BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN SMART AGRICULTURE WITH HONOURS

LAB MANUAL

SEMESTER 1 2023/2024

AGRICULTURE AND LIFE (PRT 2009)

LECTURER: DR. MOHD IZUAN EFFENDI BIN HALMI

GROUP 1

No. Name Matric no.

1. YAP ZHAN HOW SA00059
2. TENG HAO WEN SA00311
3. CHANG YUN YAN 224000
4. WONG XIN YU 223594
5. SHI ZI YANG 225854

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Unit 1: Basic of Crop Production
Jaafar Juju Nakasha

1.1 Introduction

Efficient method in crop production is important to ensure sustainable production. There are
different methods available in cultivating crops such as by using beds, poly begs filled with
planting media, micro propagation and also by water culture. Generally, plants can be
propagated via either sexual (seed) or asexual (stem, root and leaves). Plants that planted by
using seed are non-homogenous compared to each other as the parents come from male and
female gametes. In the case of asexual, or also known as vegetative propagation, the plants
produce are identical and show same traits among each other.

Seed can be planted either direct seeding on the planting media or by transplanting from
germination media to growing media. The ability of the new plant to develop into mature plants
is control by several factors. Factors such as variety, climate, pH, nutrient availability, light and
water are very important for crop establishment. Any stressful condition to the plants can lead
to decreasing its performance and prolong in such condition can cause detrimental effects for
the plants and eventually die. In the case of nutrient availability, grower must be able to
understand label on the fertilizer packaging. Basic elements that are normally written on the
fertilizer is the ratio of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). Elements of N, P and
K are used for different focus which are leaves, roots and flower (and fruits), respectively.

1.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Understand different propagation techniques
2. Provide suitable growing condition for plant’s establishment
3. Understand the basic nutrient requirement of plant

1.3 Types of Cropping System

A. Soil culture
Soil culture or known as conventional planting culture is a type of cropping system where the
plants are planted on the soil either by using poly bags or beds at either in open field or
protected environment (glass house). Different types of soil available such as sandy soil, loamy
soil and clay soil. Sandy soils are suitable for crops that have underground storage organs
(carrot, cassava and yam). It allows easy development and harvesting of those storage organs.
However, sandy soils have low nutrient and low water holding capacity. Loamy soils are

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suitable for various types of vegetables (spinach, water spinach and eggplant). This is because
it has higher nutrient, water holding capacity and good aeration. As for the clay type of soil,
there are not much of plants that are suitable to be planted (broccoli, lettuce and berries). It is
advisable to add sand in the heavy clayey soil.
B. Soilless culture
Soilless culture is another type of planting medium that is getting popular, especially for urban
agriculture. It is a method of planting plants without the use of any soil materials. Soilless
culture offers a lot of advantages such as:
• No weed and soil-borne disease problems
• Growers do not have to find a fertile soil, so they can plant in any regions.
• Higher yield quality compared to soil culture
• Increase the efficiency on water use

There are two general categories of soilless culture which are substrate culture and water
culture. Substrate culture is in the form of solid material and can be either in organic type or
inorganic type. Examples of organic substrate are peat moss, wood residues, sawdust, barks
and coconut peat. Examples of inorganic substrates are perlite, sand, vermiculite, calcined
clays, pumice, rockwool. As for the water culture, which is another type of soilless culture, it
uses water as the medium. The water is mixed with nutrient solution and it can be either
circulate (Nutrient Film Technique) or non-circulate system (Deep Water Culture).

1.4 Methodology
A. Materials
Planting materials: Spinach, long bean, okra, paddy, chili, cucumber, lettuce, potato and
banana. Example of asexual and sexual propagation is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Example of sexual (right) and asexual (left) propagations. (Source:
https://ilps-panama.com/plant-propagation.html and
https://www.78stepshealth.us/flowering-plants/asexual-plant-propagation.html)

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1.5 Activities

Find the information that listed in Table 1.1

Table 1.1: Type of plants propagation technique.

Plant Propagation Types of planting Total days to

methods media harvest
(sexual/ asexual)
Spinach sexual seed propagation 40-50

Long bean sexual seed propagation 60-70

Okra sexual seed propagation 50-60

Paddy sexual seed propagation 100-150

Chili (Capsicum) sexual seed propagation 60-90

Cucumber sexual seed propagation 50-70

Lettuce sexual seed propagation 70

Potato asexual tubers 70-120

Banana asexual suckers/offshoots 75-180

1.6 Keywords
Plant’s establishment, asexual, sexual.

1.7 Summary
Cultural practices in crop production is dependent on various factors such as crop species,
crop behavior, life cycle, soil type, cost, location and others. It is important to have knowledge
in basic agriculture in order to meet the requirements for the plants to grow and develop
healthily, as well as sustaining the production and sources. Before choosing any plant to
cultivate, it is necessary to study the details of that particular species. Each species requires
different growing conditions. Optimum growth, development and yield can be achieved if the
plant is growing in suitable environment.

References
Damrosch, B. (2008). The Garden Primer: Second Edition. Workman Publishing Company.

Toogood, A. R. (2019). Royal Horticultural Society: Propagating Plants: How to Create New
Plants For Free. London, United Kingdom, Dorling Kindersley Ltd.

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Unit 2: Drip Irrigation System and
Fertigation
Puteri Edaroyati Megat Wahab

2.1 Introduction

Drip irrigation also called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil/medium at
very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which
the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the
whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent than with other
methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can
flourish.

While, fertigation is a word of recent origin and is a combincation of clipped words of fertilizer
and irrigation. So, this technique is a process in which fertilizer is dissolved and distributed
along with water in your drip irrigation system. Most fertigation technique require the use of
liquid fertilizers since they are unable to solublize (dissolve) higher concentration, watersoluble
fertilizers. Fertigation has various advantages over other fertilization methods, and when
properly used, it saves time and money. In fertigation, fertilizers are delivered through the
irrigation water. The use of fertigation enables for highly accurate nutrient supply to plants.
Small and frequent applications of fertilizers, in exact amounts that meet crop requirements,
increase the efficiency of nutrient uptake and minimizes nutrient loses. However, using
fertigation requires careful management and many factors must be taken into consideration.

