Civil Engineering Short Notes

Youth Competition Times
Civil Engineering
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Chief Editor
Mr. Anand Mahajan
Compiled & Written by
Er. Maneesh Kr. Yadav
Er. Pradeep Kumar Gupta
Er. Sanjeet Maurya, Er. Rohit Singh
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INDEX
Building Material -------------------------------------------------------------3
Concrete Technology ------------------------------------------------------ 10
CPM & PERT --------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Building Construction and Maintenance Engineering ------------------ 13
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine --------------------------------- 15
Strength of Materials ------------------------------------------------------- 28
Applied Mechanics --------------------------------------------------------- 34
Soil Mechanics ------------------------------------------------------------- 36
Highway Engineering ------------------------------------------------------ 43
Railway Engineering ------------------------------------------------------- 48
Bridge Engineering --------------------------------------------------------- 50
Airport Engineering -------------------------------------------------------- 51
Tunnel Engineering -------------------------------------------------------- 52
Reinforced Cement Concrete --------------------------------------------- 53
Steel Structure--------------------------------------------------------------- 58
Structure Analysis ---------------------------------------------------------- 62
Building Estimate, Costing & Evaluation------------------------------- 64
Public Health Engineering ------------------------------------------------ 68
Surveying Engineering ---------------------------------------------------- 70
Irrigation & Hydrology Engineering ------------------------------------ 77
Civil Engineering Capsule 2 YCT
Civil Engineering Capsule
BUILDING MATERIALS
Rock minerals-
Quartz, Mica, Gypsum, Dolomite, Amphibole, Calcite,
Feldspar etc.
Hardness of stone based on Moh's scale-
Talc 1 Scratched
Gypsum 2 by the finger nail
Calcite 3 Scratched
Fluorite 4 by
Apatite 5 knife
Feldspar 6 Scarcely scratched
Quartz 7 by knife
Topaz 8 Not scratched
Corundum 9 by
Diamond 10 knife
Properties of Minerals-
Measurement of the capability of
some minerals to split along
Cleavage
certain planes parallel to the crystal
faces
Colour of the mineral in powder
Streak
form
Shine on the surface due to Classification of Rocks on the Basis of Mineral
Lustre
reflection of light of a mineral Available-
Classification of Rocks- Name of Rock Example
Mono mineralic Rocks Quartzite, Marble &
(Composed of only one Gypsum
mineral)
Granite, Trap,
Basalt, Shale,
Polymineralic Rocks
Sand Stone,
Shale, Slate
Metamorphism of Rocks-
Original Rock Metamorphic form
Granite Gneiss
Syenite Gneiss
Sand Stone Quartzite
Lime Stone Marble
Marl Marble
Dolomite Marble
Shale Slate
Mud Stone Slate
Dolerite/Basalt Schist

Explosive Material Used in blasting-
Descriptive Elasticity (kg/cm2) Name of Chemical Composition
Explosive
Very stiff rock 8×105 - 16×105 Nitroglycerine (93%) + Gun- cotton (7%)
Stiff rock 4×105 - 8×105 Blasting
Use-In deep wells, underground
Gelatine
Medium stiffness rock 2×105 - 4 ×105 works, in wet conditions.
Less stiffness rock 1×105 - 2×105 Gun Cotton Cotton with the solution of
Yielding rock 0.5×105 - 1×105 (Most (HNO3+H2SO4)
High yielding rock 0.25×105 - 0.5×105 powerful) Use-where demolitions are required
Nitroglycerine (75%) + Fine sand
(25%)
Max. bearing Dynamite
Types of rock/soil Use- Both under water
capacity (tonne/m2) and surface blasting
Lime stone 400 Potassium nitrate (65%) + Sulphur
Schist and shale 300 Blasting/
(25%) + Charcoal powder 20%
Clay shale 100 Gun powder
Use-In quarrying large blocks
Compacted sand stone 45 Potassium Chlorate (79%) + Nitro
Loose graval 25 Rock-a- benzol (21%)
Soft clay 10 Rock Use-Under water and damp situation
Compressive strength of different types of stones- blasting
Compressive strength Stone crusher and equipment-
Stone Crusher Type Equipment
(in MPa)
Trap 350-380 Primary Jaw, Impact and Gyratory
Gneiss 206-370 crusher and Hammer mill
Secondary Roll crusher, Cone crusher
Basalt 150-185
Ball mill, Roll mill and Rod
Slate 75-207 Tertiary
mill
Dolerite 90-150
Specific Gravity of Various Types of Stone-
Syenite 90-150
Name of Stone Specific gravity
Granite 75-127 Sand Stone 2.65 - 2.95
Lime stone 54 Marble 2.7 - 2.85
Sand stone 64 Granite 2.65 - 2.79
Use of various types of stone- Basalt 2.6 - 3
Name of Rock Use Slate 2.72 - 2.89
Railway ballast, Roofing, Laterite 2 - 2.2
Granite
Abutment, Pier and Sea walls Lime Stone 2 - 2.75
Marble Ornamental work Gniess 2.5 - 2.7
Lime Stone Manufacture of cement
Slate Flooring, roofing Various types of test and purpose for stone-
Quartzite Retaining wall Type of Test Determine for
Basalt Marine work, Rubble masonry Abrasion Test wearing resistance
Manufacture of Hydraulic (By Dorry Testing
Kankar
lime Machine)
Tools Used in Quarrying of Stone- Attrision Test Hardness, Toughness and
Jumper To make hole (By Deval Testing rate of wearing resistance
Scraping spoon For Cleaning hole Machine)
Dipper For making deep hole Crushing Strength Compressive strength
Priming Needle To make space for fuse Test (By C.T.M)
(IS : 1121-1974)
For tamping of explosive
Length- 600 mm Smith's Test Soluble minerals/ Muddy matter
Tamping Rod
Brard's Test Frost resistance
Dia (φ)- 16 mm
Acid Test Weather resistance
Steps for Blasting-
Crystallization Test Durability
Boring→ Cleaning→ Charging→ Tamping→ Firing (IS : 1126-1974)
Quantity of Explosive- Hardness Test Hardness
N = [L.L.R(in m)]2 ×1.5 (in gm.) (Moh's Scale)
[L.L.R(in m)]2 Impact Test Toughness
= (By Page Impact
0.008 Machine)
[L.L.R(in cm)]2 Water Absorption % Voids (≯5% for good
=
61 Test (IS 1124-1974) stone)
Dorry Testing Machine Test-
Friction Factor Type of Rock Frog 10 cm × 4 cm × 1 or 2 cm
0-14 Soft rock Stock Board 21 cm × 10 cm × 6 cm
14-17 Medium hard (To make frog)
> 17 Hard rock
Pallet Board 30 cm × 12 cm × 1 cm
(To dry the brick)
Impact Test- Sequence for the Preparation of Brick Earth-
Toughness coefficient Toughness Unsoiling → Digging → Weathering→
19 or More Very tough Blending →Tempering/Kneeding
16 to 17 Moderate tough Burning Zone of Bricks-
16 or below Poor tough Burning Temperature- 900 - 1200°C
Attrision Test- Dehydration Oxidation Vitrification
Friction Co-efficient Quality of Stones Zone Zone Zone
400-650°C 650-900°C 900-1200°C
2% Good
Efficiency of Kiln-
3% Medium
Ist Class Remark
5% or More Useless Types of kiln Brick
Common Brick Size- outcome
Brick Usual size Nominal Pazawah 50-60% –
Classification size Allahabad kiln 60-70% Intermittent
" " " Bull's Trench kiln 70-80% Semicontinuous
3 3
Conventional/ 9"× 4 × 2 9"× 4 1 × 3" Hoffman's kiln 80-90% Continuous
Traditional/ 8 4 2 Class of Brick on the Basis of Strength-
user size (23×11.2×7.0) (23×11.4×7.6) IS : 10719557-1970
cm cm Class Comp. Strength
Standard/ Grade A ≮ 105 kg/cm2
Modular/ (19×9×9) cm (20×10×10)
Normal size cm Grade AA ≮ 140 kg/cm2
Ingredients of Good Brick Earth- Grade B ≮ 70 kg/cm2
Ingredients % in brick
Silica (SiO2) 50 - 60 Grade C ≮ 35 kg/cm2
Alumina (Al2O3) 20 - 30 Types of Refractory Bricks and its composition-
Lime (CaO) 2-5 Bricks Composition
Silica- 95-97%,
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3-5 Acid Refractory
Lime- 1-2%
Magnesia (MgO) <1 Magnesia- 85% (max)
Alkalies <1 Basic Refractory CaO- 25%(max)
Functions of Various Brick Ingredients- Silica- 5.5%(max)
Ingredients Function Neutral Chrome + Iron ore + Bauxite
Imparts Strength Refractory ore+ Silica + Magnesia
Silica Excess-Brittle Efflorescence Test- According to IS 3495 (part-III) : 1992
White patches Alkalies
(Due to loss of cohesion)
Up to 10% Slight
Impart plasticity 10 - 50% Moderate
Alumina Excess-Cracks developed, >50% Severe
corner deformed Presence in large amount Serious
Used as flux (Reduce melting Sample Required for Various Brick Test-
point) I.S. Code No. of
Lime Bricks Test
Excess- Brick over burnt and Sample
shape changed Compressive strength test 3495-Part I 6
Red colour, Used as flux Water absorption test 3495-Part II 5
Iron Oxide Excess- Provide dark blue or Efflorescence test 3495-Part III –
blackish colour Warpage test 3495-Part IV 10
Yellow colour and its prevent Dimension test 1077 20
Magnesia to shrinkage, Note- Tolrance in brick dimension test -
Excess-Give yellowish colour Length - 380 ± 8 cm
Width - 180 ± 4 cm
Special Forms of brick- Engineering
Figure Brick Brick
Brick
Figure Class-A 4 -5 >125 D.P.C
Name Name Multistorey
Class-B 7 75
Rounded Cant building
ended 15-25
Sundry bricks - -
≃ 21
Double Compass
Type of Lime Obtained After Calcination-
cant
Pure lime stone Pure lime
Bull Perforated Dolomite Magnesia lime
nosed Kankar Hydraulic lime
Hollow Coping Chalk Pure lime
Gypsum Pure lime
Queen King
Calcined lime stone Quick lime
closer Closer Non-hydraulic
Bat Calcined dolomite stone
3 lime
Brick
4 Shale Pure lime
General Data about bricks-
Chemical Formula Name of lime
Water Compressive
Types of
absorp- Strength Use
Calcium carbonate Lime Stone
bricks [CaCO3]
tion (%) (Kg/cm2)
Facing work
Quick lime, Lump
1st Class ≤ 20 >105 Calcium oxide [CaO] lime, white lime, Rich
R.B.Slab
lime, Pure lime
Hidden
2nd Class ≤ 22 >70 Calcium Hydroxide Slaked lime, Fat lime
Structure
[Ca (OH)2]
Temporary
3rd Class > 25 >35 brick Calcium Sulphate Plaster of Paris
masonry 1
[CaSO 4 . H 2 O]
2
Bricks
4th Class Calcium Sulphate Gypsum
ballast, lime
(Jhamma or [CaSO4 . 2H2O]
10 -12 350 concrete
over burnt
foundation, Chemical Reaction of Lime
bricks)
road metals 816ºC
1. CaCO3 
Calcination
→ CaO + CO2 ↑
Perforated Pure lime
Partition
Bricks 15 70 2. CaO + H2O → Ca (OH)2
Wall
(IS 2222) 3. Ca (OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O + Heat
For making
heat proof, Feedly Moderate Eminently
Hollow Bricks Item
20 35 sound proof, Hydraulic Hydraulic Hydraulic
(IS 3952) description
damp proof lime lime Lime
walls % 11 to 20% 21 to 30%
05 to 10%
Paving impurities
Road Slacking Few 1 or 2 1 day or
Bricks <5 350
pavement action minutes hours more
(IS 3583)
Setting 3 week or 1 week or 1 days or
Soling
Soling of action more more more
Bricks < 20 50 Hydraulicity Feebly Moderate Eminently
road
(IS 5779) For Use in
Used for
Kiln lining, superior very damp
Refractory ordinary
furnace Use type of places
Bricks 4 -10 350 masonry
boiler masonry
(IS 6902) work
combustion work

Classification of lime as Per B.I.S. (IS :712)
Chemical Components of Portland Cement- According to IS: 10262:1982 compressive strength

Oxide/Composition Function for various grade of OPC-
/Average composition Grade Compressive strength (MPa)
Lime (CaO) Strength & soundness A 31.9 - 36.8
60-65% ≈ 63% control B 36.8 - 41.7
Silica (SiO2) Due to excess reduces C 41.7 - 46.6
17-25% ≈ 20% strength D 46.6 - 51.5
Responsible for quick E 51.5 - 56.4
Alumina (Al2O3) F 56.4 - 61.3
setting excess of its
3-8% ≈ 6%
lowers strength Decreasing order of Bogue's compound based on
Iron oxide(Fe2O3) Used as flux the following properties:
0.5-6% ≈ 3% Strength C3S> C2S > C3A > C4 AF
Magnesia (MgO) Imparts colour & C3A > C4 AF > C3S > C2S
Reaction with water
0.1- 4% ≈ 2% hardness
Heat of hydration C3A > C3S > C4 AF > C2S
Gypsum Used as retarder
3-6% ≈ 3% Rate of hydration C4 AF > C3A > C3S > C2S
Sulphur (SO3) Impart soundness
Water required for hydration-
1-3% ≈ 1%
Alkalies Used as flux & • Bound water = 23% by weight of cement
0.2-1% ≈ < 1% Imparts efflorescence
• Gel water = 15% by weight of cement
Chemical Compositions or Bogue's compound of
cement- • Total minimum water for Complete hydration
Composition Function
Chemical/Bogue's = 38%
/Avg.
Compound
composition Note- Cement reaction is an exothermic.
7 days Required Consistency for Various Cement test at
C3S (Alite) 25-50% ≈ 42% hardness (27 ± 2°C)-
& strength Initial & final setting time test 0.85P
Ultimate Soundness test 0.78P
C2S (Belite) 20-45% ≈32%
strength Compressive strength test  P 
C3A (Celite) 8-12% ≈11.5% Flash set After 3 days - 16 N/mm2  + 3.5  %
2
 4 
Poorest After 7 days - 22 N/mm
C4AF (Felite) 6-10% ≈ 9% cementing Tensile strength test P 

After 3 days - 2 N/mm2  + 2.5  %
value 5 
After 7 days - 2.5 N/mm2
Minimum Surface Area of Various Cement-
Cement type Surface area cm2/gm Reduction in comp. strength of cement due to
OPC 2250 aging-
PPC 3000 3 months 20%
LHC 3200 6 months 30%
HAC 2250
12 months 40%
SSC 4000
Hydrophobic cement 3500 24 months 50%
Setting Time & use of various types of cement- Timber classification on the Basis of Growth–
Cement Setting time Use
Type Initial Final
Bridge, road
Rapid
30 maintenance
Hardening 10 Hrs.
Min. or repairing
(IS:8041)
work
Precast
structure,
High 30 refractory
Alumina Min - bricks, used
5 Hrs.
Cement 3.30 where
(IS: 6452) Hrs. chemical
attacks are
more
Foundation
basement,
Quick
under water
Setting 5 Min. 30 Min.
structure, mass
Cement
concrete raft
foundation
Low Heat Mass conc.
60 600
Cement work such as Macro Structure of Exogenous Tree-
Min. Min.
(IS: 12600) Dam
The innermost part or core
Portland Running water Medulla (Pith)
of the stem of a tree
Pozzolana 30 600 structure
Heart wood Death portion of the tree
Cement Min. Min. foundation,
(IS:1489 P-I) basement Outer layers of a log of
Sap wood
wood
Super Rcc pipes,
Sulphate where sulphate Cambium To growth wood cells
30 600
Portland attack is more, Protect the wood against
Min. Min. Bark
Cement Hydraulic mechanical damage
(IS: 6909) structure Transverse septa The vascular tissue which
Sulphate Sea water (Medullary rays) Encloses the pith
Resisting 30 600 works, sewers, A cellular tissue and
Cement Min. Min. lining of Annual rings woody fibre arranged in
(IS:12330) canals distinct concentric circle
Portland Mass Properties of a Good Timber-
Slag Cement concreting
30 600 Density 540 kg/m3
(IS: 455- used as OPC
1989) Min. Min.
Specific gravity 1.54
Moisture content 10-12%
White Plaster, ceiling
Cement Ornamental Shrinkage 0.1-0.3% along fibers
Coloured ..... works Terrazo Swelling 0.1-0.8% along length
Cement .... floor
(IS:8042)
Sound Conductivity 2-17 time more than air
Hydrophobic Water tight Strength of timber at 12% Moisture Content-

Cement ..... ..... structure in Shear strength 6.5 -14.5 N/mm2
(IS:8043) basement
Bending strength 10.2 -18.2 N/mm2
Masonry Masonry
90 Compressive strength 33 -77.5 N/mm2
Cement 24 Hrs. works
Min.
(IS:3466) Tensile strength 80-190 N/mm2
ASCU Treatment-Developed by Forest Institute
Dehradun
Timber can be made fire resistant by Sir Abel's
Process.
Ingredients of Paint-
Ingredient Properties
Base • Metallic oxide is the principal
constituent
• Zinc white is weather resistant.
• Aluminium powder used for all
aluminium paints
Ex.- White lead, Red lead, Zinc

oxide, Aluminium oxide, Iron
Defects of Timber- oxide, Lithophone etc.
Checks Longitudinal cracks which is Vehicle/ • Holds the constituent of paint
normal to the annual rings Binder and spread over surface
Shakes Longitudinal separation b/w the • It forms the body of the paint
Annual rings. • Linseed oil is the most widely
Star shake Wide at outside and diminish used as vehicle
inside
Heart shake Wide at center and diminish out Ex.- Linseed oil, Nut oil, Poppy
side oil and Tung oil
Cup shake Caused due to rupture of tissue in Solvent/ • Used to thin the paints, increase
circular direction. It is developed Thinners the covering properties
due to non uniform growth • Turpentine is used extensively
Ring shake When cup shake cover the entire Ex.- Petroleum, Spirit, Naptha,
ring. benzene, Turpentine oil etc.
Radial shake When timber is exposed to sun Driers/ • Accelerate drying of the vehicle
for seasoning after being felled Plasticizers • Quantity limited to 8%
down • Red lead is best for prime coat
Knots These are the base of branches over steel.
which are broken or cut-off from
the trees. Ex.- Letharge (Oxidized lead),
Rind Galls Abnormal growth or curved Lead acetate [Red lead (Pb3O4)]
swellings on the body of tree. • Reduce weight, increase
Use of Various type of Timber- durability.
• Best Adultrant is Barium
Guava Scientific instruments Adultrants/ Sulphate.
Babool Agricultural instruments Extenders
Mulberry Sports Goods Ex.- Barium Sulphate, Calcium
Jackfruit Musical instruments Carbonate, Magnesium Silicate
and Silica.
Benteak Boat
Plywood Teak Colouring Pigments-
Note-Swelling of Woods along fiber length-0.1-0.8% Lamp black, Ivory black Black
Dry Rot- Prussian blue, Indigo Blue
• Turning of timber tissues into a dry powder due to Chrome yellow, Yellow orchre Yellow
fungi attack.
Burnt umber, Burnt Sienna Brown
• It is due to imperfect seasoning or ventilation. Vermillion, Red lead Red
Wet Rot-
Copper sulphate, Chromium oxide Green
• Disintegration of tissues of the timber due to alternate
wetting and drying. White lead Lithophone White

Ingredient for Different Types of Paint- Ec = 5700 f ck N / mm 2 [ I.S.456 :1978]
Types of Base Vehicle Use
paints Ec = 5000 f ck N / mm 2 [ I.S.456 : 2000]
Aluminium Aluminiu Sprit or Painting in Target mean strength of concrete
Paint m powder Oil Poles,
Varnish Tower, f CM = f CK + 1.65σ
Metal
roofs σ = Standard deviation
Asbestos/ Asbestos - Stopping
Fire proof minerals leakage in FCM = Target mean strength
paint sloppy FCK = Characteristic strength
roofs, Permissible shear stress of reinforced concrete
painting of
gutters etc. f
= ck
Bitumenous Natural Mineral High 30
Paint Asphalt or spirit or Water
residual Neptha Resistance σ
Coefficient of variation C v =
bitumen µ
Plastic Paint Plastic Water Interiors
powder of Where,
auditorium
, µ=
∑X n = No.of sample
Showroom n
s and
offices. Classification and Grades of the concrete-
Cellulose Methyl or Petrolium Painting Designati Mix. Characteri Group No. of
Paint Ethyl cars, ships on Proporti stic grade
Cellulose and
on Compressi
aeroplanes
. (Cement ve Strength
Cement White or Water Exterior : Sand: in N/mm2
Paint Coloured surface of Coarse
[IS :5410] cement building Aggregat
Enamel White Varnish Acid e)
paint Zinc, resistance,
M-5 1:5:10 5 Lean
White alkalis & 2
Lead water M-7.5 1:4:8 7.5 Concrete
proof
Luminous Calcium Varnish Metal M-10 1:3:6 10
paint Sulphide surface & Ordinary
M-15 1:2:4 15
sign board concrete 3
M-20 1:1.5:3 20
M-25 1:1:2 25
M-30 30
Stripping Time of Formwork- M-35 35
Standard
Formwork Types Stripping M-40 40 7
time Concrete
M-45 45
Vertical formwork to column, 16-24 Hours
wall, beams M-50 50
Soffit formwork to slab 3 days M-55 Design 55
Soffit formwork to beam 7 days M-60 mix 60
Props to slab M-65 Conc. 65 High
(a) span upto 4.5 m 7 days Strength
M-70 70 5
(b) span over 6 m 14 days
M-75 75 Concrete
(a) span upto 6 m 14 days
(b) span over 6 m 21 days M-80 80

