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Design Formulas for the Leakage Inductance of Toroidal Distribution

Transformers

Article in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery · November 2011

DOI: 10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2157536 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011 2197

Design Formulas for the Leakage Inductance of

Toroidal Distribution Transformers
Iván Hernández, Student Member, IEEE, Francisco de León, Senior Member, IEEE, and Pablo Gómez, Member, IEEE

Abstract—In this paper, design formulas for the calculation of

the leakage inductance of toroidal transformers are presented.
The formulas are obtained from the analytical integration of the
stored energy. The formulas are sufficiently simple and accurate to
be introduced in the loop of a design program avoiding expensive
finite element simulations. It is found that toroidal transformers
naturally produce the minimum leakage inductance possible for
medium-voltage power transformers. To limit the short-circuit
currents in power and distribution systems, a larger than the min-
imum leakage inductance is often required. This paper presents
two methodologies to increase the leakage inductance of toroidal
distribution transformers: selectively enlarging the inter-winding
spacing and inserting a piece of ferromagnetic material in the
leakage flux region between the windings. Extensive validation
with 2D and 3D finite element simulations is performed. Addi-
tionally, experimental verification of both formulas and numerical Fig. 1. Photo of Faraday’s original transformer [1].
simulations was carried out comparing the calculations against
measurements on prototypes.
equipment, avionics, and audio systems [7], [8]. A very lim-
Index Terms—Finite-element method, leakage inductance,
toroidal transformers. ited amount of published material exists in the IEEE related
to toroidal transformers for power conversion applications;
see [9]–[11]. There are not any papers published related to
I. INTRODUCTION mid- or high-voltage toroidal transformers intended for use at
utility voltages. Transformers wound on nongapped toroidal
ARADAY in 1831 built the first transformer in a toroidal cores using grain-oriented silicon (Si) steel are more efficient,
F core [1]; see Fig. 1. The first industrial grade transformer,
the one of the Ganz factory in Budapest of 1885, was also wound
smaller, cooler, and emit reduced acoustic and electromagnetic
noise when compared with standard transformer constructions.
on a toroidal core [2] (see Fig. 2). Currently, however, toroidal To extrapolate these advantages to distribution transformers,
transformers are not widely used for transmission and distribu- an effort is being made now, as part of a U.S. Department
tion of bulk power. There are two basic arrangements used to of Energy funded project, to produce toroidal transformers
build the iron cores of medium and large transformers [3]–[6]: suitable for power distribution system applications. Although
1) core type where the cores are assembled by stacking lamina- toroidal transformers have many advantages over traditional
tions and sliding premade windings and 2) shell type, where a constructions, there are also a few disadvantages that need to be
continuously wound core is cut and wrapped around the wind- overcome before widespread adoption of toroidal transformers
ings a few laminations at a time. In both arrangements, the fin- is possible. Most important, there is no published experi-
ished core has air gaps that increase the magnetizing current and ence in the industry when it comes to designing and building
the no-load losses. toroidal transformers suitable for operation at medium and high
Toroidal transformers have found modern applications in the voltage. Unresolved issues with toroidal transformer design and
low-voltage low power of many power supplies for electronic manufacturing include matching the leakage impedance speci-
fication, limiting inrush currents, designing and constructing to
Manuscript received June 17, 2010; revised March 08, 2011; accepted May
withstand short-circuit currents, the study of electromagnetic
10, 2011. Date of publication June 28, 2011; date of current version October 07, transients (impulse test), design for cost optimization, and
2011. This work was supported by the U.S. Deparment of Energy under Grant the ability to pass industry-standard acceptance tests. This
DEOE0000072. Paper no. TPWRD-00457-2010.
I. Hernández is with the CINVESTAV Guadalajara, Jalisco 45015, México
paper is part of a series describing the solutions to those is-
(e-mail: ihernand@gdl.cinvestav.mx). sues via electromagnetic design, design verification, building
F. de León is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering prototypes, performance verification, and observation of proto-
of Polytechnic Institute of New York University, Brooklyn, NY 11201 USA
(e-mail: fdeleon@poly.edu).
types installed on a utility distribution system. In low-voltage,
P. Gómez is with the Electrical Engineering Department, SEPI-ESIME low-power applications, the leakage inductance can be mini-
Zacatenco, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico City 07738, Mexico mized using planar transformers or highly interleaved windings.
(e-mail: pgomezz@ipn.mx). For high-power, medium-voltage transformers, the leakage in-
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. ductance of toroids is the minimum achievable. The reason
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2157536 for this is the closed concentric geometry. The first winding
0885-8977/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE
2198 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011