2.2 Objectives
Students will be able:
1. To discuss the tools and equipment used in drip irrigation system
2. To describe how to prepare the fertigation technique
3. To explain the benefits of the system
2.3 Component in fertigation technique

Component Function Image

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Nutrient tank To hold the water-nutrient mixture
(nutrient solution)

Plastic material with high grade, to

avoid emit toxic chemicals

Black color. Translucent plastic

allows light to enter the tank and
encourage algae growth.

Lid for the tank, to prevent light

penetration and reduce the
amount of dirt and debris that
enters the tank
Water pump Water pump is used to pump
nutrient solution from nutrient tank
to the poli begs

Y-disc filter Remove sediment and debris that

can clog an irrigation system

Nipple, microtube Release nutrient to the plants from

3mm and dripper the mainline tubing (16mm). The
emitters can be inserted into the
end of a length of 1/4" tubing

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 Polypipe 16mm Reveice nutrient from main pipe
(PVC/PE 32mm)

Equal tee Connecting piping system to

(16mm), valve distribute nutrient to the poli begs
(16mm) equal
elbow (16mm)
and male
threaten (16mm)

Two Ways To make hole for nipple insert onto

Puncher/Spanner polypipe

2.4 Methodology
The fertigation lay out has been done for the practical session. However, students need to
insert the microtube onto polypipe (16mm) for each poly bag. Each group will be given number
of poly bags to grow leafy vegetables (Figure 2.1 and 2.2)

Nutrient tank

Water reservoir

Pump

Figure 2.1: Schematic design of a simple drip irrigation system

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Figure 2.2: Lay out for the drip irrigation system
(Source: http://kamustani.blogspot.com/2013/10/fertigation-malaysia-fertigation.html)

2.4 Keywords
Drip irrigation system, fertigation, nutrient

2.5 Activities
1. Insert the microtube onto polypipe for nutrient solution distribution.
2. Testing the whole irrigation system operates well.
3. Students need to observe the drip irrigation system operates smoothly.
4. 4. Checks the piping system from time to time to avoid clogged emitters

2.6 Student Observation

Briefly explain the technique on how to improve the uniformity of irrigation and fertigation
applications.

To enhance the uniformity of irrigation and fertigation, ensure proper system design by
checking that the drip system has a high distribution uniformity, regularly maintain filters to
prevent clogs, check and replace worn dripper, microtube and nipple to prevent leakage.
Besides, monitor water pressure, control time and speed of injection of fertilizer, and use quality
nutrients for solution with correct EC value.

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2.7 Summary
Students will be able to fix the drip irrigation system for any crop cultivation. They also will
have the opportunity to practice how to overcome irrigation problems during practical.

References
http://kamustani.blogspot.com/2013/10/fertigation-malaysia-fertigation.html

Unit 3: Seedling Preparation and

Maintenance
Martini Mohammad Yusoff

3.1 Introduction
Seedlings are usually prepared and raised in a nursery. A nursery is a facility where seedlings
are raised for planting purposes. In the nursery, the young seedlings are tended from seed
sowing stage to a stage when they are ready to be transplanted to the field, glasshouse or sold.
Alternatively seedlings can be raised and placed in some shaded area with adequate water
supply.

3.2 Objectives
Students will be able:
1. To describe the facilities and equipment used in nursery production
2. To describe media preparation and seedling management
3. To experience the processes in raising plant seedling from sowing to pre-transplanting

3.3 Methodology
A. Seed Selection
Seed selection should start by obtaining seeds from healthy plants or purchased from reliable
seed suppliers. Only seeds which are genetically pure, true to type and free from pest and
diseases are to be used. Small, shriveled and broken seeds should be removed to ensure
growth of stronger and healthier seedlings. A germination test is usually conducted to check
the germination percentage of the seeds. Germination percentage determines the percentage
of seeds that are alive and provides their potential field performance e.g. 95% germination rate
means 95 out of 100 seeds are likely to germinate under field condition. At time of purchase,
some seeds are pre-treated with fungicide to protect them from fungal infestations.

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B. Seed Tray Preparation
Seeds can be sown in containers, flat seed trays, wooden seed trays, cell seed trays/plug,
polybags or jiffy (Figure 3.1). Cell seed trays are ideal since they hold shallow cells where
seeds are directly sown into the medium-filled cell, saves space and allows the grower to easily
move the seedlings. Sowing seeds in divided containers such as in the cell prevents the plants'
root systems from coming into contact, which makes transplanting easier later. Cell seed trays
usually have holes or slits at the bottom to allow excess water to drain out.

Flat seed tray Wooden seed tray Seed tray (cell tray/plug)

Polybags of various sizes Jiffy with young seedlings

Figure 3.1: Different types of seedling containers.

C. Growing Media Preparation

The most common growing medium for seedling production is peat moss. However, compost
or coconut coir dust also can be used. Other recommended media are combination of vermi
compost and coconut coir dust or peat and sand, in 1:1 (v/v) ratio.

D. Filling and Sowing

• Fill the tray cell/plug with the selected growing medium, water the medium until moist and
make a hole in each cell of the seed tray.
• Put one to two seeds in each cell of the seed tray and cover it lightly with the growing
medium.

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 • Lightly wet the growing medium by spraying with water or put the seedling tray in a flat
tray which contain water, lets the water sip through the growing media. Cover the trays
with black plastic sheet to conserve moisture until germination. Once germination occurs,
remove the plastic sheet.
• The growing media should be kept moist throughout the growing period. Do not over -
irrigate, which could lead to leaching and fungal attack.
• Monitor the growth of the seedlings.
• If more than one seedling germinates in one plug, choose the healthy one and cut the
un-chosen one.