Number of sample Required for testing of conc. Fineness Modulus of Aggregate
Conc. quantity No. of Sample Type of Agg. Fineness Modulus
3 3 Range
1m –5m 1 sample
Coarse Agg. 6 - 8.5
6 m3 – 15 m3 2 sample
All-in one Agg. 3.5 - 6
16 m3 – 30 m3 3 sample Fine Agg. 2 - 3.5
3 3
31 m – 50 m 4 sample Fine Sand 2.2 - 2.6
> 50 m3 4+1 for each 50m3 work Medium Sand 2.6 - 2.9
Note - 1 Sample = 6 cube Coarse Sand 2.9 - 3.2
Standard deviation of concrete- Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of
Grade of concrete Standard Concrete with 20 mm and 40 mm Size of
deviation (σ) Aggregate
(N/mm2) Degree of Slump Compa- Use for which
M-10 to M-15 3.5 Worka- in mm cting Conc.is Suitable
bility Factor
M-20 to M-25 4
Used in road
M-30 to M-55 5 making-roads
Very Low 0-25 0.78
For Maximum 20 mm Nominal Size Aggregate- vibrated by power
operated machines
Exposer Min. Cement Min. Grade of Max. Water Min.
Conc. Cement Concrete For foundations
Condition Content
(Kg/m3) Ratio Cover with light
(mm) reinforcement,
Low 25-50 0.85
P.C. RCC P.C. RCC P.C. RCC Roads vibrated
by hand
Mild 220 300 - M-20 0.60 0.55 20 operated Machines
Moderate 240 300 M-15 M-25 0.60 0.50 30 manually compact-
flat
Severe 250 320 M-20 M-30 0.50 0.45 45 slabs using crushed
agg. Normal rein -
Very 260 340 M-20 M-35 0.45 0.45 50
forced concrete
servere Medium 50-100 0.92
manually
Extreme 280 360 M-25 M-40 0.40 0.40 75 compacted and
heavily reinforced
Note: P.C. = Plain Concrete, RCC= Reinforced sections with
Cement Concrete vibrations
for sections with
Max. Water Content Per Cum of Conc. For congested
Nominal Max. Size of Aggregate- 100-
High 0.95 Reinforcement. Not
175
Nominal Max. Max. Water normally suitable
for vibration.
Size of Agg.(mm) Content (Kg)
General Features of the Main Types of Portland
10 208 Cement-
20 186 ASTM Type Classification
Type-I Ordinary Portland cement
40 165
Type-II Moderate Sulphate Resistance
Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various
Age- (Modified cement)
Age Strength% Type III Rapid Hardening cement
1 day 16 Type IV Low Heat cement
3 days 40 Type V Sulphate Resisting cement
7 days 65
Type IP Portland Pozzolana cement
14 days 90
28 days Type IS Portland slag cement
99
Permissible limit for solids in concrete water as Min. Grade of Conc. Required for Various Types
per IS 456-2000 of Construction-
Material Permissible Limit Minimum Types of Construction
Organic 200 mg/l Grade
Inorganic 3000 mg/l M-5, M-7.5 Lean concrete base
Sulphate 400 mg/l
Chlorides M-15 Plain cement concrete
(i) RCC 500 mg/l M-20 RCC (General construction)
(ii) PCC 2000 mg/l M-30 Water tank, Domes
Suspended 2000 mg/l
M-30 RCC in sea water and Post-
Effect of sugar in cement conc.
tensioned
Quantity Effect M-40 Pre-tensioned
0.05% No effect
0.15% Retarder
0.20% Accelerator
0.25% Set more Rapidly but loose strength PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review
Note - Sugar is consider as retarder Technique)-
Strength of conc. Increase with age- • Three time estimates are made
Month Age Factor • Follows β distribution
1 1 • Probabilistic Approach
3 1.1 • For Research and Development work
6 1.15 Some Useful Formula
12 1.2
t O + 4t m + t p
Consistency and Degree of Workability for Vee- tE =
6
Bee Degree-
Vee-Bee Consistency Degree of tp − tO
Degree Vorkability σ=
6
20-40 Very Low Very very low
2
workable concrete  tp − tO 
σ2 =   = variance
10-20 Low Very low  6 
Workable
concrete Where,
5-10 Medium Low workable σ = Standard deviation
concrete tO = Optimistic time
3-5 High Medium workable tp = Pessimistic time
concrete tm = Most likely time
1-3 Very High High workable tE = Expected completion time of an activity
concrete Event Time-
<1 Fluid Very high
TEj = TEi + t ije → only one path
workable concrete
Agg. Water and W/C Ratio for Various Types of TLj = TLi − t ije → only one path
Concrete Grade-
Slack: This is the time by which an event may be
Concrete Agg. Per Water per W/C
Grade bag bag Ratio delayed without affecting the completion time of the
cement cement project
M-5 800 kg 60 liter 1.2
M-7.5 625 kg 45 liter 0.9
M-10 480 kg 34 liter 0.68
M-15 350 kg 32 liter 0.64
M-20 250 kg 30 liter 0.60
Probability Factor (Z)- Maximum Built Up Area for a Building-
T − TO Plot area Maximum Built Up Area
Z= S
σ < 200 m2 60% of the plot area
Ts → Scheduled Completion time
200 - 500 m2 50% " " "
TE → Expected Completion time 2
500 -1000 m 40% " " "
Z P Z P
2
0 50% ±1 84.13% > 1000 m 33.33% " " "
±2 97.72% ±3 99.87% Types of Bond-
CPM (Critical Path Method)– Stretcher All bricks are laid as stretchers on the
• One time estimate bond faces of the wall generally used for
• Deterministic approach partition wall (10 cm)
• Minimum cost is found corresponding to Header All the bricks are laid as header on
optimum time bond the face of wall. Use staining of well,
• For repetitive type of work corbels footing.....etc.
• Normal distribution is followed English Alternate course of header &
Activity Times- bond stretcher. Mostely used in
EST = TEi or EFT = TEi + t ij government work. It is costly and
LFT = TLi or LST = LFT − t ij stronger than flemish bond
Flemish Each course has alternate header &
Float Flot denotes the range within which bond stretchers. Flemish bond give better
activity time or its finish time may appearance then english bond
fluctuates without effecting the Facing Bricks of different thickness are to be
completion of the project. bond used in the facing or backing of the wall
Total float FT = LST– EST or FT = LFT – EFT
Classification of wall-
Free float FF = TEj − TEi − Teij or FF = FT − S j
Load bearing wall Non-load bearing
Independent F1 = TEi − TLi − Teij or FID = FF − Si wall
float Solid wall with piers Partition wall
Tail Event Slack- (pilasters)
FT = 0 For critical path
Vineered wall Panel wall
FT> 0 For sub critical path
FT < 0 For super critical path Cavity wall Free standing wall
Interfering float F(IN) Sj = FT - FF Solid wall Curtain wall
Crash cost − Normal cost Frieze : A coarse of stone provided immediately
Cost slope =
Normal time − Crash time below cornice is called frieze
Bull nose/cow nose : Use for making corner or
curve shape in brick masonry.
Perpend : It is that vertical joint on face of the wall,
which lie directly above the vertical joints in the
Classification of Building According to NBC- alternate course.
Door and window-
S.N. Class Types of Buildings
1. Group A Residential Building 1. Doors for residential building:
2. Group B Educational Building • External door (1×2) to (1.1×2)m
• Internal door (0.9×2) to (1×2)m
3. Group C Institutional Building
• Doors for bathrooms & water closet-
4. Group D Assembly Building
(0.7×2) to (0.8×2) m
5. Group E Business Building
2. Public building (School, Hospital,
6. Group F Mercantile Building Library):
7. Group G Industrial Building (a) (1.2×2) m,
8. Group H Storage Building (b) (1.2×2.1) m,
9. Group I Hazardous Building (c) (1.2×2.25) m
Use of Door- • Maximum pitch/slope for public building - 33º
Sliding door For AC building • Minimum width of stair in commercial building -1 m
Swinging door For residential • Head room must be 2.05 m
Folding door For covering large
Relation b/w Riser and Tread
covering opening
2R + T = 60
Revolving door Public building
Rolling steel shutter Garrage, Godowns R + T = 40 to 45
Designations of door Length ×type of door R × T = 400 to 450
× height Where, R = Rise in cm
Size of Timber Chaukhat- T = Tread in cm
(i) For door- 8×10cm-10×12cm In public building the maximum riser is limited to
(ii) For window- 8×8 cm - 8×10 cm 15 cm
(iii) Ventilator- 8 cm ×8 cm
In Case of straight staircase
Window-
No. of tread = No. of riser –1
• Located on Northen side (maximum day light
available) In case of one landing and two flight
• Minimum window area = 1/8 of total floor area No. of tread = No. of riser –2
of room Types of Roof Trusses and Their Span-
• Total area of window - (10-20)% of floor area
Types of Roof Max. Span
of room
Public building : Minimum area of window = 20% Lean to roof (Verandah) 2.5 m
of total floor area Couple roof 3.5 m
Coupl close roof 4.5 m
Particulate Arch Lintel
Shape Curved Horizontal Collar beam roof 4.8 m
& straight King-Post truss 5 to 8 m
Bed joint Joints are radial Joints are Queen-Post truss 8 to 12 m
exception horizontal
Bel-Fast truss (Lattice roof) up to 30 m
monolithic
construction North-Light roof truss 20 to 30 m
Leteral Exert on vertical Do not Minimum Slope for the Main Roof Covering-
thrust support exert Roof Covering Materials Slope
Rise Provided Not
G.I. Sheet 1
º
provided 26
Appearance Good architectural Simple 2
appearance appearance Asbestos Sheet 30º
Strength Quite strong Equally Roof Tiles 40º
vertical uniform strong for
loading but weak uniform &
under point loading point
loading
Property of Staircase
• Width of stair in domestic building- 90 cm
• Width of stair in public building- (1.5-1.8) m
• Number of total step in a flight 12
• Number of steps in a flight 3
• Angle of inclinations 25-40 º
Arch Components
Temperature Dynamic
Viscosity
For liquid T↑ µ↓
For gases T↑ µ↑
Kinematic Viscosity–
Properties of Fluid
Dynamic Viscosity µ
Properties Formula Unit Dimension υ= =
Mass Density ρ
Density or
M
Mass ρ= kg/m3 ML−3 Unit- SI – m2/sec
V
Density CGS – cm2/sec or stoke
Specific
w=
W
=
mg
= ρg
N/m3 or 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/sec or 1 cm2/sec
Weight or
Weight
V V kg ML−2 T −2 1 m2/sec = 104 stoke
Density wwater = 9.81 × 1000 m 2s 2 Note- υair > υwater
Density or wt. density of liquid
SLiquid = For liquid- surface tension ↓(decrease) with ↑
Density or wt. density of water
(increase) in temperature.
Specific Wt. density of liquid Dimension
Unitless Excess Pressure-
Gravity = S×1000×9.81 N/m3 less
Density of liquid Pressure inside drop 4σ
= S×1000 kg/m3 p=
(solid like sphere) d
V 1
Specific
v= = 3 −1 3 Pressure inside bubble, 8σ
Volume m ρ
m /kg M L p=
d
(soap bubble)
K= 2σ
Bulk Pressure inside liquid jet p=
Modulus −
dp
=−
dp
.V
N/m2 ML−1T −2 d
dV / V dV σ = Surface tension
Compressi 1 d = diameter of bubble
β= M −1LT 2
bility K m2/N Rise or depression of liquid in capillary tube
SI - N/m
Surface F 4σ cos θ
σ= CGS - MT −2 h=
Tension l dyne/cm ρgd
SI - θ = 00 for pure water and glass tube
Vapour Force  F N/m2
 pv =  −1
ML T −2
θ = 1280 for mercury and glass tube
Pressure Area  A CGS -
dyne/cm2 Note- Capillary action occurs due to adhesion and
cohesion both
Newton’s Law of Viscosity–
Types of Fluid–
du dθ
τ=µ =µ Ideal Fluid It is incompressible and have no
dy dt viscosity
du Real Fluid It possess viscosity and
= velocity gradient Compressibility
dy
Ideal plastic In this shear stress is more than yield
dθ Fluid du dθ
⇒ Rate of shear strain or shear deformation. value and shear stress (τ) ∝ or
dt dy dt
Dynamic Viscosity (µ)– Newtonian In this type of fluid, shear stress is
τ Fluid directly proportional to rate of shear
µ= strain or
du / dy
Newtonian fluid does not change
Unit of Viscosity- with viscosity or with the rate of
SI – N-s/m2 or Pa–s deformation or shear strain.
Ex. Water, Kerosene, Petrol,
CGS – dyne–s/cm2
Benzene, Ethanol
M.K.S– kgf–s/m2
Non- In this shear stress is not proportional
1 Newtonian to the rate of shear strain. This fluid
1 poise = N–s/m2
10 Fluid does not obey Newton's law of
1 Centipoises = 10-2 Poise viscosity.

Inverted Triangle
h h
x= h=
3 2
Circle
d 5d
x= h=
2 8
Trapezium
Non-Newtonian Fluid–  a + 3b h

 a + 2b  h h =   2
x=  a + 2b
 a + b  3
A. Time Independent-
(i) Dilatent Quick sand, Sugar
Solution, butter
(ii) Bingham Plastic Creams, Toothpaste, Half circle
Drilling Muds 3πr 3πD
4r 2D or
(iii) Pseudo Plastic Polymer solutions, or 16 32
3π 3π
milk, blood, syrup
B. Time Dependent
Metacentric height,
(i) Thixotropic Lipstick, Printer inks,
G.M. = B.M. – B.G.
Enamels Paint, Jelly
Imin
(ii) Rheopectic Gypsum pastes and = − B.G.
Vimmersed
Bentonite slurry
Imin = M.O.I.
Geometric properties of some important shapes- Time period of Oscillation–
Plane Surface Center of Depth of
k2
Gravity center of T = 2π
G.M × g
(C.G.) pressure
(C.P.) k = Least Radius of gyration
Metacentric height for rolling condition will be less
Rectangle than Metacentric height for pitching condition.
Floating body rotation axis in different condition–

d
x= 2d Pitching Transverse axis
2 h=
3 Rolling Longitudinal axis
Yawing Transverse axis (Perpendicular to the plane)
Equilibrium condition for Submerged and floating

Triangle body–
Equilibrium Submerged Floating body
condition body
2h 3h
x= h= Stable B is above G M is above G
3 4
Unstable B is below G M is below G
Neutral B and G coincide M and G
coincide

Metacentric Height for various ships- dp
Types of ship Metacentric height For h, measured upward = −ρg = − w
dh
Merchant ship < 1.0 m
sailing ship < 1.50 m Pressure Head-
Battle ship < 2.0 m  p p
River boat < 3.50 m  h = ρg or w 
 
G.MCargo ship > G.MPassenger ship, So cargo ship is less
comfortable. Hydrostatic force of curved surfaces-
Pascal's Law– [ FH = ρgAx ]
Pressure at a point in a fluid system is equally
distributed in all direction. It applied to fluid at rest. A - Projected Area
Pascal's law is avoid if shear stress = 0 x - Vertical distance of C.O.G. of body from free
px = py = pz surface.
Unit of Pressure– Resultant Force 'F' = (FH ) 2 + (Fv ) 2

1Pa = 1N/m2 1Bar = 105Pa Fv– Weight of liquid block above curved
kgf surface.
1atm = 101325Pa 1 2 = 9.81×104N/m2
cm Total pressure and center of pressure for
1Psi = 6894.76 Pa submerged plane at different surface position-
1 Torr = 133.3 Pa =1 mm Hg Surface Total Pressure Center of
Position Pressure (hcp)
Horizontal F = ρgAX hcp = X
Position
= wAX
Vertical F = ρgAX IG
h cp = X +
Position AX
= wAX
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge Inclined F = ρgAX IG
Position h cp = X + Sin 2 θ
Pvaccum = Patm – P'abs AX
= wAX
Hydrostatic Law-
The rate of increase of pressure in vertical Curved FH = ρg ∫ h.dA sin θ
direction is equal to weight density of the fluid Surface
at that point.
Fv = ρg ∫ h.dA cos θ
 dp 
 dh = w = ρg 
 
dp FR = FH2 + Fv2
For h, measured downward = ρg = w
dh = wAx

Types of Fluid Flow– Type of Local or Convective Total or
Steady Flow Fluid property like density, pressure, Flow Temporal or Advective Max.
Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration
velocity does not change with time.
Steady + 0 0 0
∂v ∂p ∂ρ Uniform
= 0, = 0, =0
∂t ∂t ∂t Flow
Unsteady Flow Fluid property changes with time Unsteady + 0 Local
Uniform
∂v ∂p ∂ρ Flow
≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0
∂t ∂t ∂t Unsteady + Local +
Uniform Flow At a given time, fluid property does Non- Convective
Uniform
not change with respect to the space.
Flow
 ∂v  Steady and 0 Convective
  =0
 ∂s  t = Constant Non-Uni-
form Flow
Non-Uniform At a given time, velocity changes with Forced Vortex Flow–
Flow respect to space- r = Radius of fluid particle
[ v = ω× r ] ω = Angular velocity
 ∂v 
  ≠0 Free Vortex Flow–
 ∂s  t = Constant
 v = c  c = constant
Laminar Flow Fluid particles move along well-  r 
defined path or stream line and all the Forced Vortex Flow Free Vortex Flow
stream lines are straight and parallel. For this some external There is no external
Adjacent layer does not cross each force/torque required to torque required to
other. rotate fluid mass. rotate fluid mass.
It is also known as stream line Ex. Ex.
1. Flow of water through the 1. Flow through kitchen
flow or viscous flow. runner of a turbine. sink.
Turbulent Fluid particle moves in a zig-zag or in 2. Flow of Liquid passing 2. Liquid flow through a
Flow random order. through impeller of hole at the bottom of
centrifugal pumps. container.
Compressible Density of fluid changes from point to 3. Rotation of Water in a 3. A whirelpool in a
Flow point or density is not constant in washing machine. river.
fluid flow i.e. ρ ≠ constant. v 2 r 2 ω2 R 2 ω2 4. Flow fields due to
z= = = tornado.
Incompressible Density remains constant i.e. ρ = 2g 2g 2g
5. Liquid flow around a
Flow constant. z = height of parabolid circular bend in a
formed) pipe.
Rotational During flow along streamline, fluid
Flow particles rotate about their own axis in
both the circular as well as straight
line motion.
Irrotational Fluid particle does not rotate about its
own axis in both circular as well as
• Kinetic Energy correction factor-
straight line motion. Actual K.E.
α=
Local or It is the rate of increase of velocity K.E. Calculated from average velocity
Temporal with respect to the time at a given • Momentum Correction factor-
Acceleration point in a flow field Actual linear momentum/sec.
β=
∂u ∂v ∂w Linear momentum/sec. calculated from Vavg.
, or Local acceleration
∂t ∂t ∂t Flow Condition α β
Convective It is the rate of change of velocity due Laminar flow in pipe 2 1.33
to the change of position of fluid in a Laminar flow b/w 1.543 1.2
Acceleration
parallel plates
fluid flow. Turbulent flow in pipe 4/3 or 1.33 1.2
Continuity equation is based on conservation of Equation of motion–
mass principle 1. Newton's Equation of Motion
Euler's equation is based on- Conservation of Fx = F g + Fp + F v + Ft + Fc
Momentum principle 2. Reynold's Equation of Motion
p v2 Fx = F g + Fp + F v + Ft
Bernoulli's equation = + +z =c 3. Navier-Stokes Equation
ρg 2g
Fx = F g + Fp + F v
Bernoulli's equation is based on- Conservation of 4. Euler's Equation of Motion
Energy Principle Fx = F g + Fp
Each term of Bernoulli's equation represents Euler's Equation–
Energy per unit weight  dp 
Rate of Flow or Discharge  ∫ p + ∫ gdz + ∫ vdv = Constant 
[Q = A × V] Bernoulli's Equation–
where, A = Cross-sectional area of pipe
 p v2 
V = Average velocity of Fluid.  ρg + 2g + z = constant 
 
Unit = m3/sec.
Where,
Continuity Equation–
[ρ1 A1V1 = ρ2A2V2]– Compressible Fluid p
= Pressure head
ρg
[A1V1 = A2V2]– Incompressible Fluid.
ρ = density, A = Area of Pipe, V = Average Velocity v2
= Velocity head.
Continuity Equation in 3-D– 2g
∂ ∂ ∂ z = Potential head.
(ρu) + (ρv) + (ρw) = 0 for Incompressible Fluid. p
∂x ∂y ∂z Piezometric Head = +z
ρg
Velocity Potential Function–
 −∂φ −∂φ −∂φ  p V2
Stagnation Head = +
• u = ∂x • v = ∂y • w = ∂z  ρg 2g
 
Stream Function– Bernoulli's equation for real fluid
 +∂ψ +∂ψ  p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L
• ∂x = v • ∂y = −u  ρg 2g ρg 2g
 
Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Venturimeter–
Potential Function–  a1a 2 
Q actual = C d × 2gh 
 ∂φ ∂ψ   ∂φ −∂ψ   a12 − a 22 
 ∂x = ∂y   ∂y = ∂x   
   
Cd = Co-efficient of venturimeter 0.97 - 0.99
Angular Deformation–
S 
1 h = x  h – 1 – Liquid heavier then flowing liquid
= [ ∆θ1 + ∆θ2 ] S
 o 
2
Shear Strain Rate– in pipe
1  ∂v ∂u   S 
= + h = x 1 − l  – For Liquid lighter than flowing
2  ∂x ∂y   S0 
Rotation– liquid in pipe)
Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid.
1  ∂v ∂u 
wz =  −  So = Specific gravity of liquid flowing in pipe
2  ∂x ∂y  Sl = Specific gravity of lighter liquid.
1  ∂w ∂v  Orificemeter or orifice plate-
• wx =  − 
2  ∂y ∂z   C a a 2gh 
Q = d 0 1 
1  ∂u ∂w   a12 − a 02 
wy =  −  
2  ∂z ∂x 
a0 = Area of orifice
→ Vorticity is twice the rotation '2w'. Cd = 0.65 – 0.70
Pitot Tube– Value of Hydraulic Co-efficient-
 p − p2  Coefficient of velocity 0.95-0.99 ≃ 0.98
 Vth = 2gh  , Vth = 2g  1  ( Cv )
 
 ρg 
Coefficient of 0.61-0.69 ≃ 0.64
P1/ρg – stagnation head P2/ρg – Static head contraction, Cc
Important point- Coefficient of Discharge 0.61-0.64 ≃ 0.62
Type of flow meter Cost Accuracy Head loss Cd
Venturimeter High High Low Coefficient of - ≃ 0.063
Resistance, Cr
Orifice meter Low Low High
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) for mouthpiece-
Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium
Types of Mouthpiece Cd
Instruments & Their Measuring Parameter- External Mouthpiece 0.855
Instrument Measuring parameter Internal mouthpiece
Venturimeter Discharge or flow rate (i) Running full 0.707
(ii) Running free 0.50
Orificemeter Discharge or flow rate
Convergent or convergent 1.00
Flow nozzle Discharge or flow rate divergent mouthpiece
Elbow meter Discharge in vertical segment or Discharge Over a Notch or Weir–
flow rate 1. Rectangular Notch or Weir
Nozzle meter Discharge or flow rate 2
Q = Cd .L 2g.H 3/ 2
Pitot tube Velocity of fluid flow 3
L = Width of weir
Prandtl tube Velocity of fluid flow
If velocity of approach = Va
(Boundary layer
theory)  V2 
Then, H = H+Ha or  H + a 
Current meter Velocity in open channel  2g 
Weirs Discharge in open channel 2

∴ Q = Cd .L 2g  (H + H a )3/ 2 − H 3/a 2 
Rotameter Flow rate or discharge in vertical 3
2. According to Francis Formula-
segment
2
Hot-wire For measuring the gas or air Q = Cd 2g [ L − 0.1nH ] H 3/ 2
3
Anemometer velocity = 1.84 [L–0.1 nH).H3/2
Anemometer Velocity with high accuracy Contraction value is taken 0.1H for each ends of
Pyrometer High temperature measurement Weir
According to Benzin's–
Hydrometer Specific gravity
Q = mL 2g.H 3/ 2
Hygrometer Humidity
2 0.003
Orifice- m = Cd = 0.405 +
Hydraulic Co-efficient– 3 H
3. Triangular Notch or Weir–
Co-efficient of velocity, Cv
8
Actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta Vact Q = Cd 2g tan θ / 2.H 5/ 2
= = 15
Theoretical velocity Vth
If θ = 90° then tan θ/2 = 1
Cv = 0.98 for sharp edged orifices 8
Co-efficient of Contraction, Cc Q= Cd 2gH 5 / 2
15
Area of jet at vena-contracta (a c ) oR
Cc = =
Area of orifice (a) Q = 1.417H 5 / 2 (If θ = 900)
Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd 4. Trapezoidal Notch or Weir-
Actual Discharge Q Qact Q = Q Rectangular + QTriangular
Cd = = act =
Theoretical Discharge Qth a 2gh
2  4 θ
Q = Cd 2g.H 3 / 2  L + .H tan 
Cd = Cv × Cc 3  5 2

Effect on Discharge due to error in the Where,
measurement of head for– Area
m=
(i) Rectangular Weir or Notch Wetted Perimeter
dQ 3 dH hf
= = 1.5%. Error i= = Hydraulic gradient
Q 2 H L
(ii) Triangular Weir or Notch– 8g
C=
dQ 5 dH f
= = 2.5%. Error B. Minor Losses–
Q 2 H
It is due to-
For Cipolletti Weir or notch
1. Sudden Enlargement of Pipe-
Side slope = 1 : 4 (H:V)
( V1 − V2 )
2 2 2
or θ/2 = 14°2' V12  A1  V22  A 2 
h EL = = 1 −  =  − 1
Broad Crested Weir- 2g 2g  A 2  2g  A1 
H
= 0.1 − 0.4 2. Sudden Contraction-
L
or 2L > H 0.5V 2
hc =
Narrow Crested Weir 2g
H 3. Inlet Loss-
> 1.6
L 0.5V 2
or 2L < H hi =
2g
H = Height of Water above crest
L = Length of crest 4. Exit Loss-
Discharge Over a Broad Crested Weir- V2
h ex =
Q = 1.705.Cd .L.H 3/ 2 2g
Flow Through Pipe 5. Due to pipe Bend and pipe Fitting-

V2
Loss of Energy in Pipes- hb/F = k
A. Major Losses (mainly due to friction)– 2g
(a) Darcy - Weisbach Formula– k depends upon
f LV 2 1. Angle of bend
hf =
2gD 2. Pipe dia
3. Type of pipe fitting
4f ' LV 2
and h f = (Fanning equation) 4. Radius of curvature of bend.
2gD
Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power-
Where, f = Darcy friction factor
H − hf
f ' = Co-efficient of friction η=
H
Note-
64 (For max. Transmission power)
f= (For Laminar flow, Re < 2000) H
Re H = 3hf or hf =
3
0.3164
f= (For Turbulent flow 4000 < Re < 105) ∴ η = 2/3 or 66.7%
R e1/ 4
Hydraulic Grade Line (H.G.L.)-
16
f '= (For Laminar Flow) p
Re = +z
ρg
0.079
f ' = 1/ 4 (For Turbulent flow
Re Total Energy Line (T.E.L)-
Note- f = 4f ' p V2
= +z+
(b) Chezy's Formula- ρg 2g
Mean Velocity,
∴ T.E.L. always > H.G.L.
 8g 
V = C mi C =  T.E.L. always drop in the direction of flow due to
 f 
loss of head.
Water Hammer- Froude Inertia force Fi V
Case of Water hammer Pressure head =
Number Gravity force Fg Lg
Gradual closure of valve p L.V
=
w gt Weber Inertia force Fi V
=
Sudden closure of valve in rigid p VC V k Number Surface tension Fs σ / ρL
pipe = =
w g g ρ
Euler's Inertia force Fi V
Sudden closure of valve in p V =
elastic pipe = Number Pressure force Fp P/ρ
w 1 D 
t = time of closing valve in sec. ρg 2  + 
x = thickness of pipe  K xE  Cauchy Inertia force V2
Closure of valve will be gradual 2L Number Elastic force C2
if t>
C
Classification of flow based on mach number-
Closure of valve will be 2L
Instantaneous if t< Mach
C Types of flow
Important Dimensionless Number: Number
Number Definition Equation <1 Sub-sonic flow
Reynolds Inertia force Fi ρVL
Number = =1 Sonic flow
Viscous force Fv µ
Mach >1 Super sonic flow
Inertia force Fi V V
Number = = >6 Hyper sonic flow
Elastic force Fe C K/ρ
Laminar flow through plate-

