The early medieval period (750-1200 CE) witnessed a remarkable growth in the development of

regional art and architecture. Each region developed its own style of architecture and sculptur. The
Chandellas in Madhya Pradesh ,different style of art and architecture flourished in Rajasthan and
Gujarat under the patronage of various Rajput dynasties. Pallavas, Pandayas and Cholas in the
southern India created large edifices that were completely different in style and form the temple
architecture of northern India.Temples in the early medieval period were not merely places of
worship,they were important social, economic and political institutions. According to R.
Champakalakshmi temples were royal projects undertaken by the rulers for legitimization of political
authority. A number of architectural texts or vastu texts were also composed during this period.
Samaranaganasutradhara was composed in the tenth century CE in central India, Aparajitapriccha
was composed in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries in western India. The period also witnesses
growth in temple building activities among the Jains, especially in western India. From the available
architectural texts the style of architecture that prevailed in this period can be divided into three
styles- Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.

A Brahmanical temple is conceived as a cosmos in miniature, it brings alive the cosmic man . The
plan of each temple is based on vastupurushamandala. The essential plan of a vastupurushamandala
is a square-divided into further smaller squares. Each square in the mandala is reserved for a deity, a
planet, a star or the guardians of the directions. The minor deities occupy the periphery squares of
the plan and the central space or squares are reserved for the central deity. Largely, a Brahmanical
temple faces east-direction of the rising sun, but there are exceptions. The essential elements of
an early medieval temple were-a garbhagriha , a pradakshinapath (circumambulatory path) , a
mandapa (hall) or a series of mandapas and a porch. By the early medieval temples in India
had become grand both, in its elevation and plan, patrons and architects adding several
mandapas between the garbhagriha and the porch like the-nrittya mandapa , sabha mandapa ,
maha-mandapa and rangamandapam.

Western India school of Architecture

Grand temples were created in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the early medieval period under the
patronage various Rajput dynasties that emerged in the western Indian from the seventh
century CE. Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples were constructed . Undertaking
projects of temple construction was not limited to kings, Jaina merchants got several temples
constructed in western India. Jaina merchant brothers Tejapala and Vastupala patronized the
famous marble temples of Mount Abu in Rajasthan. Eminent art historian M.A.Dhaky has
divided the architectural style of the western Indian temples into three-sub categories- the
Maha-Maru and MahaGurjara style of architecture that existed in western India between the
eighth and tenth century CE. The Maha-Maru refers to the architectural style that flourished
in the region on Marwar and is recognized by their high and moulded terrace and multi
turreted spire and ornamental sculpture , the Maha-Gurjara style of architecture flourished in
Gujarat and was characterized by pyramidal roof and sparse sculptural ornamentation. The Sun
temple at Modhera was constructed in the eleventh century CE under the patronage of Solanki ruler
Bhima I (1022-63). The temple faces east, where lies a large kunda or water tank. On the western
end of the tank stands an ornamented freestanding torana, which acts as a transition between the
tank and the temple.

central India school of architecture (Khajuraho)

Constructed under the patronage of the Chandella rulers between the tenth and the twelfth
century, the temples of Khajuraho represent the epitome of Nagara style of architecture they had
established their independent rule in the Bundelkhand region. The Chandella temples stood on
large platforms and the architecture school of developed most remarkable style of Nagara
shikharas composed of several miniature shikharas.

Kalinga Style of Architecture (Orissa)

The Kalinga school of architecture developed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries in
Orissa. The temple construction in Orissa began under the Shailodbhavas, who ruled till the
second half of the eighth century, later the patronage was primarily provided by the
Somavamsi and the Ganga rulers. The early temples of Kalinga style had simple curvilinear
tower over a square garbha griha and a mandapa called the jagamohan with flat roof. The
Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneshwara, constructed in the tenth century under the patronage of
Somavamshi dynasty marks the transition between early and late Orissan style architecture and
beginning of mature phase of temple architecture.