3.4 Keywords
Seeds, Nursery, Growing media, Seed tray, Seedlings, Irrigation system

3.5 Activities
1. Preparation of growing media.
2. Preparation of seedlings.
3. Seedling maintenance.

3.6 Student Observation

1. Students need to observe and record data of seedling growth such as plant height,
number of leaves, any symptoms of damping off and insect attack if any by taking
photographs. Observation records need to be documented as in Table 3.1.
2. The observations of the seedlings are to be compiled into a report and submitted at the
end of week 7. Report can be uploaded to Putrablast.

Table 3.1: Observation on seedlings development

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 Days % No of Symptoms Image
after germination days of
sowing when 2 damages
true
leaves
emerge
1 0 Absent

2 91 2 Absent

3 100 3 Absent

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4 100 Absent

5 100 Absent

6 100 Absent

7 100 Absent

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3.7 Summary

After undergoing the practical part in this unit, students are able to describe techniques of
sowing seeds by using seed trays. Students are also exposed to the learning process of how
to prepare the growing media, sowing of seeds and seedling maintenance. Students will have
the opportunity to practice how to raise seedlings to ensure that only quality and healthy
seedlings are produced.

References
John, M. (2004). Nursery Management 2nd Edition. (pp.316). Landlinks Press, Collingwood,
Australia.

Elizabeth, S & Jacqueline, S. (2004). Good Practice in Nursery Management. (pp.179). Nelson
Thomas Ltd, Cheltenham, United Kingdom.

Unit 4: Preparation of Planting Medium

Jaafar Juju Nakasha

4.1 Introduction
Growing media consist of mixtures of components that provide water, air, nutrients and support
to plants. Important characteristic of media components that influences watering practices is
wettability, i.e., the ability of dry media to rapidly absorb water when moistened. A surfactant
used occasionally can help media rewet more readily. The choice of media should be
influenced by irrigation systems and practices.

Fertigation technique uses the growing media that contain a variety of soilless ingredients
such as peat moss, vermiculite, perlite, shredded coconut husks (coir), composted bark or
other composted materials. Field soils are generally unsatisfactory for the production of plants
in containers because soils do not provide good aeration, drainage and water holding capacity
required and they need to be pasteurized or fumigated to prevent diseases and weeds.
Growing media are designed to achieve high porosity and water retention while providing
adequate aeration. A nutrient charge is added and the pH adjusted to approximately 6.0.

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Coconut coir dust (also known as coco-pith, coir waste or fiber dust) consists of short spongy
fibers and dust which are by-product in the processing of husk to coir fiber. It is 100% organic
and eco-friendly and bio-degradable product (Figure 3.1). Coir dust retains water firmly,
holding it 8-9 times its weight and slowly releases water to the plant through its feeding roots.
The benefits of using this media are:
• Makes the crop tolerant to drought because of its high water - holding capacity, thus,
minimizing the depressive effect of drought on crop physiology and yield.
• Creates favorable soil structure when applied as mulch.
• Supplies some nutrients i.e. macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, Na) and
micronutrients (Zn, B, Fe, Mn, Cu) necessary for plant growth Provides for good
medium for nursery and seedlings.

Various types of soil and soilless media can be used as the planting media. Generally,
composition for soil mixture media is the combination from few components like top soil, sand
and organic matter. The amount for each component is express by ratio, for example, 3:2:1
media, which indicate 3 parts of top soil, 2 parts of organic matter (example: chicken manure)
and 1 part of sand. As for the soilless media, it can be use alone, or in combination with other
components. Compounds that are categorized under soilless are vermiculite, perlite, peat
moss, calcined clay and coconut peat. Each component has its own unique character and
having pros and cons. Therefore, it is better to mix different types of media with correct ratio
in order to create better environment for the roots to grow and develop.

Figure 4.1: Coconut coir block/brick (Left) and dust (Right)

4.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Prepare planting media
2. Understand the ratio and composition of growing media

4.3 Methodology
A. Materials

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 Polybag, coco-pith, bricks.

B. Preparation of Planting Media

• Make sure that the area is clean and the drip irrigation system is functioning.
• Fold ¼ on the top of the poly bag.
• Make sure that the growing medium and the poly bags are clean. Fill-up the poly bag
with growing medium.
• Make sure that the media is not too dense and not too loose.
• Do flushing by running the water onto planting media
• Arrange the poly bags in the plot and make sure that the planting distance is suitable.
• Place the pen dripper in the media and test the system for 5 minutes.
• Make sure all the poly bags are wet after 30 minutes, in order to ensure that each of
the pen dripper is functioning.

4.4. Activities
• Put planting media in poly bag.
• Flushing.
• Arrange the bricks as or putting the poly bag.
• Put the dripper in the polybag and test its working.

4.5 Keywords
Substrate, soil, soilless, plant growth

4.6 Student Observation

The polybags were systematically inspected for any visible damage or wear. Damaged
polybags were identified and set aside for replacement. We used two types of polybags; one
is white in colour which is second-time used and the another one is black in colour which is
totally new. All polybags are folded a little on the top. Adequate amounts of coco-pith were used
and filled in each polybag with a texture of not too dense and not too loose. Flushing water
onto the coco-pith was done evenly, preventing any dry pockets within the planting medium.
We were mindful of not over-saturating the coco-pith, maintaining optimal moisture levels for
seedling growth. Polybags were arranged systematically, with an appropriate distance between
each bag to facilitate efficient plant growth and allow for proper air circulation. Condition of all
drippers are checked and placed onto the medium. Planting medium is arranged uniformly and
nicely; thus, it is ready for planting.

4.7 Summary
One must understand and know the characteristics of the planting media to be used in order
to decide the fertilizer program and frequency in irrigating the plants.

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References
Kandil, H. (2019). Improving Production of Plants by Fertigation. LAP Lambert Academic
Publishing.

Shejul, A. and Khedkar, D. (2019). Drip Fertigation for Green Peas. LAP Lambert Academic P
Cox, D.A. 2008. Organic Growing Media and Fertilizers for Greenhouses.