Fig. 2. Drawing of the Ganz factory transformer [2].

completely covers the core and subsequent windings cover the

internal windings. There are no yokes where the flux could
escape to the air. Therefore, the electromagnetic coupling is
maximized, while the leakage and stray fields are minimized.
The small regulation characteristic that can be obtained with
toroidal transformers by minimizing the leakage impedance is
desirable for many applications. However, in a power system,
the transformers’ leakage impedance is one of the important
components used for limiting the short-circuit currents. Con-
sequently, a larger than natural leakage inductance may be
required for a toroidal transformer.
A contribution of this paper is to propose two methods to in-
crease the leakage inductance of toroidal transformers: 1) en-
larging the spacing between primary and secondary windings
and 2) inserting high permeability materials between primary
and secondary windings.
Another contribution of this paper is the derivation of equa-
tions suitable for implementation in a design program for the
calculation of the leakage inductance of toroidal transformers.
The final expressions are numerically very efficient and suffi-
ciently accurate for practical design work. Validation against a
large number of finite-element simulations in 2-D and 3-D cov-
ering distribution transformers of 25, 37.5, 50, and 75 kVA was
performed.

II. DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAKAGE FIELD

Coherent with the standardized method to measure the
leakage inductance, for its computation, one must simulate
the short-circuit test. In other words, force ,
eliminating the magnetizing current. Fig. 3(a) shows an ax-
isymmetric view of the distribution of the magnetic-field Fig. 3. Distribution of the magnetic-field strength in the toroidal transformer:
(a) Axisymmetric view. (b) Radial distribution of the magnetic field on the ver-
strength in a toroidal transformer during a short-circuit test. tical sections. (c) Magnetic-field strength on the horizontal sections at three po-
Five distinct sections having different field distribution charac- sitions. (d) Radial variation of the field at the insulation of the horizontal parts.
teristics can be identified:
1) vertical internal part of the windings;
2) vertical external part of the windings; 5) external corners.
3) top and bottom horizontal parts; One can distinguish three subregions: two corresponding
4) internal corners; to the two windings and one for the insulation between them
HERNÁNDEZ et al.: DESIGN FORMULAS FOR LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE 2199

in each of the five regions. Fig. 3(b) shows the magnetic-field

strength on the vertical part of the windings along the line
A-A’. One can see that the magnetic flux in the vertical direc-
tion almost follows the trapezoidal distribution characteristic
of traditional transformer designs. In addition, note that the
magnetic-field strength is independent of the vertical position.
The top and bottom sections, regions 3 of Fig. 3(a), have iden-
tical magnetic-field distributions as shown in Fig. 3(c). Note,
however, that while the vertical variation of the field follows
the trapezoidal distribution, the field strength reduces in inverse
proportion with the distance to the axis; see Fig. 3(d).
The leakage inductance of the toroidal transformer can be ob-
tained through closed-form volumetric integration of the distri-
bution of the magnetic energy stored as follows:

(1)

It is noticed that the different components of the leakage in-

ductance can be obtained by analyzing the distribution of the
magnetic-field strength at each section. Two main assump-
tions are made regarding the distribution of the magnetic-field
strength as follows.
Fig. 4. Main geometrical data of a toroidal distribution transformer.
• The radial distribution (around the toroidal circumference)
is considered constant (axisymmetric model).
• The distribution of transversal to the windings is con-
sidered as follows: it rises linearly in one winding, varies A. Vertical Parts (Sections I and II)
inversely with in the insulation between windings, and In Sections I and II (internal and external vertical parts of the
decays linearly in the opposite winding. This type of dis- winding, respectively), the peak values of
tribution can be described by the following expression: are shown in Fig. 4. These peaks can be computed from Am-
pere’s Law as follows:
(2)

