of the surface contamination.

The advantage of PI is that all of the variables that can affect a single IR reading, such as
temperature and humidity, are essentially the same for both the 1 min and 10 min readings.
Since leakage current increases at a faster rate with moisture present than does absorption
current, the IR readings will not increase as fast with insulation in poor condition as with
insulation in good condition. After 10 min the leakage current becomes constant and effects
of charging current and absorption current die down. It is recommended that PI value for
power transformer shall be better than 1.3.

8.6. Interpretation of Results

Insulation resistance varies with applied voltage and reduces with increase in temperature.
Any comparison must be made with measurements at the same voltage and temperature. The
significance of values of insulation resistance tests generally requires some interpretation,
depending on the design and the dryness and cleanliness of the insulation involved. When a
user decides to make insulation resistance test, it is recommended that insulation resistance
values be measured periodically (during maintenance shutdown) and that these periodic
values be plotted. Substantial variations in the plotted values of insulation resistance should
be investigated for cause.

Note: At the time testing of Insulation Resistance, Ambient Temperature, Oil Temperature and
% Relative Humidity shall be recorded.

9.0 Tests on On-Load Tap-Changers

9.1. Operation Test

With the tap-changer fully assembled on the transformer the following sequence of
operations shall be performed without failure:

(a) With the transformer de-energised, eight complete cycles of operations (a cycle of
operation goes from one end of the tapping range to the other, and back again).
(b) With the transformer de-energised, and with the auxiliary voltage reduced to 85% of
its rated value, one complete cycle of operation.
(c) With the transformer energized at rated voltage and frequency at no load, one
complete cycle of operation
(d) With one winding short circuited and, as far as practicable, rated current according to
IEC 60076-1 in the two windings, 10 tap-change operations across the range of two
 steps on each side from where a coarse or reversing changeover selector operates, or
otherwise from the middle tapping.
9.1.1. High voltage withstand test on auxiliary equipment and wiring after assembly

(a) The wiring for auxiliary power, and control circuitry shall be subjected to a 1 min AC
separate source test of 2 kV to earth. The test is passed if no voltage collapse or other
sign of breakdown occurs.
(b) The wiring for current transformer secondary windings shall be tested at 2.5 kV AC to
earth for 1 min. The test shall be carried out at the manufacturer’s works. If the
current transformer knee- point voltage exceeds 2 kV AC the test shall be performed
at 4 kV AC. The test is passed if no voltage collapse or other sign of breakdown occurs.
10.0 Dielectric Tests:

A failure of the non-self-restoring internal insulation is catastrophic and normally leads

to the transformer being out of service for a long period, while an external flashover may
involve only a short interruption of service without causing lasting damage. Therefore, it
may be that, for increased safety, higher test voltages are specified by the purchaser for
the internal insulation of the transformer than for the external insulation of other
components in the system. When such a distinction is made, the external clearances
must be adjusted to fully cover the internal insulation test requirements.