Faust, J. E. and E. W. Growing Media for Greenhouse Production, University of Tennessee.

http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1618.pdf

Kuepper, G. and K. Everett. 2004. Potting Mixes for Certified Organic Production
http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/potmix.pdf

Unit 5: Seedling Transplanting

Jaafar Juju Nakasha

5.1 Introduction
In plant cultivation, plants can be planted either by direct seeded at field, or by transplanting.
Direct seeded is easier and does not require many skills compared to transplanting. Transplant
technique is popularly use in plants with fibrous root system. However, it is also applicable to
do transplanting for plants with tap root system. A lot of producers prefer to use transplanting
techniques as it offers more benefits compared to direct seeding. Transplanting started with
the establishment of seedlings in either temporary plots, germination tray, poly bags, Jiffy-7 or
containers filled with germination media. As transplanting causes disturbance to the seedlings,
the plants might grow slower and more sensitive than those direct seeded plants at initial stage.
Therefore, it is crucial to properly transplant the seedlings in order for the plants to grow and
develop.

5.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. To determine the correct stage in transplanting
2. To properly transfer the seedlings from germination tray to growing media

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5.3 Methodology
One must gently do transplanting in order to ensure minimal shock to the plants. Few factors
such as species, light, water and temperature contribute to the success of transplanting. When
seedlings are large enough, within 10 to 14 days (depends on plant type) or at least two to
three true leaves established, harden them by withholding water either decrease amount of
water given or expose them to full sunlight.

Hardening of Seedlings Process

Leave your seedlings outside (out of the shelter) for an hour more than the previous day i.e if
the seedlings were previously exposed to sunlight for 3 hours, then increase the duration to 4
hours. Gradually increase the duration under the full sunlight for each day. At the same time,
you can move the seedlings to a less sheltered location by further from the shelter or out from
under a tree. Hardening process is to prepare the seedlings for a less nurturing environment.

A. Materials

Seedlings, Scissors, Hand scoop

B. Methods
Before transplanting, selection of plants must be done. Only uniform, healthy and having 2 sets
of true leaves should be taken for transplanting.

1. Selection of seedlings:
• Healthy (No sign of yellowing, wilt, abnormal, retard or too thin compared to others) as
shown in Figure 5.1.
• Must have at least 2 true leaves or 2 set of leaves
• The age of the seedlings depends on species. However, for leafy vegetables, the 7- 10
days-old seedling is sufficient for transplanting.

2. Transplanting:
• Add some water to the germination media if it is too dry.
• Dig a hole on the growing medium and make sure that the hole is bigger than the root
cluster of the seedling.
• Carefully take out the seedlings from germination tray and make sure that the root cluster
is attached with the germination media (Figure 5.1).
• Carefully place the seedling inside the hole and cover it back by using the growing medium.

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 • Make sure that the seedling is straight by pressing the growing medium firmly. Do not press
it too hard, as it might damage the root (Figure 5.2).
• Irrigate the seedlings thoroughly after transplanting.
• Irrigation should be done frequently during this initial stage.

Tips: As the seedlings undergo stress, and increase in respiration rate during transplanting,
you can reduce it by removing 1-2 leaves, cutting the leaves into half, and make sure that the
soil is not dry.

Figure 5.1. Seedling with root cluster, attach with the germination medium.
(Source: https://dpnc.org/calendar/transplanting-seedlings-2/)

Figure 5.2. Pressing the growing medium.

(Source: https://www.veggiegardener.com/transplanting-vegetable-seedlings/)

5.4 Keywords
Hardening phase, growing medium, plant growth, transplanting

5.5 Activities
• Transplanting the seedlings.
• The plants need to be monitored daily and make sure that the growing medium is not
dry. Record your observation in the table given.

5.6 Student Observation

Days after Observation (Any signs of wilting, yellowing, retardation,

Transplanting increase in height, number of leaves)

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 1 After moving the water spinach to a new place, some of its leaves seem
a bit sad and droopy. It's like the plants are adjusting to the change and
under stress. This might cause by root damage during transplantation,
different of water potential in the soil, change in surrounding
temperature, humidity and so on. Fortunately, we notice no yellow leaves
yet. At this moment, the water spinach has 4 leaves.
2 The water spinach still shows signs of adjusting. Some leaves remain
droopy, but there's no yellowing. It's like the plants are taking their time
to settle into their new spot.
3 The water spinach is starting to bounce back. New leaves are appearing,
and although there are still a few droopy ones, it seems like the plants
are getting used to their new home. The water spinach’s leaves increase
to 6 leaves.
4 The droopiness is less, and the water spinach looks a bit perkier. No
yellow leaves are showing up. It's like the plants are telling us they're
feeling better.
5 The drooping is almost gone, and new leaves are growing. The plants
seem more comfortable, and while they haven't grown much taller, they
look healthier. The water spinach’s leaves increase to 8 leaves.
6 There's a lot less drooping, and the leaves are a vibrant green. It's like
the plants are getting used to their new surroundings.
7 The water spinach has fully adapted. There's hardly any drooping, and
all the leaves look healthy. No yellow leaves are in sight. Most of the
plants have not only adjusted but have grown a bit taller. However, there
are still a small amount among them don’t show any changes in height.
It started to show symptoms of retardation but still in good condition. All
in all, all water spinaches are estimated to be harvested by next week if
the growing performance is maintained or even getting better.

5.7 Summary
Extra care during the transplanting is needed to ensure high survival percentage after
transplanting. Good transplanting technique can lead to uniform, vigorous and healthy
development of plant.

References
Singh, D. J. and Davidson, J. Ed. Mendon Cottage Books. (2015).The Art of Sowing,
Transplanting, and Planting Your Garden (Gardening Series Book 24). JD-Biz Corp
Publishing.

Swinton, L. (2019). Principles of Seed Science. United States, Callisto Reference.