where is the maximum value of the magnetic-field

(4a)
strength; in this paper, is identified in five ways de-
pending on the section being considered: , (internal
and external vertical sections of the winding, respectively);
, correspond to the internal and external spaces
between the windings (i.e., insulation); and (hori- (4b)
zontal sections of the winding); while , , and corre-
spond to the thickness of the high-voltage (HV) winding, where is the number of turns of the exciting winding; is
low-voltage (LV) winding, and interwinding insulation, re- the current; and are the internal radii of the insulation
spectively (as indicated in Fig. 4). for the vertical regions 1 and 2, respectively; and and are
the internal radii of the external winding for regions 1 and 2.
The reduction of the magnetic-field strength between the wind-
III. DESIGN FORMULAS FOR THE LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE
ings, from to as is considered. When the insulation
From the identification of the five different sections, the total between windings is small, we can assume that has a trape-
leakage inductance of the winding can be computed as zoidal distribution. In [12], we have computed that 1 mm of in-
sulation between windings is enough to produce transformers
(3) class 95-kV BIL.
Combining (1) and (4), the leakage inductance of Section I is
where corresponds to the leakage inductance component computed from
of the th section of the winding (for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Ex-
pressions for each section will be obtained as shown (using the
Cartesian coordinate system).
2200 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011

The radial distance on the -axis can take values from

, where and are the internal and external radii
of the toroid, respectively. Thus, the leakage inductance of the
horizontal sections is obtained from (10), shown at the bottom
of the page. is the mean radius of the horizontal sections,
(5) given by
where is the height of the toroid; , , and cor-
(11)
respond to mean radii of the HV winding, insulation, and LV
winding, respectively, and computed, in general, as Substituting (9) in (10), performing the integral, and using (11),
we obtain
(6)

Substituting (4a) into (5) and performing the integral, one (12)
obtains
C. Corners (Sections IV and V)
For the corners, the same peak values for the magnetic field
(7) defined for the internal and external vertical parts are
considered as given by (4a) and (4b). The trapezoidal distribu-
The leakage inductance for Section II is computed in a similar tion of is around the corner, so it was necessary to perform
manner as the integral around its periphery denoted by (from 0 to );
the leakage inductance for the internal corners is obtained from
(13), shown at the bottom of the page.
(8) Solving (13), it follows that:

(14)
B. Horizontal Parts (Section III)
The top and bottom parts have the same field distribution; where
see Fig. 3(c). The value of at the interwinding insulation is
computed from Ampere’s Law as follows: (15a)
(15b)
(9) (15c)

(10)

(13)
HERNÁNDEZ et al.: DESIGN FORMULAS FOR LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE 2201

TABLE I TABLE II
COEFFICIENTS FOR THE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF THE LEAKAGE DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR SINGLE-PHASE TOROIDAL TRANSFORMERS
INDUCTANCE FORMULA (17)

TABLE III
Similarly, the leakage inductance for the external corners is PARAMETERS COMPUTED FOR SINGLE-PHASE TOROIDAL TRANSFORMERS
computed as

(16)

D. Generalized Expression
One can appreciate that (7), (8), (12), (14), and (16) have a
similar form. Therefore, a generalized expression for the cal-
culation of the contribution to the leakage inductance of each TABLE IV
IMPEDANCE DATA FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS FROM[13]
section can be obtained as follows:

(17)

The coefficients for the different sections are given in Table I.

The total leakage inductance is computed from (3).