(a) highest voltage for equipment U, applicable to a transformer winding, the highest
r.m.s. phase-to-phase voltage in a three-phase system for which a transformer
winding is designed in respect of its insulation
(b) rated insulation level a set of standard withstand voltages which characterize the
dielectric strength of the insulation
(c) standard insulation level a rated insulation level, the standard withstand voltages of
which are associated to U, as recommended in tables 2 and 3 of IEC 60076-3
(d) uniform insulation of a transformer winding, the insulation of a transformer winding
when all its ends connected to terminals have the same rated insulation level
(e) non-uniform insulation of a transformer winding, the insulation of a transformer
winding when it has a neutral terminal end for direct or indirect connection to earth,
and is designed with a lower insulation level than assigned for the line terminal
(f) The insulation test shall generally be made at the supplier's works with the
transformer approximately at ambient temperature, but at least at 10 0C.
(g) The transformer shall be completely assembled as in service including supervisory
equipment. It is not necessary, however, to fit elements which do not influence the
dielectric strength of the internal insulation, for example, the external cooling
equipment.
(h) If a transformer fails to meet its test requirements and the faults in a bushing, it is
permissible to replace this bushing temporarily with another bushing and continue
the test on the transformer to completion without delay. A particular case arises for
tests with partial discharge measurements, where certain types of commonly used
high-voltage bushings create difficulties because of their relatively high level of partial
discharge in the dielectric. When such bushings are specified by the purchaser, it is
permitted to exchange them for bushings of a partial discharge free type during the
testing of the transformer.
 (i) The highest voltage for equipment UM and its assigned withstand voltages, that is,
their insulation level, determine the dielectric characteristics of a transformer. They
are verified by a set of dielectric tests depending on UM.
(j) The value of Um and the insulation level which are assigned to each winding of a
transformer are part of the information to be supplied with an enquiry and with an
order. If there is a winding with non-uniform insulation, the assigned Um and the
insulation level of the neutral terminal shall also be specified by the purchaser. The
rated withstand voltages for all windings shall appear on the rating plate.
10.1. Separate source AC withstand voltage test
The separate source AC voltage test shall be made with single-phase alternating
voltage as nearly as possible on sine-wave form and not less than 80 % of the rated
frequency. The peak value of voltage shall be measured. The peak value divided by √2
shall be equal to the test value.
The test shall commence at a voltage not greater than one-third of the specified test
value, and the voltage shall be increased to the test value as rapidly as is consistent
with measurement. At the end of the test, the voltage shall be reduced rapidly to less
than one-third of the test value before switching off. On windings with non-uniform
insulation, the test is carried out with the test voltage specified for the neutral
terminal. The line terminals are then subjected to an AC induced withstand voltage.
The full test voltage shall be applied for 60 S between all terminals of the winding
under test connected together and all terminals of the remaining windings, core,
frame and tank or casing of the transformer, connected together to earth.
10.1.1. Failure detection
The test is successful if no collapse of the voltage occurs. Careful attention should be
given for evidence of possible failure that could include items, such as an indication
of smoke and bubbles rising in the oil, an audible sound such as a thump, or a sudden
increase in test circuit current. Any such indication should be carefully investigated by
observation, by repeating the test, or by other test to determine if a failure has
occurred.

The test is successful if no collapse of the test voltage occurs.

10.2. Induced AC voltage tests (ACSD, ACLD)

10.2.1. General
Short-duration induced AC withstand tests (ACSD) for uniform and non-uniform
insulation. For Um > 72,5 kv, the ACSD test is normally performed with partial
discharge measurements. The measurements of partial discharge during the
whole application of the test is a valuable tool for the supplier as well as for the
purchaser. Measuring partial discharges during the test may indicate an
insulation deficiency before breakdown occurs. The test verifies partial
discharge-free operation of the transformer during operating conditions.

The requirements for partial discharge measurement during the ACSD test may
be omitted. This shall be clearly stated at the enquiry and order stages.
Subclause 12.4 of IEC 60076-3 refers to the long duration induced AC voltage
test (ACLD) for uniform and non-uniform insulation. This test is always
performed with the measurement of partial discharges during the whole
application of the test.
 An alternating voltage shall be applied to the terminals of one winding of the
transformer. The form of the voltage shall be as nearly as possible sinusoidal,
and its frequency shall be sufficiently above the rated frequency to avoid
excessive magnetizing current during the test. The peak value of the induced
test voltage shall be measured. The peak value divided by √2 shall be equal to
the test value. The test time at full test voltage shall be 60 S for any test
frequency up to and including twice the rated frequency, unless otherwise
specified. When the test frequency exceeds twice the rated frequency, the test
time in seconds of the test shall be:

120 x (rated frequency/ test frequency), but not less than 15 S

10.2.2. Short-duration induced AC withstand voltage test (ACSD) for transformers

with uniformly insulated high-voltage windings

All three-phase transformers shall be tested with a symmetrical three-phase

supply. If a transformer has a neutral, it should be earthed during the test. On
transformers with uniformly insulated windings, only phase-to-phase tests are
carried out.

10.2.3. Transformers with Um, ≤ 72.5 KV

The phase-to-phase test voltage shall not exceed the rated induced AC
withstand voltages in tables 2. As a rule, the test voltage across an untapped
winding of the transformer shall be as close as possible to twice the rated
voltage. Normally, no partial discharge measuremeasurements are performed
during this test.

The test shall be commenced at a voltage not greater than one-third of the test
value and the voltage shall be increased to the test value as rapidly as is
consistent with measurement. At the end of the test, the voltage shall be
reduced rapidly to less than one-third of the test value, before switching off.
The test is successful if no collapse of the test voltage occurs.