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UNIT 6: Nutrient Application
Elisa Azura Azman & Roslan Ismail

6.1 Introduction
Crop maintenance is an important practice to achieve good and quality yield of any given crop.
This practice include weeding, irrigation, fertilization, insect pest and disease control and pruning
must be practiced during growing season. Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of
water to plants at needed intervals. Irrigation can be practiced in many ways, and for each plant,
there are different types of irrigation method. In this section, nutrient/fertilizer are being applied
with water via drip irrigation system. Drip system often increase fertilizer use efficiency around
80 to 90 per cent. A plant nutrient is a chemical element that is essential for plant growth and
reproduction. These essential elements are divided into two groups: macronutrients and
micronutrients as shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Essential elements required by plants as nutrients

Essential Elements for Plant Growth

Macronutrients Micronutrients
Nitrogen (N) Iron (Fe)
Phosphorus (P) Manganese (Mn)
Potassiun (K) Boron (B)
Calcium (Ca) Molybdenum (Mo)
Magnesium (Mg) Copper (Cu)
Sulfur (S) Zink (Zn)
Oxygen (O) Chlorine (Cl)
Carbon (C) Nickel (Ni)
Hydrogen (H) Cobalt (Co)
Sodium (S)
Silicon (Si)

Nutrients that plants require in large amount called macronutrient. Carbon (C), for example is
required to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds. In addition
to macronutrients, plants also require various elements in small quantities called as micronutrients

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(or sometimes referred as trace elements). Both macro and micro-nutrients are required in
fertilizer. Thus, both can be combined in liquid form and be applied to plants more effectively by
fertigation method. Lack of these nutrients will inhibit the plant growth. This mean that the plant
will not grow well. The plant may show signs of lack of nutrients called as nutrient deficiency. Each
plant may have different signs of nutrient deficiency. A general indicator of nutrient deficiency as
shown in Table 6.3.

Besides irrigation by fertigation method, electrical conductivity (EC) is also an important factor to
monitor for good and quality plant growth. EC is a measurement of soluble salts in a solution (in
dS/m = mMhos/cm). Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, but conductivity increases as
more and more salt is dissolved in the water. Thus, EC of the nutrient solution gives us an indirect
measurement of the salt content, instead of knowing the availability of the nutrient. The EC of the
nutrient solution as well as the amount and frequency of fertigation (irrigation with nutrient solution)
are the most important variables used by farmers to control the supply of water and nutrients to
the crop. Otherwise, plants will show signs of nutrient deficiency.

Characteristics of fertilizers for fertigation

The success of fertigation depends primarily on the characteristics of the fertilizers used, as below:
• Must be completely soluble in water (< 0.02% insoluble in water) and have quick dissolution in
water with minimum content of conditioners.
• Must not react with dissolved elements in water especially calcium and magnesium salts.
• High nutrient content in the saturated solution must not get leached down easily.
• Should not change the pH of water leading to precipitation and clogging Should avoid
corrosion of the system.
• Should be safer for field use and for mixing with other chemicals.

6.2 Objectives
Student will be able to:
1. To learn and understand the fertigation method.
2. To relate the significance and importance of electrical conductivity (EC) based on plant
growth stage.
3. To identify nutrients (macro and micro) deficiency signs in plant.
6.3 Methodology
Activity 1: Stock solution preparation A. Materials
1. Liquid fertilizer A and B (Figure 6.1)

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2. Tank – 200L (2 unit)
3. EC and pH meter
4. Water

B. Methods
1. Dissolve Set A (1kg) in 10L of water (Tank A)
2. Dissolve Set B (1kg) in 10L of water (Tank B)
3. Stir until all salt dissolve
4. Let stock solution stable prior to usage about 24 hours
5. Put two tanks under shade

Activity 2: Nutrient solution preparation

C. Materials
1. Stock A and B (Figure 6.1)
2. EC and pH meter
3. Water

D. Methods
1. Add 100mL of SET A stock solution and 100mL of SET B stock solution to 20L of water to achieve
EC reading of 1.0 - 1.5 mS/cm.
2. Stock solutions are added in equal volumes to prepare a nutrient solution with an electrical
conductivity (EC) up to 1.5 mS/cm. If one does not have an EC meter, then 10mL of stock
solution A and 10mL of stock solution B should be added to 1L of water in the tank to give about
1.0 -1.5 mS/cm for leafy plants.
3. Add water or nutrients to adjust the EC up or down. Add acidic nutrients or acid to lower pH, and
add water or alkaline pH adjusters to raise pH. Maintain solution pH between 5.5 to 6.5 for best
environment for optimal nutrient availability. If pH rises above 6.5, adjust down to 5.5, based on
preference. If topping off a reservoir to lower the EC, plain water is all that is needed. If topping
off with a nutrient to increase EC, make sure the reservoir is still clean and there are

no signs of salt buildup or microbial growth. If either of these issues are present, empty and
clean the reservoir and fill it with fresh solution.
4. However, the preparation and dilution depends on the supplier suggestion on the packaging.
5. Follow the table 6.2 below for EC schedule
6. A pH and EC meter are essential for managing nutrient solution and understanding changes
that occur as a result of plant interactions. Monitor pH and EC/ppm daily, adjusting as needed.

23
 Keep a log of pH and ppm readings and any changes that are made.
7. Water temperature is an important thing to watch and keep in range with recirculating systems.
The ideal range is 66-72°F in order to maintain optimal levels of dissolved oxygen and prevent
growth of harmful pathogens.

