Introduction :-

*The early medieval period (750-1200 CE) witnessed a remarkable growth in the development of
regional art and architecture. Each region developed its own style of architecture and sculpture
under patronage of different political dynasty in different parts of India.

*Chandellas in Madhya Pradesh -created their own style of sculpture and architecture.

* while a different style of art and architecture flourished in Rajasthan and Gujarat -patronage of
various Rajput dynasties

* Pallavas, Pandayas and Cholas in the southern India-created-that were completely different in
style and form the temple architecture of northern India.

* Regional style of architecture also developed in Orissa, Bengal and Kashmir.

* In the Deccan -patronage of the Chalukyan rulers a synthesis of both north Indian and south
Indian temple styles.

So, Temples in the early medieval period were not merely places of worship; they were important
social, economic and political institutions. :-

. R. Champakalakshmi in her Trade, Ideology and Urbanization ; South India 300 BC to AD

1300 - In this book while discussing the growth of urbanization in the region of
Tamilakam- she also discusses the importance of Brahmanical temple as a ceremonial
center and symbol of concentration of social and political power which was derived from a
sacred authority.

According to her temples were royal projects undertaken by the rulers for legitimization of
political authority.

2. B.D.Chattopadhyaya in his book Studying Early India has suggested that temples acted as
social, cultural and political institutions in the early medieval India.

Now - texts also composed

A number of architectural texts or vastu texts were also composed during this period.

1. Samaranaganasutradhara was composed in the tenth century CE in central India,

2. Aparajitapriccha was composed in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries in western India.
3. The period also witnesses growth in temple building activities among the Jains, especially in
western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan)

From the available architectural texts the style of architecture that prevailed in this period can be
divided into three styles

1.Nagara, -North Indian style of architecture flourished from the Himalayas to Vindhyas

2.Dravida -essentially refers to the temple built in south of Krishna River.

3.Vesara- Vesara or Karnata-Dravida is the term used to describe temples built in the Deccan
and was a confluence of styles of Nagara and Dravida architecture.
—-Metaphysical origins of a Brahmanical temple :
-In Hindu philosophy, the temple is designed to represent the entire universe or cosmos. Every
architectural element symbolizes aspects of cosmic order and universal principles.

-According to the Vedas and Upanishads, Purusha is the universal cosmic being, from whom all
creation emerges. The temple’s structure is said to manifest this cosmic man, symbolizing the
unity of microcosm (individual) and macrocosm (universe).

-The temple's layout is based on the Vastu Purusha Mandala, ⸻a sacred diagram used in
Indian architecture. The essential plan of a vastu purusha mandala is a square-divided into
further smaller squares. Each square in the mandala is reserved for a —-deity, a planet, a star or
the guardians of the directions.
-The minor deities occupy the periphery squares of the plan and the central space or squares are
reserved for the central deity, his/her avataras or form or rupa and family.
-Largely, a Brahmanical temple faces east- direction of the rising sun, but there are exceptions
like temples dedicated to Vishnu might sometimes face west.

Plan and Elevation of an Early Medieval Temple :

The essential elements of an early medieval temple were-

1. garbhagriha
2. pradakshinapath (circumambulatory path) running along the garbhagriha
3. mandapa (hall) or a series of mandapas
4. porch ( gallery)

-> By the early medieval period the temples in India had become grand -both, in its elevation and
plan, patrons and architects with adding several mandapas between the garbhagriha and the
porch like -nrittya mandapa (dancing hall), sabha mandapa (meeting hall), maha-mandapa (the
great hall) and ranga- mandap(color hall).

And there was Some of the significant stylistic differences that appeared between the Dravida
and Nagara style of temple architecture are:

A Dravida temple is surrounded by a wall (prakara).

Dravida temples are also known for their massive gateways or gopurams, missing in
the Nagara architecture.
The shikhara of a Dravida temple is of pyramid shaped composed of kuta (square),
sala (rectangle) and chandrasalas (arched window motif). The Nagara temple shikara is curved -
liner in nature.

Nagara Style and different Schools of Architecture :

The Nagara style, prevalent in northern India, is characterized by its distinctive shikhara (tower)
that curves upward in a convex shape. This style can be categorized further into various
subtypes based on regional variations:

1. Western India school of Architecture:

-Grand temples were created in Gujarat and Rajasthan in the early medieval period under the
patronage various Rajput dynasties that emerged in the western Indian from the seventh century
CE

-Here Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples were constructed under the patronage of-the
-Here Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples were constructed under the patronage of-the
Guhilas of Mewar; the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Solanki (Chalukyas of Gujarat).