IV. TEST CASES

Table II shows the design parameters of a set of toroidal dis- RAM. The axisymmetric 2-D and 3-D simulation results were
tribution transformers used to demonstrate the applicability of almost identical. Therefore, we conclude, as expected from a
the methods and the accuracy of the formulas. We have selected symmetrical construction, that to compute the leakage induc-
the standardized sizes for distribution transformers per [13]. The tance, 2-D axisymmetric modeling is sufficient.
leakage inductance reference values have been computed with Table III shows the values of leakage inductances and re-
3-D finite-element simulations using the commercially available actances in percent that can be achieved with toroidal trans-
software (COMSOL Multiphysics) [14]. formers. The inductive values are referred to the HV winding.
The FEM simulations performed solve for the magnetostatic From Table III, one can appreciate that the results are in good
formulation. All materials are considered as being isotropic; we agreement, with maximum differences of 3%.
used copper windings and electrical steel M4 (0.28 mm) for Table IV shows the leakage impedance values recommended
the main core considering its B-H curve as provided by the by the IEEE Standard 242-1986 [13] for the calculation of short-
manufacturer. circuit currents. It can be noticed that the reactance in percent of
In the simulations, the toroid was enclosed by a tank repre- toroidal transformers may be substantially smaller than that of
sented by a rectangle in the axisymmetric 2-D case and by a conventional transformers. Therefore, larger short-circuit cur-
cylinder in the 3-D case. Magnetic insulation was applied to rents can be expected. Although small regulation is, in general, a
the boundaries of the tank walls. For the 2-D simulations, about desirable characteristic for a transformer, for some applications,
40 000 triangular elements were necessary, consuming about 2 the larger short-circuit currents that occur may not be accept-
GB of random-access memory (RAM). For the 3-D simulations, able. In the next section, two methods to increase the leakage
about 400 000 tetrahedrons were employed, consuming 9-GB inductance are proposed.
2202 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011

V. METHODOLOGIES FOR INCREASING THE LEAKAGE

INDUCTANCE OF TOROIDAL TRANSFORMERS

A. Increasing Interwinding Spacing

One can perceive from Tables III and IV that the leakage in-
ductance of a 25-kVA toroidal transformer may be as small as
half of what is specified in the standard [12].
From the expressions obtained in Section III and their
analogy with the technology of traditional transformer con-
structions, it can be inferred that increasing the spacing between
windings will increase the leakage inductance. This is a tech-
nique known to designers and manufacturers of traditional
transformer constructions. It is possible to identify in (7), (8), Fig. 5. Enlarging the external vertical interwinding space to augment the
(12), (14) and (16) the middle term as the inductance corre- leakage inductance.
sponding to leakage flux in the insulation (or air). To build
toroidal transformers, the internal space at the center of the
toroid must be large enough for the winding machine to pass.
Therefore, only the top, bottom, and external regions can be
used in practice to increase the leakage path. Furthermore, when
considering manufacturing aspects, the most suitable region to
increase the interwinding space is the external part (region 2 of
Fig. 3). Therefore, in this paper, only the external interwinding
space of the toroidal transformer is used to increase the leakage
inductance; see Fig. 5. Taking this into consideration, the
leakage inductance for the vertical external component of the
winding (region 2), given by (8), is modified as follows:

(18)
where is the increased space in the interwinding region. The
leakage inductance corresponding to the horizontal components
of the winding (regions 3 and 4), given by (12), is also modified,
resulting in the following expression:

(19)

Fig. 6(a) shows the variation of the leakage inductance with the
interwinding space for the four transformer ratings under study.
One can appreciate that increasing the interwinding spacing in-
creases the leakage inductance by a relatively modest amount.
The values have been normalized with respect to the minimum
interwinding space needed for insulation purposes (1 mm). Fig. 6. Variation of the leakage inductance: (a) Calculated for four different
ratings of toroidal distribution transformers. (b) Comparison of the analytical
The results from the formulas of this paper against FEM are results with FEM for a 25-kVA toroidal transformer.
compared in Fig. 6(b) for the transformer 25 kVA. One can ap-
preciate a very good match between the formulas and FEM (dif-
ferences of about 4%).
external winding has a longer mean length (adding production
As a conclusion of this section, one can observe that the tech-
cost and operation losses).
nique of increasing interwinding spacing is effective when rel-
atively small increments of the leakage inductance are needed.
B. Ferromagnetic Inserts
However, when large increments are sought, a different tech-
nique is necessary. Furthermore, adding larger spaces than re- The second technique proposed in this paper to increase the
quired for insulation purposes adds cost and weight to the trans- leakage inductance is to augment the permeability of the mate-
former. The most significant negative consequence is that the rial in the leakage region. By inserting ferromagnetic material
HERNÁNDEZ et al.: DESIGN FORMULAS FOR LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE 2203