Figure 6.1: Set A and B for stock solution

Table 6.2: EC schedule
Day after transplanting EC (mS/cm) pH
2 0.8 – 1.0 5.5 – 6.5
9 1.1 - 1.3 5.5 – 6.5
21 1.5 5.5 – 6.5

Activity 3: Identification of plant nutrient deficiency A. Materials

1. Pen and paper
B. Methods
1. Visually inspect the plant for nutrient deficiency symptoms as shown in Table 6.3.
2. Record the observations in Activity 3.
6.4 Keywords
Fertigation, Electrical conductivity (EC), Plant nutrients, Nutrient deficiency symptom, Interplant

6.5 Activities
1. Prepare Stock Solution
2. Prepare nutrient solution
3. Record nutrient deficiency symptoms

24
Nutrient deficiency, particularly the macronutrients, can adversely affect plant growth. Depending
on the specific nutrient, a lack can cause stunted growth, slow growth or chlorosis. Extreme
deficiencies may result in leaves showing signs of cell death.

Table 6.3: Nutrient deficiency symptoms (signs) in plants

Nutrients Symptoms Examples

Nitrogen (N) Stunted growth. Extremely pale color.
Upright leaves with light
green/yellowish. Appear burnt in
extreme deficiency

Potassium (K) Small spots on the tips, edges of pale

leaves. Spots turn rusty. Folds at tips.

Phosphorus (P) Plant short and dark green. In extreme

deficiencies turn brown or black.
Bronze colour under the leaf

Calcium (Ca) Plant dark green. Tender leaves pale.

Drying starts from the tips. Eventually
leaf bunds die.

Magnesium (Mg) Paleness from leaf edges. No spots.

Edges have cup shaped folds. Leaves
die and drop in extreme deficiency.

25
 Sulphur (S) Leaves light green. Veins pale green.
No spots

Iron (Fe) Leaves pale. No spots. Major veins

green

Manganese Leaves pale in color. Veins and

(Mn) venucules dark green and reticulated

Boron (B) Discoloration and leaf buds. Breaking

and dropping of buds

Molybdenum Leaves light green/lemon

(Mo) yellow/orange. Spot on whole leaf
except veins. Sticky secretions from
under the leaf

Note: A plant can be deficient in several nutrients (macro and micro-nutrients). Thus, a plant can
show single or multiple deficiency symptoms.

6.6 Student Observations

Activity: Plant nutrient deficiency

26
 Plant Day Plant (symptoms Nutrient
(type/name) (plant age) /condition) deficiency
Water spinach 21 Stunted grow, pale green leaves Nitrogen

6.7 Summary
Plants that grows well are the plants that received sufficient nutrient (macro and micro-nutrient)
through irrigation by fertigation method. Thus, these plants are good and quality plants
compared to plants that shows nutrient deficiency symptoms. An EC value of less than 4 dS/m
is a good indicator of sufficient salt availability in soil to support nutrient dissolution and uptake
by plant to grow well.

References
Heinen, M., Marcelis, L.F.M., Elings, A., and Figueroa, R. (2001) Effects of EC and fertigation
strategy on water and nutrient uptake of tomato plants. Acta horticulture.
Doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2002.593.12
Guy Sela (2020). Fertilization and Irrigation:Theory and Best Practises. Cropaia, USA.
Kafkafi, U. and Tarchitzky, J. (2011). Fertigation: A tool for efficient fertilizer. International Fertilizer
Industry Association and FAO, Rome Italy.
Online information: https://www.japan.go.jp/technology/innovation/digitalfarming.html
Online information: https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Fertigation

Unit 7: Disease, Pest and Weed

Management
Syari Jamian, Dzarifah Mohamed Zulperi, &
Muhammad Saiful Ahmad Hamdani

27
7.1 Introduction
Pest insects, diseases, and weeds cause significant yield and quality losses to crops. Pest insects
cause problems by damaging crops and food production, parasitising livestock, or being a
nuisance and health hazard to humans. Diseases include micro-organisms, disease agents
(bacteria, fungi and viruses), infectious agents, parasites and genetic disorders. Weed-crop
interference comprised of direct and indirect impacts. Direct impact consists of weeds competition
on crucial resources, viz. water, nutrient, gases, light, and space. Indirectly, weeds also can
potentially become alternative hosts to pest insects and diseases, which may attack crops if left
uncontrolled. Additionally, parasitic weeds growing on crops will absorb nutrient from the host
crops, leaving them less productive. Understanding weeds and the various methods to control
them ultimately reduces costs and improves productivity. Thus, it is important to control the pest
insects, weeds and diseases with an Integrated Pest Management plan using a range of biological,
mechanical, physical or cultural and chemical methods.

7.2 Objectives
Students will be able to:

1. Identify the symptoms of pest damage, disease and weeds on crops.

2. Measure damages caused by insect pests, disease and weeds. Explain the integrated
management (insect pests, disease and weeds)

7.3 Methodology
Activity 1: Identification of pest insect A. Materials
Sticky trap

B. Methods
• Place sticky trap on few corner of the plot.
• Insect samples were collected from sticky trap and identified and recorded.

Activity 2: Identification of plant diseases through sign and symptoms.

Plant disease symptoms

Pathogens cause local or general symptoms on host plants and this may occur separately on
different hosts, simultaneously or subsequently on the same host. In general, pathogen causes 3
types of symptoms: i) necrosis (host cell death), ii) overgrowth, i.e., hypertrophy (abnormal cell

28
enlargement) and hyperplasia (fast cell division), and iii) hypoplasia (stunting of host organs or
overall).

In the most disease, the pathogen lives or produces various kind of structure on the surfaces of
host plant. These structures include mycelia, sclerotia, sporophores, fruiting bodies and spores
which are called signs and they are different from symptoms which show visible responses on the
infected part of the host plant. For example, for mildew diseases, the signs that can be seen
consists of the white mycelia and spores on infected stem, leaf or fruit, whereas symptoms
consists of chlorotic or necrotic lesions on leaf, fruit and stem, stunting of growth, etc.

Activity 3: Classification of weed species based on morphological characteristics and

habitat.

Weed
Materials:
Weed species: broadleaves, sedges, grasses.