Laminar flow through pipe-
1. Shear stress distribution-

1. Shear stress distribution- ∂p  t 
r ∂p τ = −  − y
τ=− ∂x  2 
2 ∂x at y = 0, τ = τmax
at, r = 0, τ = 0
2. Velocity distribution-
r = R, τ = max
1  ∂p 
  ( ty − y )
2. Velocity distribution-
u=− 2
1  ∂p   r2  2µ  ∂x 
u = −   R 2 1 − 2 
4µ  ∂x   R 
1  ∂p  2
1  ∂p  u max = −  t
u max = −   R 2 8µ  ∂x 
4µ  ∂x 
r' = 0.707R (Average velocity = Local velocity) 3
u max = u avg
3. Discharge- 2
π  ∂p  4
Q= − D 3. Discharge-
128µ  ∂x 
D = Diameter of pipe 1  ∂p  3
Q= − t
4. Head Loss- 12µ  ∂x 
32µu avg .L
hf = (Hagen-Poiseulle formula) 4. Head Loss-
ρgD 2
12µu avg .L
2
fLu avg  64  hf =
= f =  ρgt 2
2gD  Re 
Model laws and its application-
Laminar Sub-layer 11.6 υ Models Applications
thickness δ=
Vx Reynolds model law Submarines completely under
υ = Kinematic viscosity water
Vx = Friction velocity Motion of air-planes
Displacement thickness δ
 u Flow through venturimeter,
δ* = ∫ 1 −  dy
0 U orifice meter
Momentum thickness δ Flow through small sized
u u
θ=∫ 1 −  dy pipes.
0 U U
δ
Mach model law Aerodynamic testing
Energy thickness u u2 
δ = ∫ 1 − 2  dy
** Under water testing of
0 U U  torpedoes
Shape factor δ* Water-hammer problem.
H=
θ Froude model law Open channels.
Von-Karman's dθ τ Free surface flow such as flow
Momentum Integral = o
dx ρU 2 over spillways, weirs, sluices.
Equation Flow of jet from an orifice or
It is used for- τo = shear stress at surface
nozzle.
Laminar, Transition and
Flow of different density
Turbulent boundary layer
fluids one above the other.
δ > δ* > δ** > θ Weber model law Flow over weir for small
Drag and lift force- heads
1 Capillary flows
• Drag force, FD = Cd ρAV 2
2 Flow of very thin sheet of
1 liquid over a surface.
• Lift force, FL = C L ρAV 2
2 Euler's model law Turbulent flow in pipeline
Drag force on sphere, FD = 3πµ.V.D where viscous force and
Where, surface tensile forces are
A = Projected area of body entirely absent.
V = Relative wind velocity Where the phenomenon of
Cd & CL = Coefficient of drag and lift cavitations occurs.
Important Relations (Blasius Results) :

Characteristics Laminar Boundary layer Turbulent boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness (δx)
δx =
5x
Re x
( δ x ∝ x1/ 2 ) δx =
0.377x
(Re x )1/ 5
(δ x ∝ x 4 / 5 )
Local skin friction coefficient (Cfx) 0.664 0.059

Cfx = Cfx =
( Rex )
1/ 5
Re x
Average skin friction coefficient or drag 1.328 5 0.073

Cfa = Cfa = Cfx =
( Rex )
1/ 5
coefficient (Cfa or Cd) Re x 4
Displacement thickness (δ) 1.72x 0.048x

δ= δ=
( Re x )
1/ 5
Re x
Momentum Thickness (θ) 0.669x 0.037x

θ= θ=
( Re x )
1/ 5
Re x

On the basis of Nikuradse's experiment the boundary layer is classified as-
k Smooth boundary layer V* K
< 0.25 <5
δ *
υ
k Transition boundary layer V* K
0.25 < * < 6.0 5< < 70
δ υ
K Rough boundary layer V* K
> 6.0 Where, > 70
δ *
υ
V* = average shear velocity
υ = kinematic viscosity
K = Avg. roughness
Open channel flow -
Nature of flow according to Reynolds number for pipe, and open channel flow–
Nature of flow Reynolds No, RN = ρVD/µ b/w parallel plates Flow through
Pipe Flow Open channel flow Soil
Laminar flow RN < 2000 RN < 500 RN < 1000 RN < 1
Transitional flow 2000 < RN < 4000 500 < RN < 1000 1000 < RN < 2000 1< RN < 2
Turbulent flow RN > 4000 RN > 1000 RN > 2000 RN > 2
Lower critical flow point RN = 2000 RN = 500 RN = 1000 RN = 1
Higher critical flow point RN = 4000 RN = 1000 RN = 2000 RN = 2
For most Economical channel section-
Rectangular Channel Width of channel, b = 2d
Depth of flow, d = b/2
Hydraulic radius, (R) or Hydraulic mean depth m = d/2
Trapezoidal Section Length of sloping side = Half the top width

b + 2nd
d 1+ n2 =
2
m = R = d/2
θ = 600
A circle of radius (d) should be inscribed in
trapezoidal section.
Semi circle touch the three sides of trapezoidal
section (P, Q,R)
Triangular Channel d
m or R =
2 2
Side slop = 1 :1
θ = 45°
Circular Section For Max. discharge-

d
= 0.95
D
For Max. velocity-
d
= 0.81
D
 sin 2θ 
Area of flow, A = R2  θ − 
 2 

Type of flow Depth of flow Velocity of flow Froude Number
Subcritical/Tranquil y > yc v < vc Fr<1
streaming or Tangential flow
Critical flow (At this flow y = yc v = vc Fr = 1

specific energy in min)
Supercritical/Torrential/Rapid y < yc v > vc Fr > 1
or shooting flow yc = Critical, depth vc = Critical, Velocity
Classification of jump based on Froude number–

Froude number (Fr) Types of jump Water Surface
1-1.7 Undular/Unsteady Undulating
1.7-2.5 Weak Small Rollers form
2.5-4.5 Oscillating Water moving in random manner
4.5-9 steady Roller and jump action
>9 strong Very rough and choppy
Some Important formula for open channel-

Hydraulic mean Depth Area A
m= =
Wetted perimeter P
Manning's Formula 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V= m ×i
N
Chezy Formula V = C m×i
Specific Energy V2 Q2
E = y+ =y+ (y = depth of flow)
2g 2g.A 2
A = By + Sy 2 ( Trepezoidal section )
Critical Depth  q2 
1/ 3
Q
yc =   (q = Discharge per unit width of channel = )
 g  b
Critical velocity Vc = ( q.g )
1/ 3
= g × yc
Condition for Critical flow Q2 A3
=
g T
Energy loss due to Hydraulic jump ( y2 − y1 )
3
EL =
4y1 y2
2q 2
= y1.y 2 ( y1 + y 2 )
g
Laplace equation- ∂ 2φ ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2 φ
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Relation Between yc and E Force acting in moving fluid –
(i) For Rectangular channel-
2
yc = E 1. Inertia Force, Fi = ρAV2
3 µVA
4 2. Viscous Force, FV =
(ii) For Triangular channel- yc = E L
5
3 3. Gravity Force, Fg = ρALg
(iii) For Parabolic channel- yc = E 4. Pressure Force, Fp = pA
4
3. Head available and discharge-
Efficiency of Turbines
Types of Discharge Head Example
Hydraulic efficiency- Turbine (m)
R.P. High Low > 300 Pelton Turbine

ηh = Head
W.P.
Medium Medium 60-300 Francis Turbine
Mechanical efficiency-
Head
S.P. Low High < 60 Kaplan & Propeller
ηm =
R.P. Head Turbine
Volumetric efficiency- 4. Specific speed (Ns)-
Q − ∆Q Specific speed (Ns) Suitable Turbine

ηv =
Q M.K.S. S.I. Unit
Unit
Overall efficiency-
10-35 8.5-30 Pelton wheel with single jet
S.P.
ηo =
W.P. 35-60 30-51 Pelton wheel with two or
more jet
Relation between efficiencies-
ηhydraulic = ηnozzle × ηrunner 60-300 51-225 Francis Turbine
300-1000 225-860 Kaplan or Propeller Turbine

ηoverall = ηnozzle × ηrunner × ηmech
S.P.
= ηm × ηh = Type of Turbine Velocity Overall
W.P. Ratio efficiency ηo
Classification of Hydraulic Turbine According to Pelton wheel 0.43-0.48 85%-90% ≃ 86%
the-
Francis Turbine 0.6-0.9 88%
1. Type of energy at inlet-
Type of Energy Example Kaplan, Propeller 1.5-2.2 88.35% ≃ 90%
Turbine available at Turbine
inlet
Impulse Only Kinetic Pelton Turbine, Turgo Model Relationship for Turbine
Turbine Energy Cross flow Specific Speed N P
Ns =
Reaction Both Kinetic Francis, Kaplan, H5 / 4
Turbine and pressure Girard, Fourneyron
 M1/2L-1/4 T -5/2 
Energy propeller Turbine
Shape Number N P/ρ
2. Direction of flow through runner- S=
( gH )
5/ 4
Type of Turbine Example
Tangential flow Pelton Turbine Unit Speed N
Nu =
Turbine H
Radial flow Turbine Francis Turbine Unit Power P

Pu =
H 3/ 2
Axial flow Turbine Kaplan, Propeller Turbine
Unit Discharge Q
Qu =
Mixed flow Turbine Modern Francis Turbine H

Discharge Through a Turbine Breadth Ratio B1
= ( 0.1 − 0.3)
Type of Turbine Discharge D1
Pelton wheel π 2 No. of Blades 4
Q= d .C v 2gH
4 (Generally)
Francis Q = πD1B1 × Vf1 Degree of Reaction (0.5-1.0)
Peripheral velocity at πDo N
Kaplan π u1 = u 2 =
Q = ( Do2 − D b2 ) .Vf1 inlet and outlet 60
4
Types of pump:
Q
Flow Co-efficient, CQ =
ND3
H
Head Co-efficient, CH = 2 2
ND
P
Power Co-efficient, C P =
N D53
Degree of Reaction-
Change in pressure energy inside the runner
D.O.R =
Change in total energy inside the runner
Efficiencies of pump
For impulse Turbine, D.O.R = 0
Hydraulic/Manometric efficiency-
cot α
For reaction Turbine, D.O.R= 1 − Manometric Head
2(cot α − cot θ) ηh =
Manometric Head + Hydraulic loss
For pure reaction Turbine, D.O.R = 1 Manometric Head M.P.
=
Q th − Q act Head imparted by impeller to water I.P.
Percentage of slip = ×100
Q th Mechanical efficiency-
Max. Hydraulic efficiency of an impulse Turbine- Power at the impeller I.P. ρ(Q + q)v w 2 v 2
ηm = = =
1 + cos φ Power at the shaft S.P. P
ηmax =
2 Volumetric efficiency-
φ = Angle of blade tip at outlet ηv =
Q
Max. Number of jets, generally, employed on Pelton Q+q
wheel are six (6) Overall efficiency-
Minimum Dia of Braking jet = 0.6 × d M.P
ηo =
Width of Bucket for a Pelton wheel = 5d S.P.
Depth of Bucket for a Pelton wheel = 1.2d ηo = ηh × ηm × ηv
Angle of deflections, φ = 160°–170° (Avg. Angle, φ = ηo = ηh × ηm (ηv = Neglected)
165°) Model Relationship for Pumps-
Vane Angle at outlet, φ = 10°– 20° (Avg. Angle, φ = Dimensional Parameter Dimensionless Parameter
15°) H gH
CH = 2 2 CH = 2 2
No. of Blades on Francis Turbine = 16 – 24 ND ωD
Kaplan Turbine Q Q
Runner Power . CQ = CQ =
mv w1 u1 ND3 ωD3
Speed Ratio, (Ka) u1 P P

= (1.4 − 2.0 ) Cp = Cp =
2gH N 3 D5 ρω3 D5
Flow Ratio, (ψ) Vf1 N Q ω Q

= ( 0.7 ) Ns = Ns =
2gH H 3/ 4 (gH)3/ 4

Types of Total number of No. of
Material Elastic Independent
Constants Elastic Constant
Homogeneous 4 2
Types of Material- and Isotropic
Homogeneous A material which have same Orthotropic 12 9
Material elastic properties at any point (wood)
in a given direction. Anisotropic ∞ 21
Isotropic Material This material has same
Axial Elongation in Different Types of Bar-
identical properties in all
direction at a point. Type of bar Elongation δl
Anisotropic It has different properties in Prismatic bar Due to external load
Material all direction at a point in the Pl σl
body. δl = =
AE E
Orthotropic A material which has
Material different properties in three
mutually perpendicular Circular tapered bar 4Pl
planes. δl =
π d1d 2 E
Material Poission's Ratio
Cork - 0
Glass - 0.02 - 0.03 Rectangular tapered bar b 
Cast Iron - 0.23 - 0.27 Pl loge  2 
Elastic Material - 0.25 - 0.40 δl =  b1 
Steel - 0.27 - 0.33 (b2 − b1 )Et
Rubber - 0.50 t = thickness
Human Tissues - –1 Composite bars
Wrought Iron - 0.30 P = P1 + P2
Concrete - 0.10 - 0.20 Change in length
Elastic Constant- P1L PL
Elastic Constant Formula δ1 = δ 2 = = 2
A1E1 A 2 E 2
Young's Modulus or Longitudinal Stress
E= P1 =
A1E1
×P
Modulus of Elasticity Longitudinal Strain A1E1 + A 2 E 2
σ Fl
= = P2 =
A2E2
×P
ε δl× A A1E1 + A 2 E 2
Modulus of Rigidity/ Shear stress τ
Shear Modulus G= =
Shear strain φ Types of bar Elongation due to self
weight
Poisson's Ratio Lateral Strain δd / d
µ=− =− 1. Prismatic bar γl 2 Wl
Linear Strain δl / l δlp = =
2E 2AE
Bulk Modulus Direct stress σ
K= = d wl 2 ρgl
Volumetric Strain ε v = =
2E 2E
Where, (w or γ = ρg)
σd= Compressive stress or direct stress
εv = Volumetric strain
Relation between E, G, K & µ 2. Uniform tapering or WL γl 2
conical bar δlc = =
• E = 2G (1+µ) 6AE 6E
or
• E = 3K(1−2µ)
1 Wl 1
9KG δlc = × = × δlP
• E= 3 2AE 3
3K + G
3. Prismatic bar due to PL WL
3K − 2G external load & self δl = +
• µ= AE 2AE
6K + 2G weight

Modulus of Elasticity for different types of Material- Maximum Haigh & Ductile
Material Young's Modulus (E) Strain Beltrami
(MPa) Energy
Steel 2×105
Copper 1.17×105
Cast Iron 1.7×105 Maximum Vonmises Ductile
Timber (wood) 0.10×105 Shear Strain and
Aluminum 0.70×105 Energy Hencky
Glass 0.80×105
For Gradually applied loads-
σ2
• Resilience = × Volume
2E Types of Beam Strain Energy
σp 2
• Proof resilience = × Volume W 2l 3
2E 6EI
σp 2
• Modulus of resilience =
2E
σp = Proof Stress w 2l 5
P 40EI
Stress σ =
A
2P
σ= (for sudden applied load)
A W 2l 3
W2L 96EI
• Strain Energy due to gradually applied load =
2AE
2
W L w 2l 5
• Strain energy due to sudden applied load=
AE 240EI
Theory Given by Suitable Graphical

for representation W 2l 3
Material 384EI
Maximum Rankine Brittle
Principal
Stress or w 2l 5
normal 1440EI
stress
(Rectangular) M 2l
Maximum St. Brittle 2EI
Principal Venants
Strain Important Formula
• Normal stress, σ n
σx + σy
 σx − σy 
= +  Cos2θ + τxy Sin2θ
2  2 
(Rhombus) • Tangential or shear stress, σ t
Maximum Guest & Ductile  σx − σ y 
Shear Stress Trasca's = −  Sin2θ + τxy Cos2θ
 2 
• Principal Plane
2τ xy
tan 2θ =
σx − σ y

• Principal stress σ Max / min M σb E
• Bending equation- = =
σx + σy
2 I y R
 σx − σ y 
= ±   + τxy
2
y = Distance of outer most fiber from N.A.
2  2 
σx + σy 1 My
• Bending Stress (σb) =
( σ y − σ x ) + 4τ2xy
2
= ± I
2 2
• Radius of Mohr Circle EI
• Radius of curvature (R) =
σ − σ min M
τmax = max
2 M
• Curvature of Section =
1
( σ y − σ x ) + 4τxy
2
= 2
=R EI
2 EI/l – Flexural stiffness
 σ x + σ y   I/y – Section modulus
• Center of circle =   ,0 
 2   GIp – Torisional rigidity
 σ − σy  GIp/l – Torisional stiffness
• Maximum shear stress= τxy =  x 
 2 
1 • Flexural Rigidity = EI
 σx − σ y  Types of Load and shape of S.F.D, B.M.D-
• Minimum shear stress= τ xy = −  
2
 2  Load Shape
S.F.D. B.M.D
Cross Section M.O.I Section Modulus Point Load or Rectangular/ May be Horizontal
I Concentrated Uniform and may be
Z=
y Load inclined/Triangular/
Rectangular bd 3 bd 2 linear/1º
section I XX = Z=
12 6 U.D.L. Inclined Square Parabola (2º)
db3
I yy = (Uniformly /Triangular
12
bd 3 Distributed Linear/1º
Ibase= Load)
3
Triangular bh 3 G.V.L. Square Cubical Parabola (3º)
section I XX =
36 bh 2 (Gradually Parabola (2º)
Z= Varying Load)
bh 3 24
I base =
12 Max. Shear force, Bending moment, Slope and
bh 3 Deflection for different types of Beam-
Itop =
4 Types of Beam S.Fmax. B.Mmax. Slope Deflection
Solid Circular πD4 πD3
section
IXX = IYY =
64 Z= (θmax) (ymax)
32 S.S.B. with point W WL WL2 WL3
Hollow π ( D4 − d4 )
π load at centre ± +
circular section
I XX = I yy =
64
Z=
32D
( D4 − d 4 ) 2 4 16EI 48EI
Diamond a4 a3 S.S.B. with wL wL2 wL3 5wL4

section Id = Z= ± +
12 6 2 U.D.L, wN/m 2 8 24EI 384EI
Square section a 4
a3 Cantilever beam
I xx = I yy = Z=
12 6 with point load WL2 WL3
–W –WL
at its end 2EI 3EI
Ratio of τ max. , τ max. and τ NA for different Cross - section
τ avg. τ NA τ Avg. Cantilever beam
wL2 3 wL4
wL
Cross-Section τ max τ max τ NA with U.D.L –wL −
wN/m 2 6EI 8EI
τ avg. τ NA τ avg.
Gradually
Rectangular/square 3/2 1 3/2
varying load
circular 4/3 1 4/3 wL wL2 wL3 wL4
zero at free end − −
Triangle 3/2 9/8 4/3 & max. at fixed 2 6 24EI 30EI
Diamond 9/8 9/8 1 support

Cantilever Solid Circular d Circular
e max ≤
beam with Section 8
ML ML2
moment 0 M Dia of core, d/4
(M kN-m) at EI 2EI
Known as middle
its free end
fourth rule.
Method to Determine Slope and Deflection-
1. Double Integration Method
2. Macaulay's Method Hollow BD3 − bd 3 Rhombus
3. Area Moment Method/ Mohr's Method Rectangular ex − x ≤
6D(BD − bd)
4. Strain energy Method Section
5. Conjugate Beam Method DB3 − db 3
ey− y ≤
6. Superposition Method 6B(BD − bd)
Important point-
Deflection equation EI.y
Slope equation  dy 
EI  
 dx  How Circular D2 + d 2 Circular
Section e max ≤
Moment equation 8D
 d2 y 
EI  2  D2 + d 2
 dx  Dia of core,
4D
Shear equation  d3 y 
EI  3 
 dx 
Load equation  d4 y 
EI  4  Classification and failure of Column Based an
 dx 
Slenderness Ratio–
Max. and min. stress in column due to eccentric
load- S.R Types of Fails in
column
P  6e 
σ max = 1 +  < 32 Short column Crushing
A b 
32-120 Intermediate Combined, crushing and
P  6e  column buckling
σ min = 1 − 
A b >120 Long column Buckling
Max. Limit of eccentricity– le
≥ 12 long column
Section Max. Eccentricity Shape of b min
Limit core
le
Solid Rectangular d b Rhombus < 12 Short column
Section e x −x ≤ , e y−y ≤ b min
6 6
le
Side of core = < 3 Pedestal
b min
b2 + d2
Important Formula-
6
• Euler's Formula-
This known as middle
third rule. π2 EI min
Pb, Pcr or Pe =
Square Cross section Square le2
a
e≤
6 π2 EA
=
a a λ2
Kernel size, × Pe = Euler, Crippling or Buckling Load
3 3
Note- Euler's Formula is Applicable only for long
column.

• Slenderness Ratio- Secant formula for max deflection Umax. and max.
stress σmax. due to eccentric load- :-
le
λ=
kmin   P L 
U max = e Sec  .  − 1
  EI 2  
I min
and k min =
A
P e.y c  L P 
σ max = 1 + 2 sec  
• Rankine's Formula- A r  2r EA  
(Applicable for any types of column)
Material σC Rankine's Constant
1 1 1 (N/mm2 ) When both ends are
= +
PR Pc Pe hinged
Crushing load Pc = σc ×A Cast Iron 550 1

1600
σc = Compressive stress
P R= Rankine load Wrought Iron 250 1
9000
σc .A
PR = 2
 σ  l  Mild Steel 320 1
1 +  2c  .  e 
π E k 7500
σc .A Strong Timber 50 1
= 2
l  750
1+ α  e 
k
Pure Torsion Equation-
σ .A
= c 2 T Gθ τ
1 + αλ = =
J l R
σc
Rankine constant (α) =
π2E Tl
Note:- Torsional Rigidity/ Stiffness (GJ) =
θ
Effective length of column based on end condition-
• Torsional rigidity (GJ) ∝ strength (Polar Modulus of
End One end Both Both One end
Condition Fixed and end end Fixed and Section)
other end Hinged Fixed other (1) Strain Energy in solid shaft-
Free
Hinged
1 1 T 2l
Effective le = 2L le = L le = L/2 L Us = Tθ = .
le = 2 2 G.J
length = 0.5L 2
1 Q2
= 0.70L = . × Volume of shaft
4 G
le (As per 2L L 0.65L 0.8L
(2) Strain Energy in Hollow shaft-
IS Code)
Buckling π2 EI π2 EI 4π2 EI 2π2 EI 1 τ2 (d 2 + d 2 )
U H = . . o 2 i × Volume of shaft
Load/ 4 G do
4L2 L2 L2 L2
Euler load
(3) Strain energy due to shear stress-
π2 EI τs2
Pe = 2 U= × Volume
le 2G

(4) Strength of solid shaft- Thin Cylindrical Pressure Vessel-
π pd
Ts = τs d 3 • Hoop/ Circumferential stress σ H =
16 2t
(5) Strength of hollow shaft- pd
• Longitudinal stress, σ L =
π d −d  3
4 4 4t
TH = .τ H  o i
 .d o
16  d o4  pd
• Hoop strain, ε H = (2 − µ)
4tE
Ratio of strain energy for-
pd
U H  d 2o + d i2  • Longitudinal strain, ε L = (1 − 2µ )
=  4tE
U s  d o2 
• Volumetric strain
Ratio of torque for- pd
ε V = 2ε H + ε L = ( 5 − 4µ )
TH d o4 − d i4 4tE
=
TS d o4 Hoop strain ε 2−µ
• = h =
Important Formula- Longitudinal Strain ε L 1 − 2µ
• Effect of pure bending on shaft-

Circumferential/Hoop stress
32 M • = 2.0
Principal stress, σ = Longitudinal Stress
πD 3
• Effect of pure torsion on shaft-

Longitudinal stress
• = 0.50
16T Circumferential/Hoop Stress
Max. shear stress τ max =
πD3
• Combined effect of bending and torsion- Stiffness of close coil helical spring
16 
σmax or σmin = M ± M2 + T2  • Parallel combination
πD 3  
16 Seq = S1+S2+S3+---
τ max = M2 + T2
πD3
• Equivalent torque– S1,S2,S3= Stiffness
Te = M 2 + T 2 • Series combination
• Equivalent bending moment-

S1S2
1 Seq =
= M + M2 + T2  S1 + S2
2 
Deflection and angle of twist of close coil helical
If shaft is subjected to shear and bending stress then-
spring-
Maximum bending Stress 2M
= 32TDN 64WR 3 N
Maximum shear Stress T δ = R.θ = × R =
Gd 4 Gd 4
Maximum shear Stress T 32TDN 64WR 2 N

= θ= =
Maximum bending Stress 2M Gd 4 Gd 4

Direction of resultant,
Bsin θ Asin θ
tan α = , tan β =
A + Bcos θ B + A cos θ
Types of Forces - Lami's Theorem–
Force System Definition

Coplanar forces Line of action of all forces lying on
single plane.
Non-coplanar Line of action of all forces not lying
forces on a single plane.
Concurrent force Line of action of all forces passes P Q R
= =
through a single point. sin α sin β sin γ
Non-concurrent Line of action of all forces do not Equation of motion-
forces pass through a single point.
• 1st Law of motion- v = u + at
Collinear forces Line of action of all forces passes
through a single line. 1
• 2nd Law of motion- S = ut + at 2
2
Parallel forces Line of action of all forces are
parallel to each other. • 3rd Law of motion- v 2 = u 2 + 2aS
(a) Like parallel Line of action of all forces are Where,
forces parallel to each other in same
direction. u = initial velocity
(b) Unlike parallel Line of action of all forces are v = final velocity
forces parallel to each other in different S = travelled distance by object
direction.
Non-parallel Line of action of all forces are not Projectile motion-
forces parallel each other.
u 2 sin 2 θ
1. Max. height- h max =
Non-coplanar Line of action of all forces are not 2g
concurrent forces lying on a single plane but passes
through a single point. 2usin θ
2. Time of flight- T=
Parallelogram law of forces- g
u 2 sin 2 θ
3. Range- R=
g
for Rmax , θ = 45°
Class of lever-
1. Ist Class of lever –
Resultant force,
R = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos θ
θ = 00 , Cos00 = 1
if θ = 900 , Cos900 = 0
1 ≤ M.A.
0 0
If θ = 180 , Cos180 = −1 Ex.- Scissor, Hand Pump