Architecture of Kashmir

Brahmanical temples constructed in Kashmir during the early medieval period were combination of
Nagara style of architecture and Buddhist architecture. The best example of architecture from
Kashmir is the eighth century Martand Sun temple, near Anantnag in Jammu and Kashmir.
Constructed under the patronage of Karkota dynasty, today the temple lies in ruins. The temple
stands on a high plinth and is placed inside a rectangular column surrounded by series of beautiful
Greco-Roman inspired columns.

Dravida style

The foundations of the Dravida or the south Indian style of architecture were laid under the Pallava
rulers, who ruled from the sixth to the ninth century CE. The architecture of the Deccan or Vesara
style was an amalgamation of the Nagara and Dravida style of architecture and developed under the
Chalukyas. From the middle of the sixth century to the thirteenth century, the Deccan region of
peninsular India came under the sway of a line of rulers. Each of the political dynasties that ruled
south India and Deccan created some of the exquisite examples of art, both in terms of temple
architecture and sculpture.

Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora

In Deccan the most fascinating traditions of rock-cut and structural temples emerged from the sixth
to the thirteenth centuries CE , finest examples of rock cut architecture in Deccan is the Kailasa
temple at Ellora. It is one of the largest and the biggest monolithic temple in India. The temple was
the result of the munificence of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I . Its architectural and elevational impact is
marred by the fact that it is located as if in a huge pit or hollow of a rocky hill. The plan of the temple
has a square mandapa with sixteen columns, three porches, sandhara plan of shrine and ambulatory
passage (pradakshina-patha). Its ambulatory passage is an open terrace. The iconography of the
south wall of its mandapa is rich with Ramayana panels.

Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukya

Architecture In the first half of the 8th century, climax of the Dravida and Nagara styles appeared,
with emergence of other idioms and stylistic intermingling. In the later years of Chalukya ruler the
reign of Vijayaditya , and of Vikramaditya II (733-44 CE) and Kirttivarma II (744-57 CE) a number of
temples were constructed. The largest of the Pattadakal temples and the most elaborately planned
and artistically embellished monument of the Chalukya period, the Virupaksha stands at the
southern perimeter of the site’s landscaped compound. The temple is associated with
Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, and was original named after her as Lokeshvara. That the
temple must have been considered the outstanding achievement of the era is borne out by two
inscriptions on the eastern gateway to the complex. These give the names of the principal architects.
The Virupaksha temple is the focus of a symmetrically planned complex, with a stone paved
compound bounded by walls. A Nandi pavilion stands freely within the compound, between the
temple and the eastern gateway, sculptures on the outer walls are among the greatest masterpieces
of Chalukya plastic art. Panels on the passageway walls are mostly devoted to Shiva.

Art and Architecture in south India I: Pallava Architecture

A definite architectural and iconographical vocabulary had developed in south India under the
Pallavas by the seventh century CE. It was also under the Pallavas that the first structural temples
were created in south India. The Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is considered the first structural
temple built in south India. The temple is constructed out of blocks of granite and was constructed
under the patronage of the Pallava king Narsimhavarman II Rajasimha (700-728 CE). The temple has
an unusual plan with three distinct worship areas constructed on a same platform; the primary
worship area faces east and is dedicated to Shiva. This worship area has the highest pyramidal
superstructure. The second, smaller shrine is also dedicated to Shiva and consists of a smaller
superstructure. The third shrine is located at the western edge and is dedicated to Vishnu as
Anantashayin and has no superstructure.