7.4 Keywords
Insect pest, beneficial insects, Pathogen, Fungus, Bacteria, Identification, Diagnosis, Control
method, Weed species, Weed-crop competition model

7.5 Activities
1. Identification of insects, diseases and weeds.

Table 7.1: Insect pests, diseases and weeds in planting area

Pest Symptoms Examples

Insect The larvae vigorous eating patterns,

oftentimes leaving the leaves
Spodoptera sp completely destroyed.
(Ulat ratus)

29
Insect Larvae & adult feed on young
growth, flower spikes, and
Aphis gossypii developing flower buds.
(Afid)

Insect Feeding punctures to sawi leaves

Phyllotreta spp.
(Flea
Bettle/Kumbang
Lenting)

Disease Necrosis
Death of cells or tissues
Downy mildew

Disease Hypoplasia
Mosaic Size of cells reduced
Plant growth retarded

Disease Necrosis
Leaf spot Death of cells or tissues

30
 Weed Infesting planting medium in the
polybag
Oxalis
corniculata

Weed Growing in between the polybags

and can become potential host to
Lindernia dubia whiteflies

Weed Infesting planting medium in the

polybag
Solanum
tuberosum

7.6 Student Observation

Weeds, Disease and Insect Pest Monitoring Report
Date: 20 November 2023 Time: 11:00am
Weather: Sunny and Rainy
Crops: Water Spinach Group: 4
Crops Damage (Describe)

1.

2.

31
 Insects Found How many? Remarks
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Weed species Habitat Remarks

1. Oxalis corniculata Planting medium
in polybag
2.

3.

4.

Disease Symptoms
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Note: Other pest symptoms could be referred through online and other materials.

7.7 Summary
Insects are the dominant life-form on earth. Millions may exist in a single acre of land. In reality,
less than one percent of insect species are pest but at the same time, insects are major pests of
crops and vector disease. To identification insects as beneficial to humans, important as
pollinators of crops, natural enemies of pests and major pests were be important in nature and
agriculture. Disease in plant can be identified though observation on disease symptoms or signs
of the presence of causal agents on plant parts. In most diseases, the pathogens live or produce
various kind of structures on the surfaces of host. These structures include mycelia, sclerotia,

32
sporophores, fruiting bodies and spores which are called signs and they are different symptoms
which show visible responses on the infected part of the host plant. Weeds can be differentiated
by their morphological characteristics and habitat. Growth impact of weed on crops is weed
species-, weed population density-, and crop type- dependence. Impacts of weeds on crops can
be measured through reduction of crop growth and yield caused by weed competition for
resources.

References
Altieri, M. and Nicholls, C. (2018). Biodiversity and Pest Management in Agroecosystems. CRC
Press

Lugtenberg, B. (2016). Principles of Plant-microbe Interactions. New York: Springer International.

Ownley, B.H. and Trigiano, R.N. (2016). Plant Pathology Concepts and Laboratory Exercises.
Florida: CRC press.

Singh, U.S. and Singh, R.P. (2017). Molecular Methods in Plant Pathology. Florida: CRC Press.
Zimdhal, R. (2018). Fundamentals of Weed Science (5th Edition). (pp.758).Academic Press.

33
Unit 8: Postharvest Handling
Norazua Zakaria & Siti Zaharah Sakimin

8.1 Introduction
Postharvest handling is the stage of crop management immediately following harvest. It can
be defined as a method and techniques applied to increase shelf life of the products. The full
processes of postharvest handling is as shown in Figure 8.1. The principles determining at
which stage of maturity of vegetables should be harvested are crucial to its subsequent storage
and marketable life and quality. Post-harvest physiologists differentiate three stages in the life
span of vegetables which are maturation, ripening, and senescence. Maturation is indicative
of the plant being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the vegetable is fully
developed in size, although it may not be ready for immediate consumption. Ripening follows
or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste. There are some
indicators to look out for in determining crop maturity include: colour, size and general
appearance of the crop. Time of harvest in either early or late hours of the day to avoid
excessive field heat generation. Physical handling can have an extreme effect on the
postharvest quality for most harvested vegetables. It is therefore important to know suitable
postharvest handling practices needed to maintain the quality of harvested vegetables for
producers.

Harvesting Sizing Packaging

Precooling Air Storage

Sorting/ Trimming Cleaning Dispatch

Figure 8.1: Postharvest handling processes of agricultural produces.

8.2 Objectives
Students will be able:
1. To understand the postharvest handling practices of fresh vegetables
2. To identify the optimum maturity stage of vegetables to be consumed
3. To recognize the postharvest loss of vegetables

34
8.3 Methodology
A. Materials

Hand gloves, scissor/knives, bucket/ harvest container, water, packaging.

B. Method

Harvesting

The time, frequency, and method of harvesting vary depending on species. For example,
spinach: most varieties mature in 37- 45 days after planting and the color is green. Individual
leaves or the entire plant is cut off at the soil surface. Method of harvesting depends mainly
on the type of crop but in all cases proper handling practices should be taken to prevent
damaging or bruising the crop (Figure 8.2).
• Cut the stem or pull out the entire vegetables from the pot. (If you want the spinach to
regrow again, cut it at the base whilst leaving a bit of stem for it to regrow).
• Cutting is commonly used technique for harvesting vegetables. The examples of
harvesting tools are secateurs, scissors or knives
• Put the vegetables in the container after harvesting
• After harvesting the vegetables, collect it and transfer under the shade to reduce heat.

Budding knife
Secateurs

Harvest container

Figure 8.2: Tools for harvesting .

Precooling after harvest

Pre-cooling is a means of removing the field heat. It slows down the rate of respiration,
minimizes susceptibility to attack of microorganism and reduced water loss.

35
Sorting and Trimming
Sorting and trimming are the removal of rotten, damaged, or diseased fruits from the healthy
ones. By removing damaged produce from the healthy ones, it reduces losses by preventing
secondary contamination.
• Remove any damaged leaves or yellow-coloured spinach.
• Trimming stems at the base of the vegetables, removing any damaged or unsightly leaves
from the crop, and gently dry brushing the fruit surface to remove dirt and dust.