2. 2nd Class of lever– Second law of motion–
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied force.
dp
F∝ = ma
M.A. > 1 always dt
Ex.- Wheel barrow, Nut-Cracker P = mv
3. 3rd Class of lever– Third law of motion-

Every action has equal and opposite reaction.
1
Kinetic Energy- K.E. = mv2
2
Centroid of regular plane figure-
Ex.- Sugar tongs ,Fishing rod y
Lamina Area x
Mechanical Advantage- Triangle 1 b h
b.h
Effort Arm P 2 3 3
V.R. = =
Load Arm W Rectangle b.h b h
2 2
Load W
M.A. = =
Effort P Circle πr2 r r
General condition of equilibrium-
(i) ∑ X or ∑ H = 0 Semicircle 1 2 r 4r
πr
2 3π
(ii) ∑ Y or ∑ V = 0
Quadrant Circle 1 2 4r 4r
πr
(iii) ∑M =0 4 3π 3π
Co-efficient of friction- Three quadrant circle 3 3 4r 4r

πr
4 9π 9π
f ∝ R ⇒ f = µR
Center of gravity of an any area-
Static friction coefficient-
a 1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 + − − −
f x=
µs = s A
R
a1 y1 + a 2 y 2 + a 3 y3 + − − − −
Kinetic friction coefficient- y=
A
fk
µk = C.G. for remains part after cut out a lamina-
R
Note- µ s > µ k
Newton's first law of motion-
If a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed

in a straight line, it will remains at rest or keep moving in
a1 x1 − a 2 x 2
a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted upon by x=
a1 − a 2
a some external forces.
a1 y1 − a 2 y 2
y=
• It is known as law of inertia. a1 − a 2

♦ Shrinkage Ratio (S.R.)–
V1 − V2
Vd γ  At shrinkage limit 
S.R. = × 100 = d  
W1 − W2 γ w  V2 = Vd & W2 = Wd 
Father of Soil Mechanics → Dr. Karl Terzaghi
γs Ws
Geological cycle of soil formation Specific gravity for soil Solid G s = =
γ w Vs γ w
For Organic Soil Solid Gs = 1.2 to 1.4
For Inorganic Soil Solid Gs = 2.6 to 2.75
γt
Mass specific gravity for soil G m =
γw
Type of Soil Deposited by Some Important Relations
Alluvial Soil River / running water W V n e
(Ex. –Sand, Gravel) Ws = Vs = e= n=
1+ w 1+ e 1− n 1+ e
Marine Soil Sea water
wG s  G + Se  G s γ w (1 + w)
Lacustrine Soil Lakes /still water e= γt =  s  γw =
S  1 + e  1+ e
Aeolian Soil Wind (Ex.– Loess,
Dune Sand) na = n × ac ac = 1 – S
Glacial Soil Ice (Ex.–Till, Drift) (1 − n a ) Gγ w  (G + e) 
γ d = 
G 
Colluvial Soil Gravity (Ex.– Talus)  γw = γ sat =   γw
 1+ e  1 + wG
 1 + e 
Loam = Sand + Silt + Clay
G −1 
γ sub =   γw
W
Water content (w) = w , (w ≥ 0)  1+ e 
Ws
Imp.– γ s > γ sat > γ t > γ d > γ sub
W
Effective Water content w ' = w ( 0 ≤ w ' < 1)
W e max − e natural
Density Index / Relative density (ID) =
w w' e max − e min
w'= or w =
1+ w 1− w ' γ d max ( γ d − γ d min. )
Vv ID =
Void ratio (e) = , ( e > 0,always ) γ d ( γ d max − γ d min )
Vs
V
Porosity (n) = v (0 < n < 1) ID (%) Soil Condition
V
V 0 – 15 Very loose
Degree of saturation (S) = w (0 ≤ S ≤ 1)
Vv 15 – 35 Loose
Va 35 – 65 Medium dense
Air content (ac) = , (0 ≤ a c ≤ 1) 65 – 85 Dense
Vv
Va 85 – 100 Very dense
Percentage air voids (na) = , ( 0 ≤ n a < 1)
V
Methods for determination of water content–
W
Bulk unit weight (γt) = Methods Specialised
V
(i) Oven dry Standard Lab method
Dry unit weight (γd) =
Ws
V d (
γ ↑ − Denseness ↑ ) method Most accurate
W (ii) Sand bath Not very accurate
Saturated unit weight (γsat) = sat method
V Rapid field method
γ (iii) Torsion Laboratory method
Submerged unit weight (γsub) = γ sat – γ w = sat
2 balance Rapid + accurate
W moisture Drying & weighing
Unit weight of water (γw) = w meter method simultaneously
Vw
Useful soil for reabsorb
Ws
Unit weight of soil solid (γs) = moisture after drying
Vs
(iv) Calcium Field method D60 → size of the particle such that 60% particle are finner.
carbide Rapid method (result in D10 → Effective size of particle.
method 5-7 mint) D 60
Not very accurate Coefficient of uniformity C u =
D10
Remove C2H2
(Acetylene gas) for well graded Gravel, Cu > 4
(v) Pycnometer Laboratory Method for well graded sand, Cu > 6
method Useful for cohesionless for uniform soil Cu = 1
soil for well graded soil, 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3
(vi) Alcohol Field method Cu Soil
method Not suitable for organic 1-5 Uniformly graded
soil 5-15 Poorly graded
(vii) Radiation Field method
>15 Well graded
method Radio active material
2
(cobalt - 60) used. D30
Coefficient of curvature, C c =
Methods to determine the unit wt. of soil- D60 × D10
Method Suitable for Relation between Cc and Cu
Core cutter method Soft, fine grained 2
and clayey soil D 
(i) Cc × Cu =  30 
Sand replacement method Gravelly, sandy and  D10 
dry soil 2
Water displacement method Cohesive soil C D 
(ii) c =  30 
Submerge density method Cohesive soil C u  D 60 
Rubber Balloon method All type of soil Note : D10 =effective particle size
Methods for specific gravity determination- Cu- to determine or range of particle size
1. Density bottle method Cc- to determine shape of particle and PSD
Most accurate and useful for all type of soil curve in soil mass
it is standard laboratory method. Stoke's Law-
2. Measuring flask method
( G − 1) γ w D2 ( γ s − γ w ) D2  γs 
For coarse grained soil V= = G = 
3. Gas Jar method 18µ 18µ  γ w 
For coarse grained soil Note- Stoke's Law is valid in laminar flow which
4. Pycnometer method maintained when particle size is in the range of
For coarse grained cohesionless soil 0.2 mm to 0.0002 mm.
Hydrometer corrections –
Meniscus correction, Cm always +ve
Temperature correction, Ct +ve or –ve both
Dispersing agent correction, Cd always –ve
Corrected hydrometer correction
R H = R + C m ± C t − Cd
w1 – w 2
Flow Index (I f ) =
log10 ( N 2 / N1 )
Grading of soil-
Type of Soil Explanation
Well graded soil All size of soil particle
available.
Poorly/Gap graded It has excess or deficiency
soil of a certain particle size. In
gap graded soil some
particle size are missing.
Uniformly graded Most of the particles has
soil same size.

Ip Consistency IC IL
Toughness Index I T =
If Very Stiff >1 <0
For most soil, toughness index is b/w 0-3. Stiff 1 – 0.75 0 – 0.25
For friable soil, IT < 1 Medium Stiff 0.75 – 0.50 0.25 – 0.50
For clayey soil, 1 ≤ IT ≤ 3 Soft 0.50 – 0.25 0.50 – 0.75
Consistency limit/Atterberg limits of soil- Very Soft 0.25 – 0 0.75 – 1.0

Liquid state <0 >1
( q u ) undisturbed
Sensitivity (S t ) =
( q u ) remoulded
Sensitivity (St) Soil Classification
1 Insensitive (Gravel, Coarse
sand)
2–4 Normal sensitive or moderate
4–8 Sensitive (Silt + Clay)
8 – 16 Extra sensitive
Plasticity Index IP = w L − w P > 16 Quick clay/unstable
IP Plasticity Plasticity Index
Activity ( A c ) =
0 Non Plastic % of clay particles (size < 2µ)
<7 Low Plastic Ac Classification
7–17 Medium Plastic < 0.75 Inactive
> 17 Highly Plastic 0.75 – 1.25 Normal
IP Soil Type
> 1.25 Active
O (Non-plastic) Sand
Thixotropy– Increase in strength of remoulded soil
10-15 Silt with passage of time.
15-100 Clay
Group Index (GI) = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01 bd
20-40 Kaolinite
35-60 Illite a = (P–35) > 40 [Range 0 to 40]
50-100 Montmorillonite b = (P–15) > 40 [Range 0 to 40]
w – wp w − wP c = (WL–40) > 20 [Range 0 to 20]

Liquidity Index ( I L ) = =
wL − wP IP d = (I –10) > 20 [Range 0 to 20]
P
Where,
wL – w W −w WL = Liquid limit (in%)
Consistency Index IC = = L IP = Plasticity Index
wL − wP IP
P = Percentage fine passing from 0.075 mm (75µ)
[w = water content in bulk soil) 0 ≤ GI ≤ 20
IC + I L = 1 Soil classified into 8 groups from A1 to A7 with A8 for
muck or peat soil.
Classification of Soil based on ISSCS (mm)–

Boulder Cobble Coarse Grained Soil Fine Grained Soil
Gravel Sand
Coarse fine Coarse Medium fine Silt Clay
> 300 300–80 80–20 20–4.75 4.75–2.0 2–0.425 0.425– 0.075– < 0.002
0.075 0.002

Properties of clay minerals– QL
Minerals Bond Example K=
t.h L .A
Kaolinite Hydrogen China clay
(strongest) (ii) Falling head permeability test–
Illite Ionic Green clay sand for fine grained soil
Montmorillonite Vander wall Black soil
force, Water bond Bentonite soil. 2.303 aL h 
(Weakest bond) K= × log10  1 
At  h2 
Bond Strength
(B) Field Method-
Kaolinite > Illite > Montmorillonite
Pumping out test : useful for homogeneous coarse
Shrinkage/Swelling/Plasticity Index/dry strength grained soil.
Montmorillonite > Illite > Kaolinite
Unconfined Aquifer Confined Aquifer
Size of clay Mineral in descending order
Kaolinite > Illite > Montmorillonite 2.303q r  2.303q r 
K= log10  2  K= log10  2 
2πD ( h 2 − h1 )
Activity of clay minerals- (
π h −h
2
2
2
1 )  r1   r1 
Mineral Activity value. Pumping in test- Useful for high permeable soil.
Kaolinite 0.1-0.4
Illite 0.5-1.0 q
K=
Montmorillonite 1-7 5.5rH
Where,
Soil structure Found in q = Rate of discharge in well
Single grained Cohessionless soil r = Radius of well
Honey Comb Fine Sand & Silt H = Depth of water in well
Flocculated Clayey soil Theoretical/Indirect Methods–
Dispersed Clay (i) Consolidation Method
Plasticity Chart as per ISSCs– K = C v × Mv × γw
(ii) Allen Hazen's Method
K = CD10 2
or K = 100D10
2
[C = 100 to 150]
(iii) Kozney - Karman Method
1 γ e3 1
Kk = × w × ×
C µ 1 + e S2
D∝ 1
S
A – Line equation → IP = 0.73 (WL – 20) Kk = Kozney – Karman Constant

U – Line equation → IP = 0.9 (WL – 8) e = void ratio
Critical hydraulic gradient- µ = Dynamic viscosity coefficient
γw = Unit weight of water.
γ sub G − 1
ic = = Note : k ∝ e2
γw 1+ e
(iv) Louden's formula
= (G - 1) × (1 - n) log10 (KS2) = a + bn
Darcy Law– V∝i Permeability Coefficient of Stratified Soil–
(i) In case of Horizontal flow (Parallel to bed)
V = Ki
K H + K 2 H 2 + ........... + K n H n
∆h q = KiA KH = 1 1
i∝ H1 + H 2 + ......... + H n
ℓ
(ii) In case of Vertical flow (Normal to bed)
V K
Vs = Kp = H + H 2 + ...........H n
n n KV = 1
H1 H 2 H
[KP = Coefficient of percolation] + + ......... + n
Vs = Seepage velocity K1 K 2 Kn
V = Discharge velocity (iii) In case of two dimensional flow
Determination of Coefficient of permeability– Kequivalent = Kx × Ky
(A) Laboratory Method-
(iv) In case of three dimensional flow
(i) Constant head permeability test
for coarse grained soil Kequivalent = 3 kx × ky × kz

Typical value of permeability- Primary settlement
Soil Type Coefficient of Drainage a .∆σ
permeability Characterist ∆H = v × H 0 = m v .∆σ.H 0
1 + e0
(k) cm/sec ics
Gravel >1 Pervious In case of normally consolidated Soil
Sand 1–10–3 Pervious Cc H 0  σ + ∆σ 
Silt 10–3–10–6 Slightly ∆H = log10  0 
1 + e0  σ0 
Clay <10–6 Impervious
∆H ∆e
∂2φ ∂2φ =
Laplace Equation– + =0 for 2D H 0 1 + e0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Co-efficient of consolidation-
N
Discharge through a flow net– q = k.h f K
Nd CV =
mv × γ w
N f = N ψ – 1 N f Unit of CV = cm2/sec
 = Shape factor
N d = N φ –1 N d 1 1
CV ∝ ∝ ∝ Temperature
Filter specification by Terzaghi– WL I P
D15 (filter) Methods to find CV –
<5
D85 (Protected material) i) Square root of time fitting method-
D15 (filter) T90 × d 2
4< < 20 CV =
D15 (Protected material) t 90
D50 (filter) ii) Logarithm of time fitting method
< 25
D50 (Protected material) T50 × d 2
CV =
t 50
IS equipments to
proctor test Total settlement St = Simmediate + SP + Ss
Standard Modified Light Heavy
proctor proctor compac compaction ∆H ∆V ∆e 1
= = .
test test tion H V 1 + e0 ∆σ
Weight of Co-efficient of compressibility
2.54 4.54 2.60 4.9
hammer
Fall of e −e ∆e
hammer 304.8 457.2 310 450 ( a v ) = σ1 − σ2 =
∆σ
(mm) 2 1
Number
e1 − e 2
of blows 25 25 25 25 Co-efficient of compression ( Cc ) =
per layer σ 
Number log10  2 
of layer
3 5 3 5  σ1 
Volume
944 944 1000 1000 Cc = 0.009 (wL–10), undisturbed soil of medium
of mould sensitivity
Compaction energy ratio for- Cc = 0.007 (wL–10), Remoulded soil of low sensitivity
Modified standard proctor test
= 4.5 av
Standard proctor test Co-efficient of volume compressibility m v = ,
1 + eo
Standard proctortest
= 0.22 e0 = Initial Void Ratio
Modified standard proctor test
1
Compression modulus E c =
Type of equipment Suitability for soil mv
Rammers or tampers all types of soils Over consolidation ratio–
Smooth wheeled rollers Crushed rocks, gravels, sands
Max effective stress applied in past
Pneumatic tyred Rollers Sands, gravels, silts, clayey OCR =
Soils but not suitable for Existing effective stress
Uniformly graded soils. OCR > 1, for over consolidated soil
sheep foot rollers Clayey Soil OCR = 1, for normally consolidated soil
Vibratory rollers Sands OCR < 1, for under consolidated soil
Time factor- changes measured.
d = H for one way drainage Axial strain, deviator stress are
C ×t determined.
Tv = v 2 H
d d= for two way drainage Suitable for all types of soil.
2
Unconfined Can be conducted in field
T50 = 0.196, T90 = 0.848, T60 = 0.287 Compression easily.
π  U 
2 Test Used to test cohesive soil,
Tv = ×
4  100 
if U ≤ 60% rapid assessment of
consistency of soil for clay
∆h classification, and find
Degree of consolidation % U = × 100 sensitivity of clay soil.
∆H
Vane shear Test Suitable in plastic cohesive soil
Stress distribution in soil- which is very sensitive.
Boussineg's equation (For isotropic Soil) When top & bottom end
3 Q 1 Q Q shear the soil–
σZB = × × = K B × 2 = 0.4775 2
2π z 2  2 5/ 2 Shear strength-
r 
z z
1 +    T
  z   τf =
πd 2  + 
 h d
Westerguard's equation (for anisotropic soil)
2 6
1 Q 1
σzw = × 2 × When only bottom end shear
π z 
3/ 2
r 
2 the soil–
1 + 2    Shear strength-
  z  
T
• Newmark's influence chart– τf =
πd 2  + 
h d
1  2 12 
σz = ×q×N
m×n Consolidated Drainage allowed in both
m = No. of concentric circles (normally 10) Drained Test stages.
n = No. of radial lines (normally 20) [CD] It takes long time.
N = equivalent no. of areas
Used in analysis of gradual
q = Intensity of load
loading condition.
Shear Strength of Soil-
Shear strength is the capacity to resist shear stress. Consolidated Drainage allowed in 1st stage.
undrained Test
Columb's Hypothesis– τf = C + σ tan φ done for check stability under
(CU)
sudden unloading.
τf = C '+ σ tan φ '
Unconsolidated Drainage not allowed in any
Where, C, ϕ are total stress parameter undrained (UU) stage.
C', ϕ' are effective stress parameter Active earth pressure– by this min. pressure exerted
Angle of repose– Minimum angle of an inclined by the soil on the retaining wall
plane which causes an object to slide down on the
plane. 1 − sin φ  φ
Ka = , K a = tan 2  450 – 
Angle of friction– Angle between the normal 1 + sin φ  2
reaction force and resultant force between friction and
normal reaction forces when object just begins to Passive earth pressure–
move along surfaces. 1 + sin φ  φ 1
Kp = = tan 2  450 +  =
Some Important test for soil 1 − sin φ  2  K a
Direct shear Test Shear applied at constant rate
of strain. Earth pressure at rest–
Effective stress and total stress µ
K0 = : for cohessionless soil K 0 = 1 − sin φ
are same. 1− µ
U=0 Note- K0 for dense sand is lesser than that of loose sand.
Used for free draining soil– For NC clays K0 < 1
sand, gravel. For OC clays K0 > 1
Shear plane is pre determine. 2
p 1 − sin φ 
Tri-axial Test Drainage can be controlled. Min. Depth of foundation D = 
Pore water pressure, volume γ 1 + sin φ 
General shear Local shear Permissible Differencial settlement and total
Parameter settlement of soil
failure failure
Friction angle Specification of Total Permissible
>36% <28º Foundation settlement Diff.Settlement
(φ)
Strain at failure ≤ 5º ≥15º Isolated Raft footing on 40-65 mm 25 mm
sand
Relative Density >17% 20% Isolated footing on sand 40 mm 25 mm
SPT Number <30 ≤5 Isolated Raft footing on 65-100 mm 40 mm
Void Ratio <0.55 >0.75 clay
Unconfined Isolated footing on clay 65 mm 40 mm
Compressive >100 kN/m2 <80 kN/m2
Strength Classification of piles based on various factors-
Taylor's stability Number (C-φ soil)– (a) Function/ Action - Fender, sheets, batter, tension
(uplift), load bearing etc.
C C
Sn = = (b) Installation method - Driven, jack, screw & Bored
γ.H c γ.FC .H C (cast in- situ) piles.
Max. theoretical value of Sn = 0.5, Max. particle (c) Material- Steel, timber, concrete & composite piles.
value = 0.261 (d) Displace-Displacement and non- displacement piles.
(e) Mode of load transfer- end bearing, friction and
Sn =  tan β − tan φ  cos 2 β for c-φ soil
combined piles.
. Net safe Bearing Capacity(qns)= Engineering News Formula : Ultimate load on pile
Net ultimate bearing capacity WH Q
Q ap = = UP
Factor of Safety 6(S + C) 6
q nu q u – γD f Where, W = load in kg
q ns = = H = Height of fall in cm
F F
Safe Bearing Capacity S = Settlement/below in cm
q − γDf Soil sampler
q saf = u + γD f
F Inside Clearance:
Elastic Settlement D3 − D1
ci = × 100% (1 < Ci < 3)
S = k.q. A
(1 − µH )
2 D1
E Out side clearance:
Bearing capacity for different types of footing- D 2 − D4
cO = × 100% (0 < C0 < 2)
Bearing Capacity for Strip footing D4
1 Note: C0> Ci always
qult = CN C + γDf N q + γBN γ
2 D 22 − D12
Bearing Capacity of shallow circular footing Area ratio : A r = × 100
D12
q ult = 1.3CN c + γDf N q + 0.3γBN γ
Where,
Bearing Capacity of Shallow square Footing
D1 = Inner dia. of cutting edge
q ult = 1.3CN c + γDf N q + 0.4γbN γ
D2 = Outer dia. of cutting edge
Note: Load carrying capacity in order D3 = Inner dia. of sampling tube
strip < circular < square footing D4 = Outer dia. of sampling tube
Plate Load test (IS 1888-1982)
Recovery Ratio :
2
 B (B + 0.3)  Recovery length of the Sample.
SP =  f P  for sandy soil Lr =
 BP (Bf + 0.3)  Penertration length of the Sample
n +1
Sf  Bf  Recovery value Soil Property
=  = for silts
SP  Bp  Lr = 1 Good recovery
Lr < 1 Compressed soil
For C-φ soil n = 0.5
Lr > 1 Soil has swelled
For clayey soil n = 0
• National Corridors –
Organization Establishment year

Central Public Works
1854
Department (C.P.W.D.)
Total length = 7300 km
Public works Department
1855 North-South = 4000 km
(P.W.D.)
East – West = 3300 km
Formed in Nov. 1927
• Golden Quadrilateral Plan –
Jayakar Committee Recommendation
Feb. 1928
Central Road Fund
1 March, 1929
(C.R.F.)
Central Road
1930
Organization (C.R.O.)
Indian Road Congress
1934 Classification of Road –
(I.R.C.)
Motor Vehicle Act 1939 (Revised - 1988) As per traffic As per load
C.R.R.I 1950 Type of Vehicle Type of Vehicle load
National Highway Act 1956 Traffic per – day Road (Tonnes)
Border Road Organization
1960 Extra Extra
(B.R.O.)
Heavy >600 Heavy 1500
Highway Research Board 1973
Traffic Road
NHAI 1988
Heavy Heavy
Highway Development and Planning- 250-600 1001-1500
st nd rd
Traffic Road
Specificat I 20 year II 20 III 20
ion plan year plan year plan Medium Medium
70-250 500-1000
Name of Nagpur Bombay Lucknow Traffic Road
Plan road plan road plan Road plan
Duration 1943- 1961-1981 1981-2001 Light Light
1-70 500
1963 Traffic Road
Target 16km/100 32km/100k 82km/100k Age of different type of roads –
Density km2 m2 m2
Road Star and --- Square and Earthen Road 2 year
Pattern Grid Grid WBM Road 5 year
Provision --- 1600km 2000 km Bituminous Road 10-15 year
of
Concrete Road 30 year
expressway
Road (i) NH Expressway Note-• Value of lateral friction coefficient – 0.15
Classificat (ii) SH was added • Value of longitudinal friction coefficient – 0.35
ion (iii) MDR – 0.40
(iv) ODR Skid- Longitudinal Distance > Circumference Distance
(v) VR Slip - Longitudinal Distance < Circumference Distance

Roughness Index in mm/km- Width of carriageway or Pavement Recommended
Unevenness Speed of Pavement by IRC
Index Vehicle Surface Types of Road Width of Carriage way
mm/km Single lane 3.75m
1500 High Good Two lane, without 7.0m
2500 100 kmph Satisfactory raised kerb
3500 50 kmph Uncomfortable Two lane, with raised kerb 7.5m
Note :- The unevenness of pavement surface is measured Intermediate carriage 5.5m
by ‘Bump integrator’ in terms of ‘Unevenness way except an
index’ important road.
• Width of formation of Roadway = Multi-lane 3.5m/lane
Carriageway + Median width +Shoulder width • Stopping Sight Distance (S.S.D.)
Road land or right of way- S.S.D.=Lag Distance + Breaking Distance
= Carriageway + shoulder + road margin Lag Distance = 0.278 V.t
Camber for different types of road surface-
V2
Type of Road Rainfall Range Breaking Distance =
254 ( f ± s % )
Surface Heavy Light
Bitumen, Cement 1 IN 50, 2.0% 1 IN 60, v2
S.S.D. = vt +
Concrete Surface (1.7%) 2gf
Thin Bitumen 1 IN 40, 2.5% 1 IN 50, v = in m/sec, t = 2.5 sec
Surface (2.0%) V = in Km/hr
Water Bond 1 IN 33, 3.0% 1 IN 40, g = acceleration (m/sec2)
Macadam (2.5%) speed (km/hr) <30 40 50 60 > 80
(W.B.M.) f=
f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
Metal / Gravel 1 IN 33, 3.0% 1 IN 40,
0.40 for V = 20-30 km/hr
(2.5%) f =
Earthen Surface 1 IN 25, 4.0% 1 IN 33,  0.35 for V = 100 km/hr
(3.0%)  gradient