Art and Architecture of south India II: Chola Architecture

Art and Architecture: Early Phase

The Cholas were the successors of the Pallava rulers in south India and had established themselves
firmly by the ninth century CE. Their religious and artistic activity centered in and around Tanjore.
The first phase of Chola artistic activity can be dated from the ninth to the early half of the tenth
century CE, the temples during this early phase were generally constructed entirely in stone and
were smaller in size. The plan of the early temples consisted of a vimana and an ardhmandapa. The
entire complex was surrounded by a prakara and a small gopuram was placed at the principal
entrance, the superstructure of which was constructed in brick. One of the finest examples of the
early Chola architecture is the Brahmapurishvara temple . The temple is dated to 910 CE and was
constructed under the reign of Parantaka I, dedicated to Shiva the temple faces east and consists of
a vimana and an ardhmandapa. The outer walls of the temple contain images of various
Brahmanical gods and goddesses, these sculptures are some of the finest Chola sculptures carved in
stone and show extraordinary grace and delicacy. The next impetus for the Chola architecture came
under the patronage of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, wife of Chola king Gandaraditya (949-
957 CE). Though not many new temples were constructed under her, she is said to have replaced a
number of existing brick temples with stone. The quality of Chola stone sculpture became
deteriorated, the sculpture became stiff marking a deviation from the early graceful and delicate
style.

Art and Architecture: Second Phase

The next phase of Chola architecture began with the accession of Rajaraja I (985-1012 CE) and
continued under the reign of his son Rajendra Chola (1012-1044 CE). Rajaraja not only patronized
Brahmanical temples and deities, under his rule a number of Jaina and Buddhist religious structures
were also constructed. his phase of Chola architecture was marked by construction of large, grand
temples with multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram
are two examples of this phase of Chola architecture.

Art and Architecture: Third Phase

The last phase of architecture 1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE under the Chola patron.During
this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the old temples and made additions to
the existing temples than undertaking new temple projects. Another feature that became
common during this time was construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which came
to be known as the Amman shrines. The addition of free standing mandapas that are popularly
called the ‘thousand pillared halls’ also became popular’, one of the architectural feature peculiar to
this phase of Chola architecture was the shape of the mandapas which imitated form of a chariot.

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Sculpture

Similar to architecture of the period, the sculpture in the early medieval period varied in
style from region to region. The sculpture was essentially part of the temple architecture, the
exterior of the temple walls were decorated with sculpture both, secular and sacred subjects
appeared on walls. The Nagara style of architecture allowed for more projections on the
outer walls where as in Dravida temples niches were created on the outer walls where
sculptures were placed. Even in Nagara style diversification occurred, for example, the
temples of western India and central India were decorated profusely with sculpture, but
Orissan and Himalayan architecture was more restrained in matters of sculptural decoration.
Sculptures were largely carved in stone and metal, but few pieces in ivory and wood also
survive.

One of the most prominent schools of sculpture that developed between the eight and the
thirteenth centuries was under the patronage of the Palas and Sens rulers in eastern India
(Bengal and Bihar). Palas were patrons of Buddhism. The Senas who succeeded the Pala rulers
in eastern India were Brahman-Kshatriya rulers , by tenth century Pala Buddhism came under the
influence of tantrism, and so did their sculpture. Images of Brhamnanical gods and goddesses were
carved under the patronage of Sena rulers. Richly ornamented sculpture carved in black stone is the
primary characteristic of Pala-Sena sculpture; they retained the poise and grace of the Gupta
sculpture. Similar to the building of the temples, patronage and consecration of images became an
important social, political and religious activity in the early medieval India. Images were created and
installed after wish fuilfilment, celebration of important social, political and religious events. This
particularly became an important activity for the Jaina merchants in western India. The western
Indian sculpture retained the elegance and poise of the Gupta period sculpture, but the outlines of
the sculpture were not always fluid and smooth the Chandella sculptures from central India have
more clearly defined outlines.

Metal Sculpture

The Cholas created some of the most exquisite metal sculptures known to humankind. Their bronze
sculptures are world famous for their exquisite quality, beauty, grace and precision. Although the
figures are idealized, they appear to be naturalistically modeled. Before the Cholas, even the
Pallavas were aware of the knowledge of bronze casting, but only few examples of Pallava bronze
sculpture survive. The technique used to create the bronze sculpture by the Cholas is called cire
perdue or the lost wax process. Out of all the images created by Chola sculptors the image of Shiva
as Nataraja is their best-known creation, they are best known for their high aesthetic quality. These
bronze images unlike the stone sculptures that were sculpted on the temple walls, were movable
images. These images were regularly taken out of the temple during religious festivals.