Fig. 7. Illustration of adding ferromagnetic inserts between windings to in-

crease the leakage inductance.

between the windings, we can dramatically magnify the leakage

inductance without a noticeable increase in the transformer size.
The underlying idea is to install a thin core in the interwinding
region on the external face; see Fig. 7. This produces an en-
largement of the leakage inductance component corresponding
to such a region. Equation (8) is modified as

(20)
where is the thickness of the region occupied by the fer-
romagnetic material and is its relative permeability. The Fig. 8. Increase of the leakage inductance. (a) Inserting four different ferro-
leakage inductance for the horizontal components of the magnetic materials between the windings. (b) Comparison of results between
formulas and FEM for the 25-kVA transformer.
winding is modified in a similar fashion as (12), yielding:

(21) an RLC meter (7600 Precision LCR meter) available in the lab.
This meter uses an ac signal of 2 V at 60 Hz and it gives the
By adding material with high relative permeability , the equivalent series R-L circuit of the transformer directly. In all
value of the leakage inductance can be magnified by a large cases, the secondary windings of the transformers are shorted
factor. When using this technique, care must be taken to avoid and the primary windings are connected to the source.
saturation of the thin core placed between the windings. Table V shows the comparison of the measurements on the
Different ferromagnetic materials [15] were considered for five prototypes against finite elements simulations and the for-
the simulations performed to validate this technique. Fig. 8(a) mulas of this paper. One can appreciate that for most cases,
shows the variation of leakage inductance with thickness for ma- the results are very close between the four different methods
terials with different permeability. The plot is given in per unit (SC, RLC meter, FEM, and formulas). The differences are, in
(p.u.), normalized to the minimum insulation space and perme- general, less than 3%. The sole exception is the SC measure-
ability of air . A comparison between the results of the for- ment of the 300-VA double-core transformer with 8.47% dif-
mulation and FEM is shown in Fig. 8(b). One can notice that the ference. This transformer was opened and unwound. We found
differences are very small. that the external (powder) core was fractured. Therefore, the ef-
fective permeability of this core was reduced by the irregular
(unintended) air gap, explaining why the measurements gave a
VI. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
slightly smaller leakage inductance when compared with FEM
With the purpose of validating the formulas proposed in this and the formulas.
paper and the FEM simulations, a set of prototypes was built These experiments not only corroborate the accuracy of the
with ratings of 150 VA, 300 VA, 1 kVA, 2 kVA, and 4 kVA. The calculation method proposed in this paper, but also confirm the
leakage inductance was measured by applying two methods: applicability of ferromagnetic inserts to increase the leakage in-
1) using the standardized short-circuit (SC) test and 2) using ductance when large leakage is necessary.
2204 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 26, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2011