Roadway width for various classes of road- s =  +ve = ascending gradient
 –ve = descending gradient
Road Classification Width of formation or 
Roadway (m)
• Intermediate sight distance
Plain and Mountainous
Rolling and Steep I.S.D = 2 × S.S.D
Terrain Terrain • Stopping sight Distance
1. N.H. & S.H. Single Lane, Two way Traffic = 2SSD
a) Single Lane 12.0 6.25 Single Lane, One way Traffic = SSD
b) Double Lane 12.0 8.80 Two Lane, Two way Traffic = SSD
2. Major District • Overtaking Zone for OSD
Road Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3OSD
a) Single Lane 9.0 4.75 Desirable overtaking zone = 5OSD
b) Double Lane 9.0 -- Design Speed of Vehicle-
3. Other District Road Road Plain Rolling Hilly Steep
a) Single Lane 7.5 4.75 NH, SH 100–80 80–65 50–40 40–30
b) Double Lane 9.0 -- MDR 80–65 65–50 40–30 30–20
4. Village Road ODR 65–50 50–40 30–25 25–20
Single Lane 7.5 4.00 VR 50–40 40–35 25–20 25–20

Super–Elevation / Banking / Cant→ R > 300m No extra widening provided
2
v 50 < R < 300m Extra widening provided on both
e+f =
gR
[ v = in m/sec] side
[V = in km / hr] R < 50m Extra widening provided on inner
V2 side
e+f = R = in 'm '
127R
f = 0.15 Length of transition curve
According to IRC [By Empirical Formula]
Maximum super elevation (emax)-
35v 2 2.7V 2
Condition emax For Plain & Rolling Terrain Ls = =
R R
For urban road 0.04 (4%)
12.96v 2 V 2
For plain and rolling terrain 0.07 (7%) For Hilly & Steep Terrain Ls = =
R R
or
By rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
Hilly terrain covered with snow
Hilly terrain is not covered with snow 0.10 (10%) v3 0.0215V 3 80 [0.5 < C < 0.8]
Ls = = C=
Minimum Superelevation– CR CR 75 + V C = m / sec3
emin = Camber
L2s
From drainage consideration Shift for circular curve– S =
24R
Wv 2 v2 V2
P= ,e+f = = Indian Highway coloured mile stone-
gR gR 127R
NH Yellow & white
W = width of pavement (m)
SH Green & white
v = speed of vehicle (m/s)
V = Speed in km/hr MDR/ODR Blue/Black & white
R = Radius of curve (m) VR Orange & white
Design Superelevation-
Ruling gradient / Design gradient (L.R.C.)-
( 0.75V )
2
V2 Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional
e min = = or 75% of e min
225R 127R % Friction % Friction % Friction
Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curve – Plain & 3.3 1/30 5.0 1/20 6.7 1/15
V2 v2 Rolling
R ruling = =
127(e + f ) ( e + f ) g Hilly 5.0 1/20 6.0 1/16.67 7.0 1/14.25
V = Ruling design speed (kmph) Steep 6.0 1/16.66 7.0 1/14.28 8.0 1/12.5
Grade compensation –
30 + R  75  Types of Speed Applications
G.C. = Min.of % or   %
R R Space mean Speed Traffic flow studies
Compensated gradient = Ruling gradient – G.C. 4% Journey Speed Delay studies
Extra widening of pavement Running Speed Road condition studies
(1) Mechanical Extra Widening Spot Speed Regulatory measurement
nl 2
Wm=
2R Indicator Respective Test
(2) Psychological extra widening- Result
V
Wps = When V in kmph Flakiness Index 15%
9.5 R Elongation 15%
v
Wps = When v in m/s Angularity Number 0-11
2.64 R Soundness Index 18% (MgSo4)
Total extra widening- 12% (Na2So4)
nℓ 2 V nℓ 2 v2
We = Wm + Wps = + We = + Water absorption value 0.6%
2R 9.5 R 2R 2.64 R
Stripping value 5%
Note- Formula is applicable for two-lane or more
Test for Road Aggregate – • Theoretical maximum or Basic capacity of a single
Type of Test For Base For Surface lane is given as –
Course Course and 1000V
C=
bearing S
course S = Average center to center spacing between two
Aggregate 50% 30% vehicle.
abrasion value S = 0.2V+L
Aggregate 45% 30% L → Average length of vehicle
Crushing Value V = speed of Vehicle in km/hr.
Aggregate 45% 30% • Maximum Theoretical Capacity from Time
Impact Value (for bitumen road) Headway –
35%(for WBM) 3600
C=
Bitumen Test – Ht
Properties of Bitumen Type of Test Where,

Ht = Minimum time headway in second
Viscosity Viscometer
Method of Signal Design –
Specific gravity Pycnometer • Trial cycle method [For two phase only]
Grade of bitumen Penetration test • Approximate method [for one phase only]
(hardness of bitumen) • Webster method [for any in No. of phase]
Softening Point Ring and ball test • IRC method [combination of approximate and
Webster method]
Ductility Standard briquette of Number of Space (N)–
bitumen
L − 1.25
Purity of bitumen Measured by solubility N= For 30º angle parking
5
test with trichloro ethylene L − 2.0
N= For 45º angle parking (Best angle parking)
Consistency of bitumen Float test 3.6
Fire and Flash point Pensky martens appartus L−2
N= For 60º angle parking
Maximum Dimension of Road Vehicles – 2.9
L
Maximum width of vehicles = 2.44 m N= For 90º angle parking (Maximum vehicle parked)
2.5
Type of conflict points in Rotary –
Type No. of Conflict
Points
Two Lane with two way traffic 24
Maximum Length of Vehicles – One way regulation on one 11
(a) Single unit truck with two or more axles = 11.00m road
(b) Single unit bus with two or more axles = 12.00 m One way regulation on both 6
road
(c) Semi-trailer tractor combination = 16.00 m
(d) Tractor trailer combination = 18.00 m Maximum wheel load –
Origin and Destination (O & D) Study Mass Rapid  z3 

Transit System – σz = 1 − 2 2 32
 (a + z ) 
1. Road side interview method
Load on wheel
2. License plate method • Contact pressure =
Area of imprint
3. Return post card method
Contact Pressure
4. Tag on car method • Rigidity factor =
Tyre pressure
5. Home interview method 1
6. Work spot interview method • Tyre pressure ∝
R.F.
3. Mid-Night –
Tyre pressure Contact pressure Rigidity factor Critical Combination of stresses
= 7 kg/cm2 = 7 kg/cm2 =1 = Load stress + warping stress
2 2
> 7 kg/cm < 7 kg/cm <1
(at corner region)
< 7 kg/cm2 > 7 kg/cm2 >1
Sc > Se > Si
Methods of flexible pavement design –
1:- Group Index Method – Flexible
G.I. = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd Pavement
Example Based on
Design
2:- Burmister Method –
Method
P.a G.I. Method
∆ = 1.5 .F ( for flexible plate ) CBR Method
Es Empirical Physical
Mc. Load Method
Method Properties
P.a Stabilometer
∆ = 1.18 .F ( for rigid plate ) Method
Es
Semi-
Design of Rigid Pavement method - Empirical or Triaxial test Stress strain
semi- Method function.
1. Modulus of Subgrade reaction –
theoretical
P P Theoretical Mathematical
K= = kg / cm3 Burmister Method
∆ 0.125 Method Method
where
Test Reason
P = Contact Pressure ∆ = Displacement
CBR Test Classify and evaluating soil
K 75cm = 0.4K 30cm (Theoretically) sub-grade and base course
material for flexible
2. Radius of relative stiffness pavements.
14 Plate Bearing Test Evaluate the support capability
 
Eh 3 of soil for both rigid and
l=  cm
 (
12K 1 − µ 2 ) 
 Crushing Test
flexible pavements.
Find out strength of
3. Equivalent radius (b) of resisting section for an Aggregates.
interior loading - Abrasion Test Find out hardness of
aggregates.
i) b = 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h when a < 1.724h Impact Test Find out toughness of
ii) b = a when a > 1.724h aggregates.
Soundness Test Find out durability of
Critical Stress Combination – aggregates.
1. Summer and Mid-day – Shape Test Workability & stability of
mix.
Critical Combination of stresses
Bitumen Find the stripping value of
= Load stress + warpingstress − frictionalstress Adhesion Test aggregates.
Penetration Test Resistance to flow & hardness
(at edge region)
of bitumen.
• The load stress at edge region is higher than the interior Float Test Viscosity of bitumen.
2. Winter Mid-day – Pavement– Load bearing and load distribution
Critical Combination of stresses component of road.
= Load stress + warpingstress + frictionalstress
(at edge region)

Sleeper Density = (N + X).
where N = Length of one rail in meter.
X = Constant value 3 to 6.
Composition of Rails-
Composition For ordinary For rails on Track Length of one rail
rails (%) point and B. G. Track 13m
crossing (%) M. G. Track 12m
Carbon 0.55 - 0.68 0.50 - 0.60
Material Required per km. of Railway Track-
Maganese 0.65 - 0.90 0.95 - 1.25
(maximum) 1000
(i) No. of Rails/km = ×2
Silicon 0.05 - 0.30 0.05 - 0.20 Length of railin (m)
Sulphur 0.05 0.06 (ii) Weight of Rails in Tonnes/km =
Phosphorus 0.06 0.06 wt.of rail per m.
Some important railway terminology- No. of rails ×Length of rails ×
1000
Ballast crib - It is loose ballast between two adjacent
sleepers. (iii) No. of Sleeper/km
Coning of wheels- The wheel are coned at a slope of 1
1 IN 20 to prevent from rubbing the inside face of the = No.of rail / km × sleeper density
2
rail head and to prevent lateral movement of the axle
with its wheel. (iv) No. of Fish Plate = 2 × No. of rails/km
Boxing- It is the process of filling the ballast around • 2 Fish plate per joint
the sleepers.
• 4 Fish bolt per joint
Packing- It is the process of ramming the ballast
underneath the sleeper. (v) No. of Bearing Plates = 2×No. of sleeper/km
Buffer stop- The dead end of railway line is provided Safe speed on curve by Martin’s Formula
with a barrier erected across the track to prevent the
vehicles running off the track. For Transition Curve–
Cant or superelevation- Rising of outer rail over the for B.G. & M.G. For N.G.
inner rail to counteract the effect of centrifugal force
on curve. V = 4.35 R – 67 V = 3.65 R – 6
Creep of Rails- It is the longitudinal movement of
rails in a track. V is in kmph
Note- Creep is measured with creep indicator
For Non-transition curve–
Flangeway clearance- It is the distance between the
adjacent faces of the stock rail or running rails and the V = 0.80 × Calculated Speed on transition curve
check or guard rails.
Hauling capacity- It is the total load which can be
hauled by it. It indicate the power of the locomotive. For High speed Trains– V = 4.58 R for B.G.
Goods yard- A yard in which goods wagons are
shunted and sorted for loading and unloading is called Safe Speed on curve Based on Superelevation
a goods yard. For Transition Curves–
Heel divergence- It is the distance between the
running face of stock rail and (a) For B.G. (b) For M.G.
gauge face of tongue rail.
V = 0.27 (Ca +Cd )R V = 0.347 (Ca +Cd )R
Hogged rails- Those rails which get battered due to
impact action of wheel over the end of the rails are
called hogged rails. (c) For N.G. V = 3.65 R- 6
Marshalling yard- Yard in which wagons are sorted
and new trains are formed. Ca = Actual cant (mm)
Gauge distance for rail gauge- Cd = Cant deficiency (mm)
Rail Gauge Gauge distance (mm) R = Radius of curve (mm)
Broad Gauge 1676 Permissible limit of cant deficiency-
Standard Gauge 1435
Gauge Speed< 100 km/h Speed > 100 km/h
Meter Gauge 1000
B.G. 7.6 cm 10.0 cm
Narrow Gauge 762
M.G. 5.1 cm –
Light Gauge 610
N.G. 3.6 cm –

Max. Permissible value of superelevation- Minimum CSI prescribed on Indian Railways -
Gauge Speed< 120 km/h Speed > 120 km/h Types of Sleeper Min.CSI
B.G. 16.5 cm 18.5 cm Track Sleeper 783
M.G. 10.00 cm – Crossing Sleeper 1352
N.G. 7.6 cm – Bridge Sleeper 1455
Standard Size of Ballast for Sleepers-
Speed based on Length of Transition Curve
Type of Sleeper Size of Ballast
Speed up to 100 km/hr.
Wooden and CI pot Sleeper 50 mm
134L 134L
Vmax = OR minimum of both are taken. CST 9 and Through Sleeper 40 mm
e D
L = Length of transition curve. Points and Crossing 25 mm
Size of Sleeper-
For high speed train, speed > 100 km/h
Gauge Size (cm) Bearing Area
198L 198L
Vmax = OR Minimum of both are taken per Sleeper (in
e D sq.ft.)
Relation between Radius and Degree of Curve– B.G. 275×25×12.5 5.00
1720 M.G. 180×20×11.5 3.33
D= For 30m chain
R N.G. 150×18×11.5 2.25
1150 Comparison of Different types of sleeper-
D= For 20m chain Wooden C.I. Steel Conc.
R Property
sleeper sleeper sleeper sleeper
Depend
Track Max.Degree of Min. Radius Cost / sleeper Low Medium High upon
Design
Curve (D) 10-15 for
B. G. 10º 175m Life (years)
untreated
35-40 35-50 40-60
20-25 for
M. G. 16º 109m treated
N. G. 40º 44m Maintenance
Higher
than other Minimum Moderate Moderate
L2 cost
sleeper
Note - Versine of curve =
8R Elasticity Good
Not very Not very
Not good
good good
Grade Compensation –
next to
% Per Degree of Curve Scrap value very less Highest –
Gauge C.I
Transition curve–
0.04%,  
Broad Gauge 70
R x3
• Equation of cubic parabola- y =
6RL
0.03%, 
Meter Gauge 52.5 

• Deflection Angle- θ = tan -1  tan φ 
 R  1
Narrow Gauge 3 
0.02%,  
35
R  x2 
• Spiral Angle- φ = tan -1  
 2RL 
• Super Elevation / Cant– L2
• Shifts- S =
G = Gauge distance in mm 24R
GV 2 • Curve lead = 2 GN N = crossing number =
e= V = Kmph
127R cotα
R = Radius of curve in m
• Length of transition curve as per railway code-
• Equilibrium cant –
2
Length, L = 4.4 R {L, R (in m)}
GVAv • Change of Radial Acceleration-
e' = V =Average speed
127R Av
3.28V 2
Length of transition curve, L = V = m/sec.
Composite Sleeper Index CSI– R
S+10H S=Strength Index Note – Cubic parabola transition curve mostly used in
CSI =
20 H = Hardness Index railway.

• Generally the safe limits of velocity under bridges
is taken as 3.0 m/s
Roadway width:-
Codes used for bridge Design- Type of traffic Min. Width

IRC-5 Code of practice for 1. Vehicular traffic
specification of bridge
Single lane 4.25m
IRC-6-2010 Loads & stress (L.S.M.)
Double lane 7.50m
IRC-6-2000 Loads & stress (W.S.M.)
Multi lane 3.50m for every
IRC-21 Code of practice for cement lane over two lane
concrete (L.S.M.)
2- Cycles
IRC-22 For composite structure
Without overtaking 2.00 m
IRC-78 For foundation design
With overtaking 3.00 m
Classification of bridge Maximum Span for different types of Steel bridge-
• According to span
Type of Bridge Span (m) Bridge Types Maximum
Culvert <6 span
Minor Bridge 6-30 Steel arch bridge 500m
Major Bridge 30-120 Steel bow- string girder bridge 240m
Long span Bridge > 120
Steel cable suspension bridge 1200m
• According to Railway
Major Bridges:-Total waterways more than 18m Steel plate girder bridge 30m
or having any span of clear waterways of 12m or over. Steel rolled beam bridge 10m
Minor Bridges:-Total waterways < 18m or any
span of clear waterway <12m. Steel truss bridge 180m
• According to Loading Centrifugal forces(C)
Permanent Bridge:- (i) Road Bridges-
Class A loading:- The I.R.C. Class A Loading is
based on the heaviest type of commercial vehicle. WV 2
C=
Class B loading:- This is an additional loading 12.95R
which is sometimes specified for use in place of W = Live load(kN)
class AA Loading.
(ii) Railways Bridges-
• It is based on one of the various other hypothetical
vehicles as per revised classification. wV 2
C=
Temporary Bridge 12.95R
Class AA Loading:- I.R.C. Class AA Loading is w = Equivalent UDL (kN/m length)
based on the heavy military vehicles likely to run V = Design speed(kmph)
on certain routes.
• It is the usual practice to design the structures
on national & state highway for class AA Type of Bridge Freeboard
Loading.
Arch bridge 30 cm
Class A Loading:-It is to be adopted for the design
of temporary structures such as timber bridge etc. Girder bridge 60-90 cm
• Waterway:- The area of opening sufficient to pass Navigable Rivers 240-300 cm
the maximum flood discharge expected in the river High level bridges 60cm
without increasing velocity of flow beyond safe limits
is called the water way. Note:- As per IRC, for high level bridges, the
freeboard should not be less than 600 mm.
According to I.C.A.O. classification of Runway
Code Length of Runway in 'M'
A More than 2500
B 2150 to 2500
ICAO = International Civil Aviation Organization
C 1800 to 2150
CWC = Cross Wind Component-
D 1500 to 1800
E 1280 to 1500
Types of Aircrafts (km/hr) Allowable limit of F 1080 to 1280
C.W.C. G 980 to 1080
Big Aircraft 35 Apron- Paved Area for aircraft parking, loading &
Unloading of passengers and cargo.
Mixed Aircraft 25
• Size of Apron depend upon no. of gate position.
Small Aircraft 15
R.C.
No.of Gate position = × Avg.Gate occupancy time
Geometric Runway Design 120
Runway width- According to ICAO Range is 18 to 45 m Runway Capacity - Ability of a runway system to
accommodate aircraft landing & take offs.
Length of Safety Area- Length of Runway +120 m
Operation Operation
R.C. = or
Width of Safety Area According to ICAO Hour year
Airport type Instrumental Non- Gate- It is aircraft parking space, used by single aircraft
Runway Instrumental for loading and unloading of passengers baggage.
Runway Gate Capacity- Ability of specified no. of gates to
accommodate aircraft loading & unloading operations.
A, B and C 300m 150m
No.of Gate
G.C. =
D and E - 78m GateOccupancy Time
• Transverse Gradient According to ICAO Hanger- It is covered area for repair and servicing of the
aircraft.
• For A,B,C type = Max. 2 %
• Number of hangers depends on peak hour
• For D.E Type = Max. 1-1.5% volume of aircraft.
Max. longitudinal and effective gradient- Important Point-
• All runway marking are done with white paint.
Type of Max. Max. effective
• All taxiway marking are done with yellow paint.
Airport Longitudinal gradient(%)
• All runway side light are usually white.
gradient(%)
• All taxiway side lights are usually blue.
A, B and C 1.5 1
D and E 2 2 Description of planning Type of development

Basic runway length Engine failure class
Rate of change of Gradient Per 30 m. Length of
Vertical Curve- Runway capacity Location of exit
taxiway
A, B type 0.1% Runway geometric design Width and length of
C type 0.2 % safety area of airport
Hangar Housing servicing of
D, E type 0.4 % aircrafts

Method of tunneling in running ground-
1- Needle beam method

2- Flying arch method
3- Linear plate method
Methods of tunneling -
Methods of ventilation in tunnels:-
A. In soft Rock A. Natural ventilation
(a) Without timber B. Mechanical ventilation
1. Shield method (a) Blowing air (Blow in) method

(b) Exhausting air (Blow out) method
(for sub aqueous strata)
(c) Combination of blow in and blow out
2. Linear plate method method
(Suitable for sub aqueous strata) Cross section adopted for tunnels:-
1. D section or segmental roof section
3. Compressed Air tunneling method
(suitable for sub ways or navigation tunnels
(for clay)
2. Circular section - Suitable for heavy internal
(b) With timber
or external radial pressure
1. Needle Beam method (suitable in brick lining) • It is most desirable section
2. English method 3. Rectangular section- suitable for hard rocks
3. American method 4. Egg shaped section -used for carrying
(For large size of tunnel) sewage

5. Horse shoe section -suitable for traffic
4. Fore poling method
purpose
(Suitable for Running ground)
6. Polycentric section - (for railway tunnels)
5. German and Austrian method
7. Elliptical
6. Belgium method
Sequence of operation in tunnel construction:-
(All classes of moderately firm or hard soil)
Drilling → Blasting → Mucking → Placing of
7. Army method
Steel → Placing → Concrete.
(Laying underground sewer Components of shield in tunneling-
B. In Hard Rock 1. Skin or outer shell
1. Full face method 2. Cutting edge
2. Heading method 3. propelling jacks
3. Drift method 4. Hood
4. Pilot method 5. Tail

6. Inner box structure
5. Heading and bench method
7. Pockets
6. Perimeter method
Note:- Tunnel alignment is carried out by
7. Cantilever car dump Triangulation.

Effective span of different types of concrete section-
1. Beam and slab
A. For Simply supported beam and slab-
E 280 a. Clear span + effective depth 
Modular Ratio, m = s =
E c 3σcbc  which is minimum
b. c/c distance between supports 
Value of modular ratio (m)
Conc. M-10 M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 B. For cantilever beam-
Grade d
Modular 31 18 13 11 9 8 7 ℓ e = Clear span +
2
ratio
C. For continuous Beam and slab-
Direct tensile strength for different grades of Conc.- Clear span
Conc. M-10 M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 M-45 • If width of support <
12
Grade
Direct 1.2 2.0 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 Clear span + width of support
ℓ e = min. of 
tensile Clear span + effective depth
strength
N/mm2 Clear span
• If width of support >
12
Permissible limits of solid in water as per IS : 456-2000.
Types of Solid Permissible limit (mg/ ℓ ) (a) If one end fixed and other end continuous or both end
Organic matter 200 continuous,
Inorganic Matter 3000
ℓ e = Clear Span
Sulphates 400
Chlorides (b) If one end continuous and other is simply supported-
R.C.C. 500  width of support
P.C.C & C.C. 2000 Clear span + 2
ℓ e = min. of 
Suspended matter 2000 effective depth
Clear span +
pH value ≮6  2
Factor of safety for stress-
Grade of steel Bars-
working stress Limit state
method method 1. Fe-250 250 N/mm2] Plane mild steel bar
For Concrete 3.00 1.50
2. Fe - 415 415N/mm2 
For steel 1.78 1.15  High strength bar
3. Fe - 500 500 N/mm2 
Important Data related to reinforced beam-

Types of section Neutral Axis Formula for N.A. Moment of Failure condition
condition Resistance
Under Reinforced section A.N.A < C.N.A. mσcb d  x  Steel
Xc = M r = σst. A st  d −  failure/Ductile
mσcb + σst  3
failure
Over Reinforced section A.N.A > C.N.A. bx 2 bxσcb  x  Concrete
= mA st (d − x) Mr =  d −  failure/Brittle
2 2  3
failure
Balanced section A.N.A= C.N.A. x = xc bxσcb  x
Mr = d − 
2  3
X = Actual N.A.
 x 
or σst. Ast  d − 
 3

Parameter Formula M-15, σcb = 5N/mm2, m = 18
Fe-250 Fe-415 Fe-500
σst = 140 N/mm2 σst = 230 N/mm2 σst = 275 N/mm2
Neutral axis mσcb × d 0.39d 0.281d 0.246d
x=
mσcb + σst
Lever arm  x 0.87d 0.906d 0.918d
z = d − 
 3
Resisting moment b.x.σcb  x 0.85bd2 0.64bd2 0.564bd2
Mr = d − 
2  3
Percentage of tensile
A st 0.70% 0.31% 0.22%
Reinforcement P=
× 100
b×d
Area of tensile P×b×d 0.007bd 0.0031bd 0.0022bd
reinforcement Ast =
100
Permissible bond stress for concrete-
a. With tensile reinforcement-
Grade M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 M-45
(1) Fe-250/Plain bar 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
(2) Tor Bar 0.96 1.28 1.44 1.60 1.76 1.92 2.08
For Fe-250 , Ld 58φ 44φ 39φ 35φ 32φ 29φ 27φ
b. With compression reinforcement-
Grade M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40
Fe-250 0.75 1.00 1.125 1.25 1.38 1.50
Fe-415, Fe-500 1.20 1.60 1.80 2.0 2.21 2.40
• Average shear stress, τav =

V Max. Shear stress (τcmax) for Beam
b×D M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 and
V above
• Nominal shear stress, τv = LSM 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0
b×d
WSM 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.5
τmax = 1.5 τav For rectangular beam
τmax = 1.33 τav For triangular beam Design of shear reinforcement-
• τv ≤ τc/2 Not required any types of shear
Shear reinforcement is provided in the form of- reinforcement
1. Vertical stirrups • τc/2 ≤ τv ≤ τc minimum shear reinforcement required.
2. Bent-up Bars or inclined bars • τc < τv < τc max needs to provide shear reinforcement.
3. Both Inclined bars and vertical stirrups • τv ≥ τc max section redesign.
Development/bond length (Ld)- Strength of shear reinforcement for vertical
(a) For tension bar- stirrups-
σ φ
Ld = st (For WSM) 0.87f y A sv .d A sv σsv .d
4τbd Vus = (LSM) Vu = (WSM)
Sv Sv
0.87f y φ
Ld = (For LSM) Maximum spacing for shear reinforcement-
4τbd Minimum of-
(b) For compression bar- τbd increased by 25% 2.175f y A sv
σ φ 0.87f y φ (i) S v =
Ld = st (for WSM) Ld = (for LSM) b
5τbd 5τbd (ii) 300 mm
Permissible bond stress (τbd) for plane bars in (iii) 0.75d, for vertical stirrups
tension as per IS 456-2000- (iv) d, for inclined stirrups
M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 Lap length of bar-
WSM 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.20 (i) in tension ≮ Ld or 30φ
LSM - 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9 (ii) in compression ≮ Ld or 24φ