-Undertaking projects of temple construction was not limited to kings, Jaina merchants got
several temples constructed in western India.
:Jaina merchant brothers Tejapala and Vastupala patronized the famous marble temples of
Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
:Samar Shah, a Jaina merchant from Patan is also credited with construction and repair of
several Jaina temples.

-The Sun temple at Modhera was constructed in the eleventh century CE under the patronage of
Solanki ruler Bhima I (1022-63). The temple faces east, where lies a large kunda or water tank.

-: art historian M.A.Dhaky has studied in detail the architectural style of the western Indian
temples and have divided them into three-sub categories-
1. the Maha-Maru
2.Maha- Gurjara
both style of architecture that existed in western India between the eighth and tenth century CE.
3. Maru-Gurjara style of architecture that evolved by the eleventh-twelfth century and combined
the architectural styles of Maha-Maru and Maha- Gurjara.

A) The Maha-Maru refers to the architectural style that flourished in the region on Marwar and is
recognized by their high and moulded terrace or jagati and multi turreted spire and ornamental
sculpture (examples can be seen at Chittor, Osia, Sikar and Mandor),

B) Maha-Gurjara style of architecture flourished in Gujarat and was characterized by pyramidal

roof and sparse sculptural ornamentation (examples can be seen at Roda, Kutch and Shamalaji)

C) Maru-Gurjara style -The rang mandapa of the Luna Vashi temple, one of the Jaina marble
temples at Dilwara marks the zenith of the Maru-Gurjara style of architecture. Shiva temple at
Roda is an example of Maha-Gurjara style of architecture, notice the pyramidal roof and amalaka
on the top.
2.Central India school of architecture (Khajuraho) :-
Constructed under the patronage of the Chandella rulers between the tenth and the twelfth
century, the temples of Khajuraho represent the real summary of Nagara style of architecture.

-Chandellas were originally feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers and by the ninth century
CE they had established their independent rule in the Bundelkhand region.

-Chandellas traced their lineage to the Moon god and claimed a Kshatriya-Rajput status.

-According to the oral tradition eighty-five temples stood at Khajuraho, but today only twenty-
five survive.

-The Chandella temples stood on large platforms and the school of architecture developed most
remarkable style of Nagara shikharas composed of several miniature shikharas.

-The eleventh century Kandariya Mahadev temple is dedicated to Brahmanical lord Shiva. The
temple stands on a high platform and consists of a porch, a mandapa, a maha-mandapa, a
grabhagriha and a pradakshinapath. The shikhara of the temple symbolizes Mount Kailash,
abode of Shiva and consists of eighty-four smaller shikharas.
3.Kalinga Style of Architecture (Orissa)

-The Kalinga school of architecture developed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries in
Orissa.
-The temple construction in Orissa began under the Shailodbhavas, who ruled till the second half
of the eighth century, later the patronage was primarily provided by the Somavamsi and the
Ganga rulers.

-The early temples of Kalinga style had simple curvilinear tower over a square garbha griha and a
mandapa called the jagamohan with flat roof, the best example of early Kalinga style architecture
is the seventh century Parashurameshvaram temple in Bhubanshwar (Orissa). Dedicated to
Shiva, the temple consists of a mandapa (jagmohan) and a garbhagriha, topped by a curvilinear
shikhara (know as rekha deul), with an amlaka on top.
-The Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneshwara, constructed in the tenth century under patronage
of Somavamshi dynasty marks the transition between early and late Orissan style architecture
and beginning of mature phase of temple architecture in Orissa. ⸺-The temple faces west and
is enclosed within a short wall. The entrance is through a free standing beautifully carved torana
(arched gateway)
-The best-known example of the later style of Kalinga school is the eleventh century Lingaraja
temple at Bhubaneshwara and thirteenth century Sun temple at Konark.