TABLE V [5] R. M. V. Del, B. Poulin, P. T. Feghali, D. M. Shah, and R. Ahuja,

LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE MEASURED AND COMPUTED Transformer Design Principles—With Application to Core-Form
FOR SINGLE-PHASE TOROIDAL TRANSFORMERS Power Transformers. New York: Gordon and Breach, 2001.
[6] M. Heathcote, J & P Transformer Book, 12th ed. London, U.K.: But-
terworth–Heinemann, 1998.
[7] M. van der Veen, Modern High-end Valve Amplifiers: Based on
Toroidal Output Transformers. Dorchester, U.K.: Elektor Elec-
tronics Publishing, 1999.
[8] A. A. Halacsy, “Reactance and eddy current loss in toroidal transfor-
matoric devices-II,” AIEE Trans. Power App. Syst, vol. 81, no. 3, pp.
1017–1019, Apr. 1962.
[9] R. Prieto, J. A. Cobos, V. Bataller, O. Garcia, and J. Uceda, “Study
of toroidal transformers by means of 2D approaches,” presented at the
IEEE 28th Ann. Power Electron. Specialists Conf., St. Louis, MO, Jun.
22–27, 1997.
[10] R. Prieto, V. Bataller, J. A. Cobos, and J. Uceda, “Influence of the
winding strategy in toroidal transformers,” in Proc. IEEE 24th Annu.
Conf. Ind. Electron. Soc., Sep. 1998, vol. 1, pp. 359–364.
VII. CONCLUSION [11] J. P. Myers, K. A. Weaver, W. R. Wieserman, and U. Poulsen, “O
Formulas suitable for a design program for the calculation of cores—A new approach,” in Proc. Elect. Insul. Conf. Elect. Manuf. Coil
Winding Technol. Conf., Sep. 23–25, 2003, pp. 193–198.
the leakage inductance of toroidal transformers have been devel- [12] P. Gómez, F. d. León, and I. Hernández, “Impulse response analysis
oped. From the observation of the distribution of the magnetic of toroidal core distribution transformers for dielectric design,” IEEE
flux in the leakage region, precise expressions have been de- Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1231–1238, Apr. 2011.
[13] IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of In-
rived for the magnetic-field strength. The leakage inductance is dustrial and Commercial Power Systems, IEEE Std. 242-1986, Feb.
obtained by the analytical integration of the total energy stored 1986.
in the magnetic field. The formulas have been compared against [14] “Comsol Multiphysics, AC/DC User’s Guid,” Comsol AB Group,
2006, pp. 1–156.
2-D and 3-D finite-element simulations, yielding very good re- [15] A. Goldman, Handbook of Modern Ferromagnetic Materials. Nor-
sults; with differences under 4%. well, MA: Kluwer, 1999, vol. I, pp. 64–135.
Two methodologies to augment the leakage inductance of
toroidal transformers have been proposed. We have investigated Iván Hernández (S’06) was born in Salamanca, Guanajuato, Mexico, in 1979.
He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the University of
increasing the interwinding spacing and the addition of a ferro- Guanajuato, Salamanca, Guanajuato, Mexico, in 2002, and the M.Sc. degree in
magnetic core in the leakage region. Increasing the interwinding electrical engineering from the CINVESTAV Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, in
spacing is effective for up to a 1.5-p.u. increment of the leakage 2005, where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D.degree.
From 2008 to 2010, he was on a study leave at the Polytechnic Institute of
inductance at the cost of increasing the mean length of the ex- New York University, Brooklyn, NY. Previously, he was an Electrical Engineer
ternal winding. The addition of a ferromagnetic core between Designer for two years with FMS Ingeniería, Guadalajara, Mexico. His research
the windings offers an inexpensive alternative to augment the interests are numerical analysis applied to machine design and software simu-
lation tools, particularly for electromagnetic fields.
leakage inductance. This technique can be conveniently used to
increase the leakage inductance of several orders of magnitude.
The accuracy of the formulas and the applicability of the
methods to increase the leakage inductance have been corrobo- Francisco de León (S’86–M’92–SM’02) was born in Mexico City, Mexico,
in 1959. He received the B.Sc. and the M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering
rated experimentally for a set of prototypes of various sizes. from the National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico City, Mexico, in 1983 and 1986,
respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Toronto, Toronto, ON,
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Canada, in 1992.
The authors would like to thank U. Poulsen of Bridgeport He has held several academic positions in Mexico and has worked for the
Canadian electric industry. Currently, he is an Associate Professor at the Poly-
Magnetics for his fast response and expertise building the pro- technic Institute of New York University, Brooklyn, NY. His research interests
totypes. The authors would also like to thank C. Prabhu and include the analysis of power phenomena under nonsinusoidal conditions, the
N. Augustine, M.Sc. students of Polytechnic Institute of New transient and steady-state analyses of power systems, the thermal rating of ca-
bles, and the calculation of electromagnetic fields applied to machine design
York University, for performing the leakage inductance tests to and modeling.
the prototypes. In addition, the authors would like to thank the
reviewers for their sharp comments that have added value to this
paper. Pablo Gómez (S’01–M’07) was born in Zapopan, México, in 1978. He received
the B.Sc. degree in mechanical and electrical engineering from Universidad Au-
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