Note- If Dia. of bar > 36 mm, then Lap splice should not (b) Dia. of larger bar if the dia. are unequal.
be used. (c) 5 mm more than nominal maximum size of coarse
If dia. of bar > 32 mm the lap splice should not be aggregate.
used as per amend. no. 3 I S-Code 456:2000
(ii) Vertical spacing ≮ maximum of
• In this condition it is suitable to provide weld.
(a) Dia of thicker bar
Permissible deflection for beam section-
(b) 15 mm
(upto 10 m Span)
2
Types of Section Max. ratio of (c) × Max. nominal size of coarse aggregate
span 3
eff .depth
300mm for Fe250
1. For beam (iii) Max. Horizontal spacing ≯ 
(i) Simply supported Beam 20 180mm for Fe450
and T-beam 26 B. Spacing of bars for slab-
(ii) Fixed and Continuous 7
Min. horizontal distance- Same as A (i)
beam
(iii) Cantilever beam Spacing of Bars is ≯
2. For slab (upto 3.5 m) 3d
(i) One way slab 30 (i) Minimum of  For main bar
(ii) Two way slab 35 300mm
(iii) Continuous slab 40  5d
(iv) Cantilever slab 12 (ii) Minimum of  For distribution bar
• For span > 10 m, 450mm
(Span ) Nominal cover for different members-
2
Effective depth = Members Cover

10 × A
A = Span to effective depth ratio for span upto 10 m. Beams 25 mm
Slenderness limit for lateral stability of beams- Slab 15 mm
Column 40 mm
A. For S.S.B. or continuous beam-
RCC wall 20 mm
 60b Footing 50 mm

ℓ 0 > Minimum of  250b 2

 d Effective width of flange for T-Section–
ℓ 0 = Clear span (i) For monolithic T-beam-
b = Width of beam  l0
d = Effective depth  6 + b w + 6Df
bf = Min.of 
B. For cantilever beam-
b + 1 × clear distance b/w nearest beams
 25b  w 2

ℓ 0 > Minimum of 
100b
2 (ii) For Isolated T- beam-

d  
Note-   l0 
• Minimum tension reinforcement of beam,  
bf = Min.of   l0 + 4  + b w
0.85bd  b 
A st = 
fy b
 f = b
• Max. tension reinforcement = 0.04bD or 4% Note- l0 = 0.70× effective span (in continuous beam)
• If D > 750 mm, then side face reinforcement provided 1 2
equal to 0.1% of cross sectional area or 0.001bD Width of rib in T-beam = to of totaldepth
2 3
• Max. spacing of side face reinforcement is 300 mm or
width of web of beam which is less. Effective width of Flange for L-beam–
1
• Maximum reinforcement size for slab/beam = × D (i) For monolithic L- beam
8
 l0
 + b w + 3D f
D = Total thickness of the member
A. Reinforcement spacing for beam- bf = Min.of 12
(i) Min. horizontal spacing, maximum of  b + 1 × clear distance b/w nearest beams
(a) Equal to dia. of bar if the dia. is equal.  w 2

(ii) For Isolated L-section- 2. By Pigeauds Method–
  (Corner's held down position)
  0.50 l0  wlx2
  Mx = rx'
bf = Min.of   l0 + 4  + bw 8
 b  wl 2
 My = ry' y
b
 f = b 8
Depth of T- Beam– 3. IS Code Method
Span Span For Heavy load 1000 × a1
to • Spacing of bars s =
10 12 A st
Span Span For Medium load
to • Area of distribution bar
12 15
Asd = 0.15% of bD (For Fe 250)
Span Span For Light load
to = 0.12 % of bD (For HYSD bars)
15 20 • Curtailment of bars -
Span Span If T-beam is simply
to L/7 for slab
12 15 supported
L/10 for beam
Actual depth of neutral axis (xa)– • Width of slab assumed for design – 1000 mm
(a) When Neutral axis is in Flange– • Diameter of main reinforcement bars in slab, 8-14mm
bx 2a • Diameter of Distribution bar in slab, 6-8 mm
= mA st (d − x a )
2 Load carrying capacity of column-
(b) When Neutral axis is in web area– (i) For short column
P = σsc Asc + σcc Ac
 d 
bf × d f  x a − f  = mA st (d − x a ) Where, Ac = Ag – Asc
 2 
(ii) For long column-
(by Neglecting web area) P = C r ( σ sc A sc + σ cc A c )
Note– Max dia of bar for ribbed slab = 22 mm
Cr = Reduction factor
L
• One Way Slab – > 2 ℓe
B Cr = 1.25 − (λ ≥ 12)
48bmin
(Supported only two edges)
or
L
• Two way Slab – ≤ 2 ℓe
B Cr = 1.25 − (λ > 40)
160 rmin
(Supported on all edges)
Note- Max. B.M. occurred at the shorter span Where, b = Least lateral dimension
Cr always less than 1.
Design of two way slab–
Strength of column with helical reinforcement-
1. By Grasoff Rankine Method–
(used for corners not held down position) P = 1.05 (σsc .A sc + σcc .A c ) For short column
 L4   1  P = 1.05 C r (σsc .A sc + σcc .A c ) For long column

Load at shorter span, WB =  4 4
.w =  .w
L + B  1 + r 
4
Note :-
• Helical reinforcement is provided only for circular
 B4   r4 
Load at longer span, WB =  4 4
.w =  4
.w column.
L + B  1 + r  • Its strength increased by 5%
Shear Force– Minimum number of bar–
For Rectangular column – 4
1
(i) At shorter span, VB = × w × B For circular column – 6
3
Transverse reinforcement (Tie bar)–
 L/B 
(ii) At larger span, VL =  ×w ×B (i) Dia–
 2+ L/B 1
 × dia of longitudinal bar
 1  Maximum of  4
= × w× B 6mm
2+r
(ii) Pitch– 2. Depth of the centre of gravity of the stress block
 Least lateral dimension from the upper end y = 0.42 xu

Minimum of 16φ (φ = longitudinal bar dia) 3. Total compression force in concrete
300 mm
 Cu = Area of stress block × width of Beam
Helical or spiral bar– = 0.36 fck. xub
(i) Pitch 4. Total Tension force in reinforcement steel,
(a) Maximum pitch– Tu = Area of steel × Permissible stress
coredia = 0.87 fy. Ast
Minimum of, 75mm or
6 0.87 f y .Ast
(b) Minimum pitch– 5. Neutral Axis, x u =
0.36 fck .b
Minimum of, 25 mm or 3 ×dia. of spiral bar
Slenderness limit– 6. Limiting depth of neutral axis
(i) Unsupported length between end restrains ≯ 60 times 700
x u max = .d
least lateral dimension 1100 + 0.87 f y
(ii) If in any given plane one end of column is 7. Depth of compression force from the top of the
100B2 beam section. y = 0.42 xu
unrestrained than its unsupported length ≯
D
8. Lever Arm
Minimum eccentricity of column–
Z = d – 0.42 Xu
 ℓe B
 + Z=d−y
emin = Max.of  500 30
 20 mm
f y .Ast
Z=d−
• Failure of Isolated column Footing is due to– f ck .b
(i) Bending moment
Moment of resistance, Mr
(ii) Punching or shear force
• For Under Reinforcement Section, when Xu < Xu max
Critical section for the footing–
(i) For one way shear- M u lim = 0.87 f y .A st (d − 0.42x u )
Distance "d" away from the column face • For Balance Section
(ii) Punching or two way shear - Mu lim = Qu .bd2. fck
d/2, away from the column face
 x u max   x u max 
(iii) To check vertical shear– At the column face Q u = 0.36    1 − 0.42 
Where d = effective depth  d  d 
Permissible punching shear stress for footing–

• τ cp = k s × 0.16 f ck (W.S.M.) Important data for concrete in L.S.M.
Steel Xumax εmax Mulim (N-mm)
• τ cp = k s × 0.25 f ck (L.S.M.)
Grade
• k s = (0.5 + βc ) Fe - 250 0.53d 0.00308 0.149bd2 fck
Fe - 415 0.48d 0.00380 0.138bd2 fck
Fe - 500 0.46d 0.00417 0.133bd2 fck
Note–
• In limit state of collapse in flexural, the ultimate
strain in concrete is limited to 0.0035 in bedning
• In ultimate strength design the maximum
compressive strain permitted at collapse in R.C.C.
column is about 0.002.
• In limit state method of design, for bars in compression
Stress & Strain Diagram in RC Section the value of bond stress will be 25% more.
1. Area of stress block = 0.36 fck. xu • In limit state method of Design, for HYSD bar the
xu = Depth of neutral axis value of bond stress will be 60 % more.

• Members are not exposed to weather
32t
Min.of 
300 mm
Physical properties of structural steel- 16t
7850 kg/m3 • Member are exposed to weather Min.of 
Unit mass of steel, ρ
 200 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E 2.0 × 105 N/mm2
• Minimum pitch for rivet joint ≮ 2.5d
Poission Ratio, µ 0.3
Modulus of rigidity, G 0.769×105 N/mm2 • Maximum pitch of rivet joint in case of-
Coefficient of thermal 12×10–6/°C 16t
(i) Tension member → Min.of 
expansion, α  200 mm
Nominal diameter of rivet (d)- It is the diameter of the
12t
shank of a rivet before riveting. (ii) Compression member → Min.of 
Effective or gross rivet diameter (d')- It is equal to the  200 mm
diameter of the hole after riveting. Strength of Riveted/Bolted joint-
d' = d + 1.5 mm for d ≤ 25 mm, (i) By tearing of plate between rivet holes in tension
d' = d + 2 mm for d > 25 mm,
Pt = σat ×(p – d')×t
Unwin's formula d mm = 6.05 t mm (ii) Due to bearing strength of rivet Pb = σpf × d' × t
or 1.91 t cm (iii) Shearing strength of rivet
π
t = Min. thickness of plate Ps = τvf × × d'2 (in single shear)
Pitch – It is the distance between c/c of any 4
two adjacent rivets.
Gauge line – A row of rivets parallel to the direction π
= 2 × τvf × × d '2 (in double shear)
of force. 4
Gauge distance – Perpendicular distance between two (iv) Rivet value, R = Min. of P P or P
v t, b s
adjacent gauge lines.
Edge distance – It is the distance between the edge of (v) Efficiency of joint,
a member or cover plate and the Strength of joint or min.of Pt , Pb ,Ps
centre of the nearest rivet hole. η=
Strength of solid plate
Slip factor – Coefficient of friction in friction
type joint is know as slip factor. Force
• Number of rivet, n =
• Minimum width of riveted section = 3d Rivet value
Value of pitch in different types of joint- Maximum permissible stress in rivets and bolts-
Type of fastener Axial Shear Bearing
tension (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa)
Power driven
(a) Shop rivets 100 100 300
(b) Field rivets 90 90 270
Note- For staggered pitch, pitch values in chain system is
increased by 50%. Hand driven rivets 80 80 250
• Minimum edge distance- Close tolerance and 120 100 300
(i) For hand flame cutting or rough edge– 1.7 dh turned bolts
(ii) For machine cutting or smooth edge– 1.5 dh
Bolts in clearance 120 80 250
(dh = Rivet hole dia.)
• Maximum pitch of tacking rivet in case of– holes
(i) Tension member ≯ 1000 mm • Dia. of bolt hole =
(ii) Compression member ≯ 600 mm Nominal size of fastener + Standard clearance

Permissible stresses– • Butt-Welded joint loaded eccentrically-
Types of stresses Permissible FOS W
Shear stress at weld, Ps =
stress d×t
Axial Tension and compression 0.6 fy 1.67 Tensile/Compressive stress due to bending at extreme
fibre,
Bending stress 0.66 fy 1.515
6M
Shear stress- Pb =
t × d2
τv avg 0.4 fy 2.5 Tension Members-
τv max 0.45 fy 2.22 (i) Net sectional area for plate
Bearing stress σb 0.75 fy 1.33   S2 S2  
A net = t ×  b − n × d '+  1 + 2  
Minimum size of fillet weld–   4 × g1 4 × g 2  
Thickness of thicker plate Min. size of weld (mm)

(mm)
0-10 3
10-20 5
20-32 6
32-50 8 mm first run
10 mm second run
• Throat of fillet Weld-
Throat thickness, t = k × S (ii) For single Angle, one leg connected to gusset plate
S = size of weld Anet = A1 + A2 × k1
A1 = Net cross-sectional area of the connected leg.
k = angle between fusion faces
A2 = Gross cross-sectional area of unconnected leg.
k, for 60-90º = 0.70 3A1
k1 =
so, t = 0.70 × S 3A1 + A 2
• Effective length of filled weld (iii) For angle placed back to back-
le = l – 2S Anet = A1 + A2 k 2
• Strength of fillet weld; P = fs × le × t 5A1
k2 =
fs = permissible shear stress 5A1 + A 2
le = effective length The outstanding legs of the pair of angles should be
tacked by rivets at a pitch not exceeding 1 m.
• Eccentric Connections-
Permissible Stress-
Force due to axial load on each rivet For Thickness/Diamet σat (MPa)
w er
Fa = Up to including
n Plates, angles, I
20 mm 150
Force due to moment on any rivet- beam, Channels
20 - 40 mm 140
flats.
m× r > 40 mm 138
Fm =
∑ r2 Bar (round,
square,
Up to including
20 mm
150
• Resultant force- hexagonal) > 20 mm 144
Fr = Fa2 + Fm2 + 2 × Fa × Fm × cos θ • Strength of an axially loaded compression member

P = σac × A
• Eccentric load lying in plane of rivets-
• Permissible stress,
6× M
No. of Rivets, n = fcc × fy
m× p× Rv σac = 0.6 × 1/n
[Merchant Rankine formula]
fccn + fyn 
• Eccentric load not lying in the plane of rivets π2 × E
fcc = elastic critical stress in compression =
6× M λ2
n = 0.8 ×
m × p × Rv λ = Slenderness ratio

Effective Length of Prismatic Compression Members- Compression flange of a beam
300
Boundary Condition Schematic against lateral torsional buckling.
At one end At the other end Representation le
A tension member in which a
Translation Rotation Translation Rotation
reversal of direct stress occurs due
180
to loads other than wind or
Restrained Restrained Free Free 2.0L seismic forces.
A members normally acting as a
tie in a roof truss or a bracing
system. But subjected to possible
Free Restrained Free Restrained 2.0 L 350
reversal of stress resulting from
the action of wind or earthquake
forces.
Members always under tension
400
Restrained Free Restrained Free 1.0L (other than pre-tensioned member).
Note: Tension members, such as bracings, pre-
tensioned to avoid sag, need not satisfy the maximum
slenderness ratio limits.
Restrained Restrained Free Restrained 1.2L
• To prevent the buckling of flange plate & web
plate-
b d
≯ 16, w ≯ 50
tf tw
Restrained Restrained Restrained Free 0.8L
Diameter of tack rivet should not less than the

minimum value-
Thickness of member Min. dia (mm)

Restrained Restrained Restrained Restrained 0.65L upto 10 mm 16
10-16 mm 20
Note- L is the unsupported length of the compression member. > 16 mm 22
For different types of compression and tension In lacing system-
member maximum value of effective slenderness
ratio- • The angles of inclination = 40º - 70º
Types of Member Maximum • Slenderness ratio (S.R.) ≯ 145

Effective S.R
(le /rmin) Maximum Slenderness Ratio, λ = le = le 12 ≯ 145
rmin. t
A member carrying compressive
load resulting from dead and 180 • For Riveted or welded lacing system-
imposed load. le
≯ 50 or 0.7 × S.R (whichever is less )
A member subjected to rmin
compression forces resulting only
from combination with Minimum width of lacing bars-
wind/earthquake action, provided 250 Rivet diameter (mm) 22 20 18 16
the deformation of such member
Width (mm) 65 60 55 50
does not adversely affect the stress
in any part of the structure. Note- For laced column 16 mm ≤ rivet dia. ≤ 22 mm
• Min. thickness of Lacing bars- W = Total Axial load (kN)
t ≮ ℓ /40 For Single Lacing B = Length of the side of cap or base (mm)
t ≮ ℓ /60 For Double lacing
The cap or base plate should not be less 1.5 (d0 + 75)
The lacing of compression members should be
designed to resist a transverse shear V= 2.5% of axial mm in length or diameter.
force in the member.
Vertical transverse/stiffeners-
• For Single lacing system-
If shear/local buckling of web is used to prevent-
V
F=
2 sin θ • Min. spacing ≯ 0.33 d
• For Double Lacing System-
• Max. spacing ≯ 1.5 d
V
F=
4 sin θ Horizontal/Longitudinal stiffeners-
• No. of Rivets Required • Used to resist compression or bending buckling in
F web
n= (For single lacing)
Rivet Value
Bearing stiffeners-
2F cos θ
= (For Double Lacing)
Rivet value • Use at support or under point load
• Spacing of battens-
• Used to prevent web buckling
C
≯ 50, or 0.7 × S.R. (whichever is less)
rmin • To provide strength the web
C = spacing of battens • used in plate girders, design as column.

Note- In case of batten system le are increased by 10%
Note-
For Welded Connections-
• Lap ≮ 4t • For angle section outstanding leg length
• Total length of weld at edge of batten ≮ D/2.  256t 

≯ Min.of  or 16t 
• Length of weld at each edge of batten ≮ 1/3 total  fy 
length of weld required.  
• Return weld along transverse axis of column ≯ • For flats outstanding length should not exceed 12t
4t
Slab base- Stiffeners in plate girder-
• Thickness of a rectangular slab base - Ratio Stiffeners required
3  2 b2  d1
t= wa −  ≤ 85 None
σ bs  4 tw
d1
σbs = Permissible bending stress in slab base 85 < < 200 Transverse (Vertical)
tw
a = Greater projection of the plate beyond the column
(mm) d1
200 < < 250 Both Horizontal and Vertical
• Thickness of a square slab base plate under a solid tw
round column-
Both vertical and horizontal
90W B d1
t = 10 × 250 < < 400 One extra at neutral axis
16σ bs (B − d 0 ) tw

Important theorems:-
Super position theorem:-
dy 4
Principal of super position theorem - EI = − w(x)
dx 4
(i) Load is linearly related to deflection.
(ii) Load is assumed not to change significantly
(iii) It is valid for beams, frames for both
determinate and indeterminate structure.
Castigliano's theorem:-
First theorems:- for linearly elastic structure,
Hybrid Joint and released reaction:- where external force cause deformation
Hybrid
Diagram 2D 3D ∂u ∂u
Joint = P, =M
∂δ ∂θ
internal
(m-1) 3(m-1)
hinge Second Theorems:- Applicable to linearly elastic
structure with constant temperature and unyielding
Link 2 - support.
∂u ∂u
= δ, =θ
∂p ∂M
shear
2 -
Roller • Slope deflection method-In this method, if the
slopes at the ends and the relative displacement of the
Note-
ends are know, the end moment found in terms of
• Pin Joint plane frame structure (2D)- Ds = m– (2J – r)
slope defection stiffness and length of members.
• Pin Jointed space frame structure (3D)- Ds = m – (3J – r)
• Moment Area method-The moment area method
• Rigid Joint plane structure (2D)-Ds = 3m – (3J – r) – rr is one of the most effective methods for obtaining
• Rigid Joint space structure (3D)- Ds = 6m – (6J – r) – rr the bending displacement in beam and frames.
• Kinematic indeterminacy for (2D) truss joint- Dk = 2J – r M

dθ = dx
• Kinematic indeterminacy for (2D) Frame or (3D) truss joint- EI
Dk = (3J – r)
Horizontal thrust on different type of arch)-
• Kinematic indeterminacy for (3D) Frame joint-Dk = 6J – r
Sr. Type of structure Horizontal
Where m = No of members connect at the joint. thrust
Three hinged arch-
Note-
(A) Parabolic arch-
Ds < 0, m < 2J – r Deficient or unstable truss
W
Ds = 0, m = 2J – r Perfect stable truss, With point load
2
Determinate truss
Ds > 0, m > 2J – r Redundant or over stiff truss wℓ2
With U.D.L
indeterminate truss 8h

(B) Semicircular Arch Rectangular section 1.5
W
With point load Solid circular section 1.7
2
wR Triangular section (vertex
With U.D.L 2.34
2 upward)
2-Hinged Arch
Triangular section (Vertex
(A) Parabolic Arch- 2.00
downward)
25wl
With Point load
128 h Hollow circular section
 1 − k3 
wℓ 2
k = Ratio of inner diameter to 1.7  4 
With UDL 1− k 
8h outer diameter
(B) Semi circular arch
(a) diamond section rhombus 2.0
W
With Point load (b) Thin hollow rhombus 1.50
π
4 wR thin circular ring solid 1.27
With UDL
3 π
H- section 1.5
Eddy's theorem:- The bending moment at any
section of an arch is equal to the vertical intercept Collapse load for different section:-
between the linear arch and the centre line of actual Simply Supported beam with Collapse
arch. point load load
[ M xx ]Arch = ( M xx )Beam − Hy Simply supported beam with 4M P

wu =
point load ℓ
( Mxx )Arch ∝ ∆y
Simply supported beam with 8M P
Arch subjected to loading bending moment at any wu =
UDL load ℓ2
section proportional to difference of ordinate of
imaginary arch to real arch called funicular arch. Cantilever beam with end point 2M P
wu =
Muller Breslau principle:- The Muller - Breslau load ℓ
principal is a method to determine influence lines. Cantilever beam with UDL 2M P
Influence lines:- Variation of reaction shear, wu =
load ℓ2
moment or deflection at a specific point Due to a
concentrated force moving on beam or frames. Fixed beam with point load 8M P
wu =
ℓ
Shape factor:- Represent reserve strength beyond
yielding. Fixed beam with UDL load 16M P
wu =
ZP M P ℓ2
Shape factor = =
Ze M e Fixed beam with unsimtrical 2M P ℓ
wu =
Shape factor for different section. point load ab
Section Shape factor Prop cantilever beam with mid- 6M P

wu =
sec. point load ℓ
I- section
(a) about strong axis 1.22 Prop cantilever beam with UDL 11.656M P
wu =
(b) about weak axis load ℓ2
1.55 12M P
≈
T- section 1.90-1.95 ℓ2