4.Architecture of Kashmir
-Brahmanical temples constructed in Kashmir during the early medieval period were combination
of Nagara style of architecture and Buddhist architecture.
-The best example of architecture from Kashmir is the eighth century Martand Sun temple, near
Anantnag in Jammu and Kashmir. Constructed under the patronage of Karkota dynasty, today the
temple lies in ruins. The temple stands on a high plinth and is placed inside a rectangular column
surrounded by series of beautiful Greco-Roman inspired columns.
Dravid style of architecture:
-The foundations of the Dravida or the south Indian style of architecture were laid under the
Pallava rulers, who ruled from the sixth to the ninth century CE.
-The architecture of the Deccan or Vesara style was an amalgamation of the Nagara and Dravida
style of architecture and developed under the Chalukyas.

Art and Architecture in south India

1.Pallava Architecture

-A definite architectural and iconographical vocabulary had developed in south India under the
Pallavas by the seventh century CE. This is clear indicated in the rock cut structures that the
Pallavas created at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).

-It was also under the Pallavas that the first structural temples were created in south India. The
Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is considered the first structural temple built in south India. The
temple is constructed out of blocks of granite and was constructed under the patronage of the
Pallava king Narsimhavarman II Rajasimha (700-728 CE).

-
-The temple has an unusual plan with three distinct worship areas constructed on a same
platform; the primary worship area faces east and is dedicated to Shiva. This worship area has
the highest pyramidal superstructure. The second, smaller shrine is also dedicated to Shiva and
consists of a smaller superstructure. The third shrine is located at the western edge and is
dedicated to Vishnu as Anantashayin and has no superstructure⸺-The figure of Anantashayin
(sleeping Vishnu) was carved out of existing rock at situ.

-2. Chola Architecture

-The Cholas were the successors of the Pallava rulers in south India and had established
themselves firmly by the ninth century CE.

Their religious and artistic activity centered in and around Tanjore.

1.Early stages of temple architecture began under the reign of Aditya I (871- 907 CE) and
Paratntaka I (907-955 CE).

-The first phase of Chola artistic activity can be dated from the ninth to the early half of the tenth
century CE, the temples during this early phase were generally constructed entirely in stone and
were smaller in size. The plan of the early temples consisted of a vimana and an ardhmandapa.
The entire complex was surrounded by a prakara and a small gopuram was placed at the
principal entrance, the superstructure of which was constructed in brick.

⸺-One of the finest examples of the early Chola architecture is the Brahmapurishvara temple
at Pullamangai in Papanasam district, twenty kilometers from Tanjore. The temple is dated to 910
CE and was constructed under the reign of Parantaka I, dedicated to Shiva the temple faces east
and consists of a vimana and an ardhmandapa.
—The outer walls of the temple contain images of various Brahmanical gods and goddesses,
these sculptures are some of the finest Chola sculptures carved in stone and show extraordinary
grace and delicacy. The adhisthana of the temple has a beautifully carved frieze of yalis.
Sculptures of exceptionally beautifully carved ganas appear at various places on the temple
walls, they are carved with great skill and delicacy and are represented in various moods and
poses.

-The next impetus for the Chola architecture came under the patronage of the Chola queen
Sembiyan Mahadevi, wife of Chola king Gandaraditya (949-957 CE). Though not many new
temples were constructed under her, she is said to have replaced a number of existing brick
temples with stone.
-The quality of Chola stone sculpture became deteriorated, the sculpture became stiff marking a
deviation from the early graceful and delicate style. The Agastyeshvara temple at Anangur, Tamil
Nadu is said to be built by her in 979 CE.

2 Art and Architecture: Second Phase :

The next phase of Chola architecture began with the accession of Rajaraja I (985-1012 CE) and
continued under the reign of his son Rajendra Chola (1012-1044 CE).

-Under the rule of Rajaraja the Chola empire reached its zenith, he conquered parts of Kerala,
Coorg, lower and eastern Karnataka. In 993 CE he also led naval expeditions to Sri Lanka and
Maldives.

-Rajaraja not only patronized Brahmanical temples and deities, under his rule a number of Jaina
and Buddhist religious structures were also constructed.

-This phase of Chola architecture was marked by construction of large, grand temples with
multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram are two
examples of this phase of Chola architecture.

-The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjore during its time of construction was one of the largest
buildings to be constructed in the world. The temple has a number of inscriptions and inform that
the temple was constructed between 1003 CE - 1010 CE. Dedicated to Shiva the temple was
originally surrounded by two prakara walls, the inner prakara is 800 feet long (east-west) and
400 feet broad (north-south) and has gopuram on the east entrance and three small torana on
the other three sides. The outer prakara is now completely lost, but the gopuram attached to it
still stands on the east.