10.2.4. Transformers with Um > 72,5 kV

These transformers shall, if not otherwise agreed, be tested with partial

discharge measurement. The phase-to-phase test voltages shall not exceed the
rated AC withstand voltages of tables 2. As a rule, the test voltage across an
untapped winding of the transformer shall be as close as possible to twice the
rated voltage. The partial discharge performance shall be controlled according
to the time sequence for the application of the voltage as shown in figure 6. In
order not to exceed the rated withstand voltage between phases according to
tables 2, the partial discharge evaluation level U2 shall be:
 Fig 6: Time sequence for the application of the test voltage w.r.t. earth

1,3 Um/√3 phase-to-earth and

1,3 Um phase-to-phase

The voltage with respect to earth shall be:

- switched on at a level not higher than one-third of U2;

- raised to 1,l Um /√3 & and held there for a duration of 5 min;

- raised to U2 and held there for a duration of 5 min;

- raised to U1, held there for the test time 30/60 min or as per IEC 60076-3;

- immediately after the test time, reduced without interruption to U, and held
there for a duration of at least 5 min to measure partial discharges.

- reduced to 1.1 Um /√3 & and held there for a duration of 5 min;

- reduced to a value below one-third of U2 before switching off.

During the raising of the voltage up to a level and reduction from U2 down again,
possible partial discharge inception and partial discharge extinction voltages
shall be noted.

The background noise level shall not exceed 100 PC.

NOTE: It is recommended that the background noise level should be

considerably lower than 100 PC in order to ensure that any inception and
extinction of partial discharge can be detected and recorded. The above-
mentioned value of 100 PC at 1.1 Um /√3 is a compromise for the acceptance
of the test.

The test is successful if - no collapse of the test voltage occurs: - the continuous
level of ‘apparent charge’ at U2 during the second 5 min does not exceed 300
PC on all measuring terminals;

- the partial discharge behaviour does not show a continuing rising tendency;

- the continuous level of apparent charges does not exceed 100 pC’at 1,l Um/√3.

10.3. Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage Test, Transformer Winding Um > 300 kV
 This test is intended to verify the switching impulse withstand strength of the line
terminals and its connected windings to earth and other windings, the withstand
strength between phases and along the winding under test. The impulses are applied
either directly from the impulse voltage source to a line terminal of the winding under
test, or to a lower voltage winding so that the test voltage is inductively transferred
to the winding under test. The detailed test procedures and specific test requirements
are addressed in IEC Publication 60076-3.

• Switching Impulse Wave

Polarity

The polarity of test voltage shall be negative because this reduces the risk of erratic
external flashovers in the test circuit.
Wave Shape
The voltage impulse shall have a virtual front time of at least 100 μs, a time above
90% of the specified amplitude of at least 200 μs, and a total duration from the
virtual origin to the first zero passage of at least 500 μs but preferably 1000 μs.
• Test Sequence and Records
The test sequence shall consist of one impulse of a voltage between 50% and 75 %
of the full test voltage and three subsequent impulses of full voltage. If the
oscillographic or digital recording should fail, that application shall be disregarded
and a further application made. Oscillographic or digital records shall be obtained
of at least the impulse wave-shape on the line terminal under test and preferably
the neutral current.
• Test Connections
During the test the transformer shall be in a no-load condition. Windings not used for
the test shall be solidly earthed at one-point but not short-circuited. For a single-
phase transformer, the neutral terminal of the tested winding shall be solidly earthed.
A three-phase winding shall be tested phase by phase with the neutral terminal
earthed and with the transformer so connected that a voltage of opposite polarity
and about half amplitude appears on the two remaining line terminals which may be
connected together.

To limit the voltage of opposite polarity to approximately 50% of the applied level, it
is recommended to connect high ohmic damping resistors (10 kΩ to 20 kΩ) to earth
at the non-tested phase terminals.