Multiplying factor for painting area calculation-
Irregular shape Multiplying factor
For one For both
side side
Types of Estimate- Flush Door 1.20 2.00
A. Preliminary/Approximate or Abstract Estimate Paneled, framed, batten and 1.125 2.25
1. Unit Rate Estimate Braced door.
2. Plinth Rate Estimate
Fully glazed or gauged door. 0.50 1.00
(Approximate estimate = plinth area × plinth area rate)
3. Cubic Rate Estimate Partially paneled and 1.00 2.00
(Approximate estimate = Volume of building × partially glazed or gauzed
Rate per volume) door.
Volume = L × B × H Corrugated iron sheet (G.I. 1.14 2.28
4. Percentage Rate Estimate Sheet)
B. Detailed Estimate (Most reliable estimate)- Corrugated asbestos sheet 1.20 2.40
1. Item Rate or Detailed Estimate
(A.C. sheet)
2. Revised Estimate
3. Supplementary Estimate. Semi Corrugated Asbestos 1.10 2.20
4. Annual repair and maintenance estimate sheet
• Revised Estimate is prepared when- Steel Rolling shutter 1.25 2.50
1. Original sanctioned estimate exceed by more than-5%. Corrugated Asbestos Traford 1.10 2.20
2. Expenditure of the work exceed more than 10% of an sheet
administrative approval.
3. If there is change of rate or quantity of material.
Work/Item/Name/ % Cost of total cost
• Purpose of Detailed Estimate-
Expenditure of project
1. Technical Sanction
2. Administrative approval Water charge 1.5%
3. Framing and inviting tender Annual Repair 1.5%
4. To know material required and project duration T & P or Tools and plants 1-1.5%
5. Accurate idea of cost of construction Work charge Establishment 1.5-2%
6. To determine earnest money and security deposit Earnest money 2%
Deduction for opening- Contingencies 3-5%
• In Masonry- Sanitary work 8%
1. Openings each up to 0.1m2 or 1000 cm2 Electrification 8%
2. Ends of beam, post rafters, purlins etc. up to 0.05 Water Distribution work 8%
cm2 or 500 cm2 in section. Departmental charge 10-15%
3. Wall plate, bed plate, bearing of chajjas and the like Contractor profit 10%
up to 4 inch or 10 cm.
Bond or guarantee 10%
4. No deduction is made for bearing of floor and roof slab.
Labour Expenditures 30-35%
• In plastering and pointing-
1. No deduction is made for ends of beams, posts and Most Important definition-
rafters.
2 1. Plinth Area- It is a built-up covered area of a
2. No deduction is made for small opening up to 0.5 m
or 5 sq. ft. building measured at the floor level excluding plinth
3. Deduction is made for one face only if opening is offset of any storey.
between 0.5 m2 to 3.0 m2 2. Floor Area-
4. If opening is more than 3m2, deduction is made for • It is the total area of floor between the walls.
both face of the openings. • Floor Area = plinth area – Area occupied by walls.
Measurement accuracy for different item- 3. Carpet Area-
Item Measurement Accuracy • It is an useful or liveable area or rentable/Lettable
All dimension/Linear 0.01 m area.
Measurement • Carpet Area = Total floor area – circulation area.
Area 0.01 m2 4. Circulation Area-
Cubic content 0.01 m3 • It is the floor area which are used for movement of
wood work 0.002 m persons using the building. It is two types.
steel work 0.005 m 1. Horizontal circulation area– Area of verandah,
volume 0.01 m3 passages, corridors, balconies, porches.
volume of wood work 0.001 m3 • It is 10-15% of plinth area.
2. Vertical circulation area– Area occupied by Removing of point or Sq. m Per Sq. m
staircase, lift and entrance halls. Varnish
• It is 4-5% of plinth area. Plastering - cement Sq. m Per Sq. m
Unit of Measurement and payments for various mortar, Lime mortar and
item of Civil work- mud mortar
Particular of Item M.K.S. System Pointing - struck, flush, Sq. m Per Sq. m
Measurement Payment weather, etc.
unit unit Dado (Thickness and type Sq. m Per Sq. m
Brick, Earth Tile (with Thousand Per specified)
measurement) Thousand Skirting (Thickness type metre Per m
Floor Tile, glass Tiles Hundred Per and height specified)
Hundred Earth filling on base of Cu.m Per Cu. m
Stone Ballast Cu.m Per Cu. m road, with rolling
C.C./R.C. Chajja Cu.m Per Cu. m Soling coat of brick Sq. m Per Sq. m
Reinforcement Bars Quintal Per Quintal
Pile driving or Sinking metre Per m
Electrification Light, Fan, Point Per Point
Plug points Painting Furniture's no. Per no.
Surface-dressing 15 cm Sq.m Per Sq. m Supply of water closet, no. Per no.
upto depth W.C. (size specified)
Foundation excavation Cu.m Per Cu. m Supply of paint ready litre Per Litre
Earth work dressing Sq. m Per Sq. m mix.
Shuttering work Sq. m Per Sq. m Explosive for blasting kg Per kg
Reinforcement Cement Cu. m Per Cu. m
Concrete Methods of estimation of the building-
Centering and form work Sq. m Per Sq. m 1. Long wall-short wall method or out-to-out and in-
Concrete Jaffier, Sq. m Per Sq. m to in method or P.W.D. method. (useful for all
D.P.C. Sq. m Per Sq. m types of wall)
On Roof bitumen painting Sq. m Per Sq. m Length of long wall = C/C Length of wall +
Half brick thick masonry Sq. m Per Sq. m Thickness of wall.
(upto 10 cm Thick)
In Super Structure brick Cu. m Per Cu. m Length of short wall = C/C Length of wall –
masonry work (> 10 cm Thickness of wall.
thick)
Honey - Comb brick Sq. m Per Sq. m 2. Centre Line method-
masonry work • Best method for symmetrical cross section.
Flat soling of brick Sq. m Per Sq. m
Cornice, string course m Per m • Most rapid and easy method
Roof of Corrugated sheet Sq. m Per Sq. m 3. Crossing method.
Doors/windows of Cu. m Per Cu. m Earth work estimation in roads-
Chowkhat, Beam etc.
1. Mid Sectional area method-
Door and window shutters Sq. m Per Sq.m
or leave V = Bdm + S.dm2  × L
Paneled, partition wall Sq. m Per Sq.m
Fabric reinforcement, Sq. m Per Sq.m d1 + d 2
dm =
wire netting 2
Barbed wire facing metre Per metre • Area of sloping side of road-
Rivet, Bolts and Nuts, quintal Per quintal
Anchor bolts, Lewis A = L.d 1 + S2 (for one side slope)
bolts, Holding down bolts,
etc. A = 2L.d 1 + S2 (for both side slope)
Iron grill, Collapsible gate Sq. m Per Sq. m 2. Mean Area Method-
Rolling Shutter Sq. m Per Sq. m A + A2
Iron gate (may also be by Sq. m Per Sq. m V= 1 ×L
2
weight, quintal)
A1 = B.d1 + Sd12
Painting, Varnishing (No. Sq. m Per Sq. m
of Coat specified) A 2 = B.d 2 + Sd 22

3. Prismoidal Method- Earth Work in Excavation in 1.0 m3
L Rock
V = ( A1 + A 2 + 4A m )
6 12 mm Thick Plaster Work 8.0 m2
A m = Bd m + Sd 2m Pointing Work 10.0 m2
L = Length of the section (cutting/filling) White Washing or Colour 100 m2
Washing in Double Coat
• Simpson's formula-
Dry volume for different types of item:
d
V = [ (A1 + A n ) + 4(A 2 + A 4 + ....A n −1 )] + Item Description Dry Volume masonry
3 work
2(A 3 + A 5 + ......... + A n − 2 ) P.C.C. work, C.C. and all 1.52 to 1.55
D types of concrete work
= [ (A1 + A n ) + 4(Even area) + 2(Odd Area)] excluding C.C. floor
3
• Volume by Trapezoidal formula– For brick masonry 0.30 cum
Random Rubble masonry 0.42 cum
 A + An 
V = D 0 + A1 + A 2 + A 3 + ..........A n −1  Coursed Rubble masonry 0.40 cum
 2  12 mm thick plaster work 0.0196 m3 to 0.02 m3
Earthwork in hilly Road- Painting work 0.006 m3
1. Earthwork in cutting/filling- 2.5 cm thick C.C. floor 0.04125 m3
L × S.b 2 + m(2bd + S.d 2 )  5 cm thick C.C. floor 0.0825 m3
V= 7.5 cm thick C.C. floor 0.12375 m3
m 2 − S2
Capacity of truck-
2. Earthwork in partially cutting and filling-
Truck 3 Tone 5 Tone 8 Tone
(a) In partially cutting
Capacity Capacity Capacity
1  (b + md) 2  Brick transport 1000 brick 1500 brick 2500 brick
V = L×  
2  (m − S1 )  Ballast, Brick, 2.80 m3 4.20 m3 5.60 m3
Kankar, Sand (100 feet ) (150 feet ) (200 feet3)
3 3
(b) In partially filling-
1  (b − md) 2  Minimum height of stack and allowance to be
V = L×   deducted for shrinkage and/or shrinkage when
2  (m − S2 )  measured in fresh stacks-
Work done per day per mason for a particular item- Materials Minimum Allowance to
height of the deduced
Item Description Work Done per stacks for sinkage
day per mason cm and/or
Brick Work in Foundation and 1.50 m3 shrinkage
Plinth with Mud-mortar Stone metal, ballast 32.5 1/13
3 chips, shingles or gravel
Brick Work in Super Structure 1.25 m
with Mud-mortar Stone boulders 15cm or 53 1
Brick Work in foundation and 1.25 m 2 above size
Plinth (Sub-Structure) with Lime Stone boulders below 45 1/7
or Cement Mortar. 15 cm size
Jhama bats or bricks 53 1/7
Brick Work in Super Structure 1 m3
bats
with Lime Mortar or Cement
Mortar. Jhama metal, khoa or 34 1/9
chips
Brick Work in Partition Wall 5.0 m2 Sand 61 1/4
Random Rubble Stone Masonry 1.0 m3 Surkhi 61 1/4
in lime or cement mortar Lime 61 1/4
Course Rubble Stone Masonry 0.80 m3 Moorum 2.5 1/13
lime or cement mortar Carried earth 34 1/9
Lime Concrete or Cement 8.5 m3 Rubbish (building or 34 1/9
Concrete (P.C.C.) in foundation kiln)
and Plinth
Stream Coal or slack 61 1/8
Lime Concrete in Roof Terracing 6.0 m3
1 : 2 : 4 C. C. Work 5.0 m3 coal
R. C.C. Work 3.0 m3 Cinder 61 1/9

Important unit conversion- Rate of Depreciation based on life of structure-
1m = 39.37 inch Life of structure Annual Total
= 3.28 feet (years) Depreciation Depreciation
1 mile = 1.6 km (per year)
1 feet = 0.3048 m 0-5 0 0
1 m2 = 10.75 feet2 5-10 1 2.5%
1 feet2 = 0.093 m2 %
2
1 cum = 35.29 C.ft. 10-20 3 7.5%
1 C.ft. = 0.0283 cum %
4
1 yard = 3 feet
20-40 1% 20%
• Number on Brick in 1 cum masonry = 500
40-80 1 60%
• Number on Brick in 1 cum Lot = 650 1 %
2
• Length of bent up bar
Total = 90%
(i) for 45° crank – L + 2 × 0.42 d
Methods of Depreciation-
(ii) for 30° crank – L + 2 × 0.27 d
(i) Straight line method-
Weight of mild steel bars for per m Length a
Annual depreciation,
given dia.-
= 0.0062φ2 Original cost - Scrap value C − S
D= =
Life in year n
φ 2
= kg / m (ii) Constant percentage method/Declining balance
162.2
method-
φ = dia. of bar 1/ n
S
Salvage value- Annual Depreciation, D = 1 −  
• The value of an item at the end of its utility period C
without being dismantled. (iii) Sinking fund method- In this method the
• It is 10% of the total cost of construction. depreciation of property is assumed to be equal to
Scrap value- the annual sinking fund plus the interest on the fund
• It is the dismantled value of an item at the end of i
its useful life. for that years, Sc =
(1 + i) n − 1
• Scrap value may be (+Ve) or (–Ve).
Book value- • The value of sinking fund at the end of useful life of
the property is 90%.
• It is the amount shown in the account book after
(iv) Quantity Survey method- In this method the
allowing necessary depreciation.
property is studied in detail and loss in value due to
Book value after n1 years = C − n1 × D life, wear and fear, decay, obsolescence, etc.,
= original cost – n1D worked out. Each and every step is based on some
Annuity– logical ground without any fixed percentage of the
cost of the property.
• The net installment of periodical payment for
repayment of the capital amount invested in a The different classes of plots may be taken-
property for a specified period. A. Type plot 1200 Sq. m
Obsolescence/uncirculation- B. Type plot 800 Sq. m
• Due to end of circulation of shape or design of the C. Type plot 500 Sq. m
property is called obsolescence. D. Type plot 250 Sq. m
Capital Cost- The minimum covered area of building shall be
• It is the total cost of construction, including lands or the as follows-
original total amount required to possess a property. Area of plot Max. permissible covered
Year's Purchase area
100 100 Up to 200 Sq. m 60% of the site area on ground
Y.P = = and first floor only
Rate of interest i
201 to 500 Sq. m 50% of the site area
Capitalized value = Net income × Y.P.
501 to 1000 Sq. m 40% of the site area
S.i More than 1000 Sq. m 1
Sinking fund, Sc = S = capital cost 33 of the site area
(1 + i) − 1
n
3

Hardness of water-
Total Hardness =
 [Ca 2+ ] 
 2+
× Equivalent wt. of CaCO3 
 Equivalent weight of Ca 
• First national water policy 1987.
  Mg 2+  
• Air prevention & control of pollution Act - 1981. +    × Equivalent Wt.of CaCO3 
• Water prevention & control of pollution Act - 1974.  Equivalent wt. of Mg 2+

 
• The Environment protection Act - 1986
Per Capita Demand (q)- Total Hardness (TH) in mg/ℓ expressed as CaCO3
q=
Total yearly water requirement of the city in litre • 1 British degree of hardness = 14.25 mg/l
365× Design population • 1 French degree of hardness = 10 mg/l
• Max. daily demand = 1.8 × Avg. daily demand. • 1 American degree of hardness = 17.1 ppm
• Max. hourly demand = 1.5 × Avg. demand hourly of
Zeolite process/base exchange/cation exchange
Max. day.
method-
• Max. hourly demand or peak demand = 2.7 × Avg.
hourly demand. • This method is very effective and can be produces zero
Fire Demand- hardness.
(i) As per GOI Fire Demand • It is not suitable for water with Fe and Mn
• pH of water is not affected.
Q = 100 P (kL)
• No sludge is formed.
(ii) Kuichling's Formula
Q = 3182 P Water Quality Permissible Cause for
(iii) Freeman's Formula Parameter Units rejection value
P  Suspended solids 500 mg/l 2000 mg/l
Q = 1136  + 10
5  Turbidity 1 NTU 10 NTU
(iv) Buston's formula Colour 5 TCU 25 TCU
Q = 5663 P Taste and odour 1 TON 3 TON
P = Population in thousand Alkalinity 200 mg/l 600 mg/l
Population forecasting method-
(i) Arithmetic increase method- pH 6.5-8.5 < 6.5 and > 9.2
(Suitable for older and larger cities) Hardness 200 mg/l 600 mg/l
Pn = Po + nx Chloride content 250 mg/l 1000 mg/l
(ii) Geometric increase method- Free NH3 0.15 mg/l 0.15 mg/l
(For young and rapidly developed cities) Nitrate 45 mg/l -
n
 r  Fluoride 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Pn = Po  1 + 
 100 
Parameters Diseases
(iii) Incremental Increases method- Absence of fluorides Dental, Fragile bones
n(n + 1)y Excess of lead Anemia
Pn = Po + nx +
2 Presence of excess Methemoglobinemia or blue
nitrate baby syndrome
Contributory population Peak factor Absence of Iodine Goitre
up to 50000 3.00 Excess of chlorides Hyperchloremia
50001 to 200000 2.50
more than 200000 2.00 Property of Water Types of test/instrument
Hardness EDTA method
Design period values component Design period Turbidity Turbiditymeter/Nephlometer
(years)
Bacteria count MPN test membrane filter technique
Storage by dams 50
pH Potentiometer, Aquascope
Water treatment units 15
Colour Tintometer
Main supply pipes 30
Dissolved Oxygen Winkler's method
Demand reservoir 50 Organic matter BOD test, COD test
Distribution system 30 Taste and odour Osmoscope
Water borne diseases and their control- • Vent pipe is provided for the ventilation purpose to
(a) Diseases Caused by bacteria facilitate the exit of foul gases in to atmosphere.
(i) Typhoid fever - Salmonella typhi • COD = Biodegradable organics + Non-Biodegradable
(ii) Cholera - Vibrio-cholera organics.
(iii)Bacillary dysentery- Shigella bacillus or Flexner- • THOD ≥ COD ≥ BOD ≥ TOC (Total organic compound)
bacillus • BOD = (DOi – DOf) Dilution factor.
(b) Diseases caused by viral infection- Volume of the diluted sample
(i) Hepatitis (Infectious jaundice) - Hepatist virus • Dilution factor =
Volume of the undiluted sewage sample
(ii) Poliomyelitis - Polio virus
Design Criteria of Sedimentation tank- Spacing of Manhole lines Size of Sewer (m)
• Over flow rate = Overflow rate or surface loading. as per IS 1742-1960
= 500 – 750 Ltr./hr/m2 (for plain sedimentation with 45 m ≤ 0.3 m (upto)
coagulation)
75 m ≤ 0.6 m (upto)
∼1000–1250 Ltr./hr/m2 (for Sedimentation with
coagulation) 90 m ≤ 0.9 m (upto)
• Depth = 3 to 4.5m (≮ 1.8m and ≯ 6.0m) 120 m ≤ 1.2 m (upto)
Slow sand filter- 250 m ≤ 1.5 m (upto)
• Sand size - 0.20 - 0.30 mm 300 m ≤ 1.5 m (greater than)
• Depth of filter - 2.5 - 4.0 m. HNO3, H2CO3, H2SO4 present in acidic rain.
• Plan area of filter - 100 - 200 m2 Oxidation Ponds-
• Design period - 10 years. • Depth - 1.0 - 1.8 m
• Cleaning period - 1 - 3 months. • Detention period - 2 - 6 weeks
• Rate of filtration - 2400 - 4800 Ltr./m2/day or 100 - 200 • Organic loading - 150 - 300 kg/ha/day.
Ltr./m2/hr. • Under hot condition - 60 - 90 kg/ha/day.
• Efficiency of bacteria removal - 98 - 99%. • Length to width ratio - 2
Rapid Sand filter- • Sludge Accumulation - 2 - 5 cm/year
• Depth of tank - 2.5 - 3.5 m. • Minimum depth to be kept - 0.3 m
• Area - 10 - 80 m2 each unit. Septic tank-
• Rate of washing - 15 - 90 cm Rise/minute. • Detention time - 12 - 36 hr.
• Rate of filtration - 3000 - 6000 Ltr./m2/hour. (Slow • Sludge accumulation rate - 30 Ltr./cap/year
sand filter × 30) • Sewage flow - 90 - 150 Ltr./cap/day
• 30 min. used for back wash. • Cleaning period - 6 - 12 month
(iv) Break point chlorination- • Length to width ratio - 2 - 3 m
• Chlorine is added beyond breakpoint to ensure a • Depth - 1.2 - 1.8 m
residual 0.2 – 0.3 ppm as free chlorine. • Width ≮ 0.9 m
• Residual chlorine is tested by DPD test.
• Free board - 0.3 m
(v) Super chlorination-
Primary Air Pollutants-
• When excess chlorine (5 - 15 mg/l) is added in water
• Finer particles (< 100µ in diameter)
during epidemic such that it gives a residual of 1 - 2
mg/l beyond break point is called super chlorination. • Coarse particles (> 100µ in diameter)
• Air relief valves are used to release air. • Sulphur compounds, (SO2)
• Sluice valves are used to stop the water supply in pipe. • Oxides of Nitrogen, (NO, NO2)
• Scouring Valve are used at low levels of pipe to • Carbon monoxides (CO)
remove impurities such as sand, silt etc. • Halogen compounds
• Pressure relief valves are used to release pressure • Organic compounds
occurring due sudden closure of valves. • Lead (Pb)
• Pilot valve are often used in critical application (e.g., • Radio active substances
emergency and SIS control) Secondary Air Pollutants-
• Check valve/reflux valve/non-returning valve:- 1. H2SO4 2. PAN (Peroxyacetyl-nitrate)
These possess some automatic device which allows the 3. Formaldehydes 4. Ozone (O3)
water to flow in one direction only. 5. Photo chemical smog.
Sonoscope is used in detection of leakage in An acceptable noise level for by IS 4594-1968
underground water mains. • Rural 25 - 35
Different types of pipes and their uses- • Sub-urban 30 - 40
• Anti siphonage pipe is installed for the purpose of • Residential (Urban) 35 - 45
preserving the water seal of traps in drainage system. • Urban 40 - 50
• Soil pipe carries human excreta from water closet to • City 40 - 50
septic tank. • Industrial 50 - 60
• Representative Fraction-
Map distance
R.F =
Ground distance
Shape of earth - Oblate Spherical • Shrinkage ratio or S.F. = Shrunk length = Shrunkscale
Original length Originalscale
Polar axis length - 12713.80 km 
 Difference → 42.95km Measured distance on map
Equatorial axis length - 12756.75 km  • Correct distance on map =
S.F.
Primary Classification of Survey-
Measured area on map
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying • Correct area on map =
(S.F.)
2
• Mean surface of the • Actual surface of the

earth is considered as earth is taken into Error due to use of wrong scale-
plane. account. RF of wrong scale
• Used for small area < • Use for large area > Correct Length = × Measured Length
195.5 km2. 195.5 km2 RF of correct scale
2
• Line joining two points • It is an arc.  RF of wrong scale 
is a line. • It is more accurate.
Correct Area =   × Measured Area
 RF of correct scale 
• It is less accurate. • It is used to establishing
• Used in engineering control points for plane Note-
projects on large scale survey. • Minor control points are measured with higher degree
like, Bridge, dam. • All plumb lines are of precision.
radial • Major control points are measured with lower degree
1. Plane Scale - There is possible to measure two of precision.
dimensions, only such as unit and length or km and m. Properties of a spherical triangle-
2. Diagonal Scale - In this it is possible to show units,
lengths, and hundredths or there are three successive
dimensions can be measured at a time.
Note- Diagonal scale is based on principle of similarity
of triangle.
3. Vernier Scale-
(a) Direct Vernier - Calibrated in same direction as of
main scale.
• In this n division of vernier scale is equal to (n-1) • Any angle,
divisions of main scale. A or B or C < π or 1800
i.e nV = (n − 1)S in this V < S
• Sum of three angle,
(b) Retrograde Vernier- Vernier scale moves in opposite π or 1800 < (A + B + C) < 3π or 5400
direction of main scale.
• For it nV = (n + 1)S for this V > S • Sum of any two sides should be greater than third i.e.
(a + b) > c, (b + c) > a, (a + c) > b
Extended vernier - nV = (2n − 1)S
S Least Count of Surveying Instrument-
Least count V =
n Instrument Least Count
Shrunk Scale- Vernier Theodolite 20"
= Original Scale × shrinkage factor
Electronic Theodolite 1"
Shrunk length Prismatic compass 30'
and, Shrinkage factor =
Actual length Surveyor compass 15'
Note- Graphical scale does not affects due to shrinkage Levelling staff 5 mm or 0.005 m
of map.
Types of drawing sheet and its size- Dumpy level 5 mm
Types of sheet Size in (mm) Meteric chain 20 cm
A0 1189 × 841 Theodolite-
A1 841 × 594 Main Scale 20'
A2 594 × 420 Vernier Scale 20"
A3 420 × 297 Total Station-
A4 297 × 210 Angle 1"
A5 210 × 148 Distance 5 mm

Principal of different types of surveying work- Maximum tolerance for chain-
Surveying Types Principal 10 m - ± 3 mm
1. Surveying 1. To work from whole to part. 20 m - ± 5 mm
2. To locate a new station by at 30 m - ± 8 mm
least two measurements Per m length - ± 2 mm
(Linear or angular) from Order of measurements and its application-
fixed reference point. Order of measurements Application
2. Chain Survey Triangulation
Ist order To determine length of
3. Compass Survey Traversing
base line
4. Plane table Survey Parallelism nd
II order In traverse line
5. Optical square Double reflection
Types of Surveying - IIIrd order Chain surveying
Topographical It is used to determine the natural Important survey lines-
Surveys features of a country like, lakes, Base line Longest survey line passing
hills, roads, canal etc. through the centre of area.
Cadastral Survey Made to fixing of property line, Check line/proof Used to check the accuracy of the
calculation of area, etc. line survey work.
City Survey It is used to construction or layout Tie line/subsidiary To collect the details of nearby
for water supply system, sewer and line/ auxiliary line objects in an area.
other work. Chain Survey instrument property-
Marine or It is deals with large water bodies
Instrument Dimension
hydrographic such as navigation, harbour works
survey etc. Arrows 4 mm dia, 400 ± 5 mm length
Astronomical It is consists of observation of the Top ring 50 mm
Survey heavenly bodies such as Sun or any Pegs Area 2.5 × 2.5 cm2 to 3 cm × 3 cm
Star. length - 15 cm
Types of instrument used in survey and its Ranging rod Length, 2-3 m, strip length 20 cm each
application- Ranging pole Length, 4-8 m
Instrument Application Angle measuring instrument-
Chain and compass Linear and angular measurements
1. Cross staff Used to setting out a
Chain and level Linear measurements right angle on chain
Plane table Plot plans of field observation for line.
small scale in plane surface
(i) Open cross staff Set out for 90° only
Tacheometry To measure horizontal and vertical
(ii) French cross staff for 45° and 90°.
angle in hilly regions
Basic measurements in surveying- (iii)Adjustable cross staff for any angle 0° –
Horizontal Distance By chain, tape, tacheometer, 360°
total station 2. Optical Square Only for 90°
Vertical Distance Level, total station, tacheometer, 3. Prism Square Only for 90°
sextant, abney level 4. Site Square Only for 90°
Horizontal Angle Theodolite, compass,
Note- Angle b/w horizontal glass and index glass = 45°
clinometer, total station
• Offset- Lateral measurement from chain line it is two
Vertical Angle Theodolite, sextant, total station types.
Types of Chain and its length- (a) Perpendicular offset
Types of Chain Length No. of Links (b) Oblique offset
Engineers Chain 100 ft 100 Note-
Gunter's chain/surveyor 66 ft 100 • Long offset > 15 m
chain • Short offset < 15 m
Revenue chain 33 ft 16 • Horizontal glass - Half silvered
(use in cadastral survey)
Metric Chain 30m, 20m 150, 100 • Index glass - Full silvered
• Length of each links - 20 cm Ranging-
• Tallies provided - every 5 m To locating intermediate point on survey line b/w two
• Brass ring provided - every meter except tallies place fixed end point.
(a) Direct Ranging - Error due to temperature Cumulative +ve or –
• Possible when stations are intervisible. ve
• It is done by Eye or Line Ranger Variation in pull Compensating +ve or
–ve
(b) Indirect ranging-
Error due to sag Cumulative +ve
• It is done if stations are invisible due to elevated area
or long sight distance Error in marking tape lengths Compensating +ve or
–ve
Types of error occurred during surveying
Disturbing arrows after they are Blunder
Cases Errors set
Incorrect length of tape Cumulative +ve or – Errors in reading the tape Mistake
ve
Incorrect counting of tape Blunder
Bad ranging Cumulative +ve length
Tape not stretched horizontally Cumulative +ve Careless holding and marking Compensating +ve or
Tape not stretched tight and Cumulative +ve –ve
straight, but both ends in line
Tape Correction-
S.N. Correction Condition Error Correction Formula
1. Length (a) Increases –Ve +Ve  L' 
l = l ' 
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve  l 
2. Temperature (a) Increases –Ve +Ve Ct = α ( Tm − T0 ) L
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve
3. Pull/Tension (a) Increases –Ve +Ve ( Pm − P0 )
Cp = ×L
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve AE
4. Sag – Always +Ve Always –Ve w 2l 3 W 2l
Cs = 2
or
24Pm 24n 2 p2
5. Slope – Always +Ve Always –Ve CSL = h 2 / 2L or
C v = 2Lsin 2 θ / 2
6. Bad Ranging – Always +Ve Always –Ve Ch = d2/2L
• Error due to Incorrect chaining- 2. Compensative/Accidental error-