-In front of the temple rests an enormous stone image of Nandi, which is sixteen feet long and
thirteen feet high.

-The main temple itself is constructed out of granite and is one hundred and eighty feet in length
and consists of a mukhamandapa, ardhmandapa, an antarala, a garbhagriha and a
pradakshinapath. The niches on outer walls of the temple contain images of various forms of
Shiva. The Vimana of the temple is two hundred and sixteen feet high and consists of sixteen
stories.
-Similar to the architectural style of Brihadesvara at Tanjore, Rajaraja I’s son Rajendra I
constructed another temple with same name at his new capital city of Gangaikindacholapuarm.
Constructed in about 1023 CE, the temple marked his victory over Pala king Mahipala. The
temple has only one prakara wall with an all-stone gopuram on the east.
3.Art and Architecture: Third Phase

The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in 1070 CE and lasted till 1279
CE. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the old temples and made
additions to the existing temples than undertaking new temple projects.

-Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 CE) added a Nrittya mandapa and covered the roof of the Tirumalikai
temple.

- Kulotunga III (1178-1218) added a Nrittya mandapa at the Chidambaram temple.

Both these rulers also added a prakara wall and a gopuram to the already existing goddess
shrine at Chidambara.

-Another feature that became common during this time was construction of separate shrine for
the female goddesses, which came to be known as the Amman shrines.

-The addition of free standing mandapas that are popularly called the ‘thousand pillared halls’
also became popular’ the mandapas of the temple became more ornate and started receiving
special attention;
-one of the architectural feature peculiar to this phase of Chola architecture was the shape of
the mandapas which imitated form of a chariot. The number and size of gopurams increased,
they also became more ornate(decorated,elaborate)than before.

Art and architecture of the Deccan /Vesara style of architecture

– By Rashtrakuta king Krisna 1-
In Deccan the most fascinating traditions of rock-cut and structural temples emerged from the
sixth to the thirteenth centuries CE. The religious monuments of the Chalukyas of Badami are of
outstanding interest for their transition from cutting into rock to free-standing construction, as
well as for their range of distinctive architectural styles.

-One of the finest examples of rock cut architecture in Deccan is the Kailasa temple at Ellora. It is
one of the largest and the biggest monolithic temple in India. The temple was the result of the
munificence of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-773 CE) and was named after him as
Krishnesvara. The style of carving for the main complex is uniform. Its architectural and
elevational impact is marred by the fact that it is located as if in a huge pit or hollow of a rocky
hill. The plan of the temple has a square mandapa with sixteen columns, three porches, sandhara
plan of shrine and ambulatory passage (pradakshina-patha). Its ambulatory passage is an open
terrace. The iconography of the south wall of its mandapa is rich with Ramayana panels.

Chalukya Architecture :-

– In the first half of the 8th century, climax of the Dravida and Nagara styles appeared, with
emergence of other idioms and stylistic intermingling.
–
– In the later years of Chalukya ruler Vijayaditya’s reign (696-733 CE), and reigns of
Vikramaditya II (733-44 CE) and Kirttivarma II (744-57 CE) a number of temples were
constructed. Some of the temples are: Sangameshvara,Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna
temples at Pattadakal.
–
– The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami, Gaudargudi , Chikkigudi
Hucchappayyamatha, Hucchappayyagudi and Hucchimalligudi, Durga and Ladkhan,
Galaganatha and Mallikarjuna temples at Aihole.

– The largest of the Pattadakal temples and the most elaborately planned and artistically
embellished monument of the Chalukya period, the Virupaksha temple The temple is
associated with Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, and was original named after her
as Lokeshvara.

–
–
– The Virupaksha temple is the focus of a symmetrically planned complex, with a stone
paved compound bounded by walls and sub-shrines, entered through gateways on the
east and west. A Nandi pavilion stands freely within the compound, between the temple
and the eastern gateway. The temple consists of a linga sanctuary surrounded by a
passageway on three sides, lit by windows on three sides and preceded by a vestibule.
This opens into a square mandapa with sixteen free-standing columns creating five aisles
running in both directions, the central aisles being slightly wider.
 –
– The sculptures on the outer walls are among the greatest masterpieces of Chalukya plastic
art. Panels on the passageway walls are mostly devoted to Shiva, which include icons of
Bhikshatana, Bhairava, Lakulisha holding a club, and Harihara.

SCLUPTURE