• Failure Detection
The test is successful if there is no sudden collapse of voltage or discontinuity of the
neutral current if recorded on the oscillographic or digital records. Additional
observation during the test (abnormal sound effect etc.) may be used to confirm the
oscillographic records, but they do not constitute evidence in themselves.
10.4. Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage Test
This test is intended to verify the impulse withstand strength of the transformer
under test. This test shall only be made on windings that have terminals brought out
through the transformer tank or cover.
When non-linear elements or surge diverters are installed for the limitation of
transferred over-voltage transients, the evaluation of test records may be different
compared to the normal impulse test. These non-linear protective devices connected
across the windings may cause difference between the reduced full wave and the full-
wave impulse oscillograms. To prove that these differences are indeed caused by
operation of these devices, this should be demonstrated by making two or more
reduced full-wave tests at different voltage levels to show the trend in their operation.
The detailed test procedure and specific test requirements are addressed in IEC
60076-3.
• Impulse Wave
The test impulse shall be a full standard lightning impulse: 1.2 μs ± 30% / 50 μs ± 20%.
But in some cases, this standard impulse shape cannot reasonably be obtained,
because of low winding inductance or high capacitance to earth. In such cases wider
tolerance may be accepted by the agreement between purchaser and customer. It is
recommended to use IEC Publication 60722 as a guide for non-standard wave shapes.
• Test Sequence
The test sequence shall consist of one impulse of a voltage between 50% to 75% of
full test voltage, and three subsequent impulses at full voltage. If, during any of these
applications, an external flashover in the circuit or across a bushing spark gap should
occur, or if the oscillographic recording should fail on any of the specified measuring
channels, that application shall be disregarded and a further application made.
• Test Connections
• During Test on, Line Terminals
The impulse test sequence is applied to each of the line terminals of the tested
winding in succession. In the case of a three-phase transformer, the other line
terminals of the winding shall be earthed directly or through a low impedance, not
exceeding the surge impedance of the connected line. If the winding has neutral
terminal, it shall be earthed directly or through a low impedance such as a current
measuring shunt.
In the case of separate-winding transformer, terminals of windings not under test are
earthed directly or through impedances, so that in all circumstances, the voltage
appearing at the terminals is limited to not more than 75% of their rated lightning
impulse withstand voltage for star connected windings, and 50% for delta- connected
windings.
In case of auto transformer, when testing the line terminal of the high voltage winding
the non-tested line terminal shall be earthed through resistors not exceeding 400 Ω
to get the impulse waveform as needed.
• Impulse Test on a Neutral Terminal
Impulse withstand capability of neutral may be verified by:

(a) Indirect application

Test impulses are applied to any one of line terminals or to all three line
terminals connected together. The neutral is connected to earth through an
impedance or is left open. Then standard lightning impulse is applied to the
line terminal which shall not exceed 75% of the rated LI withstand voltage of
the line terminal.
(b) Direct application
Test impulse corresponding to the rated withstand voltage of the neutral is
applied directly to the neutral with all line terminals earthed. In this case,
however a longer duration of front time is allowed, upto 13 μs.
• Records of test

The oscillographic or digital records obtained during calibrations and tests shall clearly
show the applied voltage impulse shape (front time, time to half value and amplitude).
The oscillograms of the current flowing to earth from the tested winding shall also be
recorded.

• Test sequence

The test sequence shall consist of one impulse of a voltage between 50% to 75% of
full test voltage, and three subsequent impulses at full voltage. If, during any of these
applications, an external flashover in the circuit or across a bushing spark gap should
occur, or if the oscillographic recording should fail on any of the specified measuring
channels, that application shall be disregarded and a further application made.

Failure Detection
• Grounded current oscillogram

In this method of failure detection, the impulse current in the grounded end of the
winding tested is measured by means of an oscilloscope or by a suitable digital
transient recorder connected across a suitable shunt inserted between the normally
grounded end of the winding and ground. Any differences in the wave shape between
the reduced full-wave and final full-wave detected by comparison of the two current
oscillograms, may be indication of failure or deviations due to non-injurious causes.
They should be fully investigated by a new reduced wave and full-wave test. Examples
of probable causes of different wave shapes are operation of protective devices, core
saturation, conditions in the test circuit external to the transformer.
The ground current method of detection is not suitable for use with chopped-wave
tests.

• Other method of failure detection

Voltage Oscillograms: Any unexplained difference between the reduced full-wave and
final full-wave detected by comparison of the two voltage oscillograms, or any such
differences observed by comparing the chopped-waves to each other and to the full-
wave up to the time of flashover, are indications of failure.

Noise : Unusual noise within the transformer at the instant of applying impulse is an
indication of trouble. Such noise should be investigated.

Measurement: Measurement of voltage and current induced in another winding may

also be used for failure detection.