• Not occurred in same direction.
Incorrect chain length
Correct length = Measured length × • Compensative error ∝ l .
standard chain length
Compass Survey
• In chain surveying field work limited to linear
Prismatic Compass Surveyor compass
measurement only.
Magnetic needle is a It is edge bar type
Note-
broad needle
• Size of field book - 20 cm × 12 cm Graduated ring is attached
Attached with the box
• Correction per chain length for 10 links at a slope of with the needle do not and rotate along with
1.5α rotate with the box the box
α=
100 Readings are taken with Taken directly by seeing
the help of the prism through top of the box
• Correction applied for each chain length along θ° Sighting and reading are Cant be done
slope. = l (1 − cos θ) taken simultaneously simultaneously
Whole circle bearing Quadrantal bearing
• Hypotensual allowance = l (sec θ − 1) (W.C.B.) are calculate (Q.B.) system is
Types of error in linear measurement- calculated.
Bearing of line measured Bearing of a line
1. Cumulative/systematic error- with magnetic north in measured eastward or
• Occurs in same direction and tends to accumulate. clockwise direction. westward from north or
• Cumulative error ∝ length of line (l) south whichever is nearer

Important definition- Variation of magnetic declination-
Azimuth/True bearing - Bearing of a line in reference to Secular Due to over a long period of time due to
the horizontal true north (meridian). variation gradual shift in earth's magnetic field
Magnetic bearing - Horizontal angle b/w the
Annual Due to revolution of earth around the sun.
magnetic meridian and a line.
variation (Yearly)
Arbitrary bearing - Horizontal angle b/w the arbitrary
meridian of a line. Diurnal Due to rotation of earth about its own
Conversion of Q.B (Reduced bearing) to W.C.B.- variation axis. It's more at pole, in day & summer
time.
Q.B. Quadrant W.C.B. Angle
st Irregular Due to magnetic disturbances in earth's
NθE I W.C.B. = Q.B 0° - 90°
variation magnetic field.
SθE IInd 180° – Q.B. 90° - 180°
Note-
rd
SθW III 180° + Q.B. 180° - 270° • Magnetic declination-
NθW IVth 360° – Q.B. 270° - 360° M.D. = True meridian − M.M.
Conversion of W.C.B. to Q.B.-
or horizontal angle b/w true meridian and magnetic
W.C.B Quadrant Q.B. R.B./Q.B.
value meridian.
0° - 90° Ist Q.B = W.C.B. NθE • Angle of dip-It is the inclination angle of needle to the
90° - 180° IInd 180° – W.C.B SθE horizontal plane.
180° - 270° III rd

W.C.B. – 180° SθW • The angle of dip = 0° at equator
270° - 360° IVth 360° – W.C.B. NθW = 90° at Magnetic poles

Closing errors- The actual distance by which the traverse
Bearing of a line- fails to close in a traverse survey.
Fore Bearing - Bearing of a line in the progress of survey.
Back bearing - Bearing of a line taken opposite i.e., ∑ L ≠ 0, ∑ D ≠ 0
direction of the survey. Closing Error in the traverse,
Relation b/w F.B. and B.B. \-
e= ( ∑ L ) + ( ∑ D )
2 2
B.B. = F.B ± 1800

use, +Ve if F.B.< 180° Balancing of Traverse-
– Ve if F.B. > 180° 1. Bowditch/compass rule-
Note- • used where Angle and distance are measured with
In R.B. System, angle value does not change but same precision.
direction (N → S and E → W) changes. • Used in closed traverse
Temporary adjustment of prismatic compass Assumption-
sequence-
• Error in linear measurement ∝ ℓ
Centering → Levelling → Focusing of prism
1
Local Attraction- Disturbance the magnetic needle • Error in angular measurement ∝
ℓ
from its normal under the influence of magnetic
substance. 2. Transit method-used where angular measurement are
If, B.B – F.B = 180 (No local attraction) more precise than linear measurement
B.B – F.B ≠ 180 (Affected by local attraction) L D
CL = ∑ L × , CD = ∑ D ×
Important term- Lr Dr
Lines The line joining 3. Axis Method- Corrections are applied only to length
Isoclinic lines Points of equal dip and angles are measured very precisely.
Aclinic lines Points of zero dip 1
Isogonic lines Points of equal declination Closing error
Correction of any length = That length × 2
Agonic lines Points of zero declination Length of Axis

3. Graphical method- 2. By Successive bisection of arch-
Use for rough survey work. Offsete = R(1 – cos θ/2)
x2
3. By offsets from tangent- O x =
2R
4. By offsets from chord produced or deflection
distance-
C
= n ( Cn −1 + Cn )
2R
Relation between radius and degree of curve-
W.C.B. Quadrant Latitude Departure Remark Length of Arc Relation
0°-90° I + + North +Ve
de
Latitu
90°-180° II – + South –Ve 30 meter 1720
R= m
180°-270° III – – East +Ve
D0
Depar
ture
270°-36°0 IV + – West –Ve 20 meter 1146
R= m
Check for close traverse by included angle- D0
Sum of included angle = (2N – 4) × 90° 10 meter 573
Sum of external angle = (2N + 4) × 90° R= m
D0
Degree of accuracy in traversing-
Order of traversing Accuracy 100 feet 5730
Ist R= feet
6" N D0
2nd 15" N Levelling-
3rd 30" N Level line • Line laying on level surface
Minor theodolite for detailing 1' N normal to the plumb line or a line
Compass traversing 15' N parallel to the mean spherical
N = Number of angle measured surface of the earth.
Curve- Horizontal line • It is tangential to the level line
lying in the horizontal plane.
Level Surface • Parallel to the mean spheroidal
surface of the earth.
PC → Point of Curve Horizontal • A surface tangential to the level
PI → Point of Surface surface at any point.
Intersection Datum • The Surface to which elevations
PT → Point of Tangent are referred.
Bench mark • It is a fixed reference point of
Element of Simple Circular Curve known elevation.
Tangent length R tan θ/2 • It is stablish by spirit levelling.
Mid ordinate R(1–cos θ/2) = 2R sin2 θ/4 Reduced level • It is height of any point w.r.t.
Apex distance R(Sec θ/2 – 1) either M.S.L. on any bench mark
Length of long chord 2R Sin θ/2 of known R.L.
Length of Curve πRθ Level line • Line laying on level surface
1800 normal to the plumb line or a line
Radius and versine relation in curve parallel to the mean spherical
C2 surface of the earth.
v= ( C,V, R in m.) Achromatic • Compound lense free from
8R
lense spherical aberration.
125C 2
V= ( V in cm C and R in m ) Resolving power • Power of a telescope to form
R
distinguishable image of objects
1.5C 2
V= ( C &R in feet V in inch ) seperated by small angular distance.
R Alpanation • A compound lense free from
Setting out of Curve – combination spherical aberration.
1. By ordinates from long chord-
Chromatic • The defection which is blurred
O x = (R 2 − x 2 ) − (R − Oo ) aberration and coloured image formed.

Line of sight • A line joining intersection of the (ii) For H.I. method-
cross hairs to the optical centre of ∑ B.S. − ∑ F.S. = Last R.L. − First R.L.
objective and its continuation. Total check point = 2
Line of • If line of sight is horizontal the it Rise and fall method H.I. method
collimation is called line of collimation. It is more tedious method. It is rapid method
Definition • The capability of a telescope to Check provided for B.S., Check provided only
produce sharp image. F.S. and I.S. for B.S. and F.S.
Note- Mean sea level (MSL) adopted by survey of India Have less error Have more error
for reference is located at Mumbai.
Types of Correction Correction to staff
reading
Curvature Correction d2
Cc = − or − 0.0785d 2
2R
d, in km
Cc in m
Refraction Correction 1 d2 1
CR = × = + Cc
• Axis of bubble tube- 7 2R 7
An imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve = 0.01121d2 m
of the bubble tube at its middle point. Combined correction 6 d2
C=− ×
Permanent adjustment of level- 7 R
1. Axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to the = – 0.06728d2 m
vertical axis of instrument.
Note- Distance of visible horizon,
2. Horizontal cross hair should lie in the plane
perpendicular to the vertical axis. d = 3.8553 c km c, height of object in m
3. Line of sight should be parallel to the axis of level/bubble Reciprocal levelling-
tube. Two peg test performed to insure its. Error due to refraction not eliminated completely.
Levelling staff- Average level difference,
(i) Target staff (L.C. - 0.001 m)
Reading taken by staff man ( ha − h b ) + ( h'a − h'b )
H=
(ii) Self Reading staff- 2
Reading taken by directly Instrument man Sensitiveness of bubble tube-
Ex.-Solid staff, folding staff, Telescopic staff, invar ℓ S
precision staff. α' = = × 206265 Second
r nD
Important Terms used in levelling- Factors affecting the sensitiveness of bubble-
Vertical axis • Axis about which telescope can Factors Sensitivity of bubble
be rotate in horizontal plane. Length of bubble ↑ ↑
Horizontal/ • Axis about which telescope can Internal smoothness ↑ ↑
Trunion axis be rotate in vertical plane.
Diameter of tube ↑ ↑
Back Sight (B.S) • It is the first reading taken after
setting up the instrument. Viscosity ↑ ↓
Fore Sight (F.S.) • It is the last reading taken from Temperature ↑ ↓
on instrument station. Radius of curvature ↑ ↑
• It indicate shifting the shifting of Note-
instrument. Correct sequence of temporary adjustment of level-
Intermediate • All reading excepts B.S. and F.S. Centering → Levelling → Focusing
sight (I.S.) Elimination of parallax-
Change Point • The point where F.S. and B.S. 1. By focusing eye-piece
(C.P.) both are taken. 2. By focusing objective lens.
Height of Instrument - Contouring-
H.I. = B.M. / R.L. + B.S. Contour Line Imaginary line joining point of equal
elevation on ground
• Arithmetic check-
Contour Vertical distance b/w two contour
(i) For rise and fall method- lines
Interval
∑ B.S. − ∑ F.S. = ∑ Rise − ∑ Fall = Last R.L. − First R.L. Horizontal Horizontal distance b/w two contour
Total check point = 3 equivalent lines
Some suitable values of contour interval Face Right Vertical circle of theodolite is on the
right hand side of the surveyor.
Scale of map Types of Contour
Face left vertical circle is in left hand side
ground interval in
Transiting Operation of revolving the telescope
meter
by 180° about horizontal/trunion axis
Large, Flat 0.2 to 0.5 in the vertical plane.
(1 cm = 10 m or less) rolling 0.5 to 1 Parallax-
Hilly 1, 1.5 or 2 • It is an error occurred when image formed by objective
Intermediate Flat 0.5, 1 or 1.5 lense is not in the same plane with cross hair of telescope.
(1 cm = 10 m to 100 m) rolling 1, 1.5 or 2 Elimination of parallax-
Hilly 2, 2.5 or 3 (i) By focusing of eye-piece
Small Flat 1, 2 or 3 (ii) By focusing of objective lens
(1 cm = 100 m or More) rolling 2 to 5 Fundamental relation between axis of theodolite and test-
Hilly 5 to 10 Axis relation Test
Mountainous 10, 25 or 50 Horizontal axis should be perpendicular Spire test
to vertical axis.
Methods of contouring and its suitability-
Vertical axis should be perpendicular to Plate level test
Methods Suitability axis of level tube
1. Direct method • Regular ground surface for large Line of collimation should be Azimuth test
scale maps and small area. perpendicular to horizontal
• It is very slow, tedious and costly. Axis of bubble tube should be parallel Vertical arc
to line of collimation index test
2. Indirect method
(Mostly used) Tacheometer-
(i) Method of cross • For road, canal, railway or f
Multiplying constant = = 100
section alignment survey. i
(ii) Method of square • For small open area where close Additive constant = f + i = 0
vertical interval contours required Techeometer Survey methods-
(iii) Tacheometric • For hilly areas. (i) Fixed hair or stadia method
method (ii) Movable hair or substance tacheometer method
(iii) Tangential method.
Method of interpolation-
• Stadia Method-
(i) Estimation method (Simple and rapid method)
1. Distance and elevation for staff vertical inclined sight-
(ii) Arithmetic/computation method (Best method)
Horizontal distance,
(iii) Graphical method
25
D = k.s cos2 θ + c cos θ
Note- Contour interval =
No. of cm per km Vertical intercept-
Plane table- sin 2θ
V = k.s + c sin θ
Size of plane table- 60 cm × 50 cm, 75 cm × 60 cm, and 2
100 cm × 75 cm 2. Distance of Elevation formulae for staff normal.
Method of orientation- D = (k.s + c) cos θ ± r sin θ
(i) Trough compass/magnetic meridian method
(ii) Back sighting method  +, Elevation Angle 
 −, Depression Angle 
Methods to solve three point problem-  
(i) Mechanical/Tracing paper method
V = (k.s. + c) sin θ
(ii) Graphical/Bessel's method
(iii) Lehman's/Trial and error method 3. Distance elevation formulae for horizontal sight-
Methods of Plane table survey- D = k.s. + c
(i) Radiation method (for small and open areas)
Minor Survey instrument and their use-
(ii) Intersection method
Instrument Use
(iii) Traversing method
(iv) Resection method Abney level Measurement of slope, vertical angle,
(use as clinometer) tracing grade contour, setting of grade
Transit Theodolite Can be rotate (180°) about
horizontal/trunnion axis in the vertical Clinometer Angle
plane. Hand level Locating a contour, preliminary
Swinging the It is the process of turning the survey
theodolite telescope in horizontal plane.
Pantagraph Enlarge or reduce the map
Right swing→ Telescope rotated in
clockwise direction. Planimeter To measure undulated area
Left Swing- Rotated Anticlockwise Sextant To measure horizontal and vertical angle
direction.

Canal System and Irrigation Efficiency-
Soil Water-
1. Capillary water
2. Hygroscopic water- Can not be remove easily
from soil particles.
3. Gravitational water
Important formula-
Available moisture for plant = F.C. – φ
φ = Permanent wilting point (P.W.P)
• Field capacity-
Weight of water stored in soilof unit area (i) Water Conveyance Efficiency
F.C. =
Weight of samesoilof unit area Wf
ηc = × 100
Wr
γ w .d w n
F.C. = = Where Wf = water delivered to the field.
γd G
Wr = water delivered from the reservoir
Where (ii) Water Application Efficiency-
dw = depth of water stored in root zone Ws
ηa = ×100
γd = dry unit weight of soil Wf
• Available moisture depth to plant- Where Ws = water stored in the root zone
(iii) Water Use Efficiency
γ d .d
dw = [F.C. − P.W.P.] Wu
γw ηu =
Wf
• Readily available moisture depth to plant-
Where Wu = water use consumptively
γ .d (iv) Water Storage Efficiency
d w = d [F.C. − m0 ]
γw Ws'
ηs =
m0 = Readily available moisture content Wη
Irrigation requirements of crop- Where Ws' = Actual water stored in the root
zone.
(1) Consumptive Irrigation requirement -
Wη = Water needed to store to bring the
CIR = Cu – Re water content up to field capacity.
Cu = total consumptive use (v) Water Distribution Efficiency
Re = effective rainfall
 y
(2). Net Irrigation requirement - ηd = 1 −  × 100
 d
N.I.R. = C.I.R.+ Le
Where y = Average numerical deviation in the
= Cu – Re + Le depth of water stored from the average depth
Le = Leaching requirement of irrigation stored.
(3). Field Irrigation requirement - d = Average depth during irrigation
(vi) Consumptive Use Efficiency-
N.I.R
F.I.R. = Wcu
ηa ηcu = × 100
Wd
(4). Gross Irrigation requirement- Where Wcu =Water used by plant
F.I.R. N.I.R consumptively.
G.I.R. = = Wd = Net amount of water depleted from
ηc ηa .ηc
root zone
Duration of Indian crop season- Time factor It is the ratio of number of days
Kharif June - September the canal has actually run to the
(Mansoon crops) number of days or irrigation
Rabi October - March period.
Zaid April - June Capacity Factor It is the ratio of mean supply
Note- discharge to the full supply
discharge.
• Cash crop - Cotton (8 month), Coffee, Tea, sugarcane,
spices. Crop Ratio Irrigated area of Rabiseason
=
• Perennial crop - (Time taken 1 year) - Sugarcane Irrigated area of Kharif seasons
Important terminology- Duty (D) It represents the irrigating
Field capacity • Maximum amount of moisture capacity of a unit water.
which can be held by soil Delta (∆) It is total depth of water required
against gravity. for a crop during the entire period
• Soil is not saturated but still a of the crop's
very wet condition
G.C.A = Culturable area + unculturable area
Permanent It is the state of soil when plants
wilting point fail to extract sufficient water for C.C.A = G.C.A. – unculturable area
(PWP) their requirements. G.C.A = Gross commanded area
Saturation It is the amount of water required Irrigated area = C.C.A × Irrigation Intensity
capacity to fill all the pore spaces between
soil particles by replacing all air • Relation b/w Duty and Delta-
held in pore spaces. 8.64B
Temporary It is the phenomena that the soil ∆= m
D
wilting point water content at which the plant
wilts at day time, but recovers B = base period in days
during night or when water is D = Duty in hectares/cumec
added to soil. OR
Crop period The total time period that elopes 864B
from the instant of its showing to D= cm
D
the instant of its harvesting.
• Kore depth-
Base period (B) Time between the first watering
of a crop at the time of its sowing
to its last watering before Rice 19 cm
harvesting. Wheat 13.5 cm
Note- Base period < crop period Sugarcane 16 cm
Paleo Irrigation • It is the watering done prior to
the sowing of a crop. River training works-
• It is done to prepare the land Aggrading River- This is because of silting
for sowing and to add enough
moisture to the soil. Degrading River- This is because of scouring
• It is the first watering given to Meander belt M
the field. Meandring Ratio = = B
Meander length M L
Kore watering • It is the first watering after the
plants have grown a few Curved length of cut off
centimeter high. Cut off Ratio / Tortusity =
Straight length of cut off
• It is the first watering after
sowing the crops. 1.7 ≤ C.O.R. ≤ 3.0
• Kore watering required max.
Meander Length M L = 65.8 Q dominant
discharge in limited time.
Kore depth Depth of water applied during
• Dominant Discharge -
kore watering.
1 2 9
Outlet factor It is the duty of canal water at the Qdominant = or of Q max = .Q max
outlet. 2 3 16

Cross drainage work and its Suitability
Cross Suitable for Remark
drainage
work
Aqueduct • HFL of drain is FSL > CBL > HFL
sufficiently below
the bottom of the
canal FSL- Full supply level
• Drainage water CBL- Canal bed level
flows
River Training- Syphon • HFL of drain is FSL > HFL > CBL
Type of river Training for Example aqueduct higher than canal
training bed
Low Depth Navigation • Water passes
through aqueduct HFL- High flood level
Medium Velocity Silt control
barrels under
High Discharge Flood control syphonic action
Design Parameter of lacey's theory- Super • FSL of canal is HFL > DBL > FSL
passage sufficiently below
 Qf 2 1/ 6
the bottom of the
1. Velocity, V = 
 140 
V = Velocity in (m/sec.)
drain trough DBL- Drainage Bed level
 
• Canal water flows
Q = Discharge in cume freely under gravity
(m3/sec) Canal • FSL of canal is HFL > FSL> DBL
Syphon or sufficiently above
Silt factor, f = 1.76 d mm syphon the bed level of
drainage trough
5  V2  • Canal flows under
2. Hydraulic mean depth, R =  
2  f  syphonic action
under the trough
3. Wetted perimeter, P = 4.75 Q Level • Generally provided when a large canal and
crossing huge drainage (such as a stream or river)
1/ 3 approach each other practically at the
 q2  same level
4. Scour depth, = 1.35  
 f 
  Types of rain gauge-
(1) Non recording rain gauge Symon's rain gauge
Note- According to Lacey's theory, eddies generate from
(Extensively used in India)
canal bed and side both or total wetted perimeter.
Inlet dia of collector - 11.29 or 15.96 cm
Lacey's Equation for regime flow, V= 10.8R2/3.s1/2 Area - 100 cm2 or 200 cm2
Ideal shape of canal- Rainfall measurement - Per day 8: 30 AM.
(2) Recording type rain gauge
• For lined canal - Trapezoidal
(i) Tipping bucket type
• For unlined canal or Alluvial soil - Semicircular (cylinder dia 30 cm)
• Best section of canal, when it is in - Partially cutting (ii) Weighing-bucket type
and filling (It gives a plot of the accumulated rainfall against the
• Kennedy's critical velocity, V = 0.55 MD0.64 elapsed time as mass curve of rainfall)
(iii) Float/ Natural syphon type
M = Critical velocity ratio
(Adopted as standard recording type rain gauge)
D = Trial depth
Hyetograph- It is a graphical representation of the
relationship between the rainfall intensity and time.
• It is a bar diagram
• Derived from the mass curve
• Area under hyetograph represents the total rainfall
occurred in that period.
Rainfall Intensity according to British Ministry of Hyetograph It is a graph b/w rainfall
health formula- intensity v/s time interval
760 Mass curve Graph b/w Accumulated
I= (For storm duration 5 − 20 minute) rainfall v/s time
t + 10
Double mass To check and correct
1020 curve Inconsistency of rainfall data
I= (For storm duration 20 − 100 minute)
t + 20 Calculation of Average rainfall depth-
Instruments used in measurement (i) Arithmetic mean Less occurate but quick
Relative humidity Psychomotor method method
Humidity Hygrometer (ii) Thiessen More accurate than
polygon method arithmetic mean method
Temp and Humidity Thermohygrometer
(iii) Isohytel method Most accurate
Intensity of Radiation Pyrheliometer
• Depth Area duration curve-
Wind speed Anemometer n
Rainfall depth Ombrometer/Pluviometer P = p0e − KA

Transpiration Phytometer P = Αverage depth
Evapotranspiration Lysimeter p0 = Highest storm at storm centre
⇒ Depth ↓ with↑Area
Evaporation Atmometer
Pan coefficient - Used for calculating lake evaporation
Hydraulic conductivity Permeameter
Lake evaporation = Pan coefficent × Pan evaporation
Infiltration capacity Rainfall simulator
Types of pan Pan coefficient
Evaporation A process by which water goes Class A evaporation pan 0.70
into the atomosphere from a water ISI pan (modified class A) 0.80
body. Colarado sunken pan 0.78
Precipitation Water reaches to the earth surface
USGS floating pan 0.80
from the atmosphere.
Transpiration Water goes into atomosphere from Evapotranspiration measurement method-
the body of the plant A. Penman's Equation- Based upon energy balance
and mass transfer
Run-off Water flows on earth surface under
gravity action B. Blaney Criddle method- Mayar's equation measured
Evaporation
Forms of Precipitation- Infiltration index- Average infiltration rate is called
Rain Droplet size is 0.5–6 mm infiltration index. It is two types
Drizzle • Droplet size < 0.5 mm (i) φ- Index- It is the average rainfall above which
• Rainfall intensity < 1 mm/hr rainfall volume = Run off volume
Hail Lumps of ice size > 8 mm • φ - Index derived from rainfall
Hyetograph
Snow Density = 0.1 gm /cc
P−Q
Note- Annual average rainfall in India is 1.20 m φ - Index = cm/hr
t
PET − AET
• Aridity Index AI = × 100 P = Total rainfall depth
PET Q = Total run off depth
PET→ Potential Evapotranspiration t = Rain fall duration
AET→ Actual Evapotranspiration 2. W- Index- This is average infiltration rate during the
Note- (Used for measure Agricultural drought) time if, Rainfall Intensity > Infiltration Rate
% Value Types Arid region • w - Index is more accurate than φ-Index
0–25% Mild P − Q − IL
w − Index = cm / hr
25–50% Moderate tw
> 50% Severe/High Note- φ − Index ≥ w − index
Run off if φ − index = w − index
• Run off co-efficient- k =
Rain fall Same then, initial losses
k = 0.46 in India Rainfall duration = Whole storm period.

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R.P. High Low > 300 Pelton Turbine

Q − ∆Q Specific speed (Ns) Suitable Turbine

300-1000 225-860 Kaplan or Propeller Turbine

Radial flow Turbine Francis Turbine Unit Power P

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Speed Ratio, (Ka) u1 P P

Flow Ratio, (ψ) Vf1 N Q ω Q

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Theory Given by Suitable Graphical

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Diamond a4 a3 S.S.B. with wL wL2 wL3 5wL4

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Crushing load Pc = σc ×A Cast Iron 550 1

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• Effect of pure bending on shaft-

• Effect of pure torsion on shaft-

• Equivalent torque– S1,S2,S3= Stiffness

• Equivalent bending moment-

Maximum shear Stress T 32TDN 64WR 2 N

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Types of Forces - Lami's Theorem–

Force System Definition

for Rmax , θ = 45°