Cleaning or Disinfecting
Cleaning are necessary to remove soil dust, adhering debris, insects and spray residues.
Chlorine in fresh water is often used as disinfectant to wash the commodity. Only clean water
should be used for washing to protect the produce from contamination (Figure 8.4).

• Wash the vegetables under tap water or in a wash tank to remove dirt, dust, extraneous
matter, pathogenic load and etc.
• Wash vegetables carefully with clean water (preferably with 100 – 150 ppm
hypochlorite/chlorine) or soap or calcium hydroxide.
• After washing, the vegetables will then transfer into the washing basket/ container to filter
the excess of water.
• Root vegetables are often washed to remove adhering soil.

Figure 8.4: Chlorinated water application

Air Drying
There are basically 2 ways of drying:
• Sun drying: Sun drying could be done on platforms, clean cemented floors (patios), on
plastic sheets or on tarpaulins. The grains are laid on clean surfaces every day, especially
when sunny.
• Forced air drying: Mechanical dryers – fans that blow hot air through the vegetable– are
also used for drying. The drying is done in batches or in a continuous flow manner.
• After cleaning, wipe the vegetable with dry muslin cloth or air-dried to remove excess
surface moisture and excess water to avoid rotting

36
Sizing
Sizing is the process of categorising the vegetables on the basis of colour, size, stage of
maturity.

Packaging
Packaging is enclosing food produce or product to protect it from mechanical injuries and
contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources. Example of packaging
materials: wooden crates, cardboard boxes, woven palm baskets, plastic crates, nylon sacks,
jute sacks, and polythene bags (Figure 8.5).

Figure 8.5: Example of different packages

Storage
The marketable life of most fresh vegetables can be extended by prompt storage in an
environment that maintains product quality. The desired environment can be obtained in
facilities where temperature, air circulation, relative humidity, and sometimes atmosphere
composition can be controlled. An understanding of the correct temperature management
during storage of vegetables are important in extending the shelf life of the fruit whilst
maintaining fruit qualities (Figure 8.6).

Dispatch/ Transportation

The product needs to be kept in the best possible condition during transport and properly
loaded on the suitable vehicle.

8.4 Keywords
Maturity stage, fruit quality, container, postharvest practices

8.5 Activity

37
 Harvest the crop at its mature stage using secateurs or knife.

8.6 Student Observation

Crop Time of Time of Weight before Weight after

Maturity (DAT) Harvesting trimming and trimming and
(am/pm) cleaning (g) cleaning (g)
Water
35 days 9.00 am 14000 11565
spinach

Picture 8.1 and Picture 8.2: Water spinach that is ready for harvest

Picture 8.3: Water spinach gathered in a few baskets after harvested

38
 Picture 8.4: Weighing and packing of water spinach

8.7 Summary
Postharvest handling is the last stage in the process of producing high quality fresh produce.
The proper methods or technologies of handling the product can minimize the postharvest
losses. Challenges of postharvest handling is to maintain freshness of the product from the
field to the consumer, the careless harvesting methods that can cause damaged product will
reduce the quality and market price. This eventually results in huge economic losses to the
country.

References
Anilrana . Post-harvest Management of Horticultural Crops blog)
https://k8449r.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/7/3/30731055/1php.pdf

Isaac Kojo Arah, Gerald K. Ahorbo, Etornam Kosi Anku, Ernest Kodzo Kumah, and Harrison
Amaglo, “Postharvest Handling Practices and Treatment Methods for Tomato Handlers in
Developing Countries: A Mini Review,” Advances in Agriculture, Vol. 2016, pp.19.Doi:
10.1155/2016/6436945

Hassan R. El-Ramady, Éva Domokos-Szabolcsy, Neama A. Abdalla, Hussein S. Taha, and

Miklós Fári, (2017) “Postharvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables Storage” Springer
International Publishing Switzerland 2015 E. Lichtfouse (ed.), Sustainable Agriculture
Reviews 15, Doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-09132-7_2

39
Unit 9: Agricultural Wastes Management
Noraini Md Jaafar

9.1 Introduction
Agricultural wastes are normally generated during post-harvest handling, or during agricultural
product processing and end of planting season at the farm. These wastes can be in the form of
leftovers fruit and plant green parts and wastes from planting medium. According to Malaysia
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), recycling of wastes is highly promoted and is one of
sustainable approaches in sustainable agriculture. These wastes can be transformed to other
forms and repurposes as soil amendments and fertilizer. The wastes can be either dried or
processed, pyrolysed into biochar or composted into value added organic fertilizer.

In order to produce a balance and value-added compost, factors including C

(Carbon):N(Nitrogen) ratio of the wastes or compost formulation, particle size, moisture,
aeration and microorganisms are important to be considered. For example, larger particle and
high C:N materials may take longer to be composted than the smaller particle and lower C:N.
Addition of Indigenious Microorganisms (IMO) or Effective Microorganisms (EM), suitable
moisture addition and appropriate turning of compost heaps and addition of molasses would
improve the decomposition and composting process, therefore ensuring efficient compost
products. There are no specific ways of making compost, as it may differ based on the amount
of compost inputs and the materials used. Compost can be in windrow type (figure 9.1) or in
containers (which is suitable for backyard composting) (Figure 9.2) also can be in a room,
shelter or in the field.

Composting process may produce smell (odour) and gaseous release and heat, therefore a
close monitoring of the compost bin or compost heap is crucial throughout the process. The
solid products of this composting process is called compost while the leachate is the liquid
products produce during composting. Compost tea can be produced by taking a sachet of
compost and diluted with water. The solid compost can be applied during land preparation soil
amendment and as fertilizer, while the liquid forms (leachate and compost tea) can be applied
as foliar fertilizer. Currently, farmers added worms into compost heaps to fasten the composting
process and the product is called vermicompost.

40
Figure 9.1: Windrow compost pile.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Windrow_building2_%2814728380047%2
9.jpg

Figure 9:2: Compost container.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Compost_bin_cutaway_by_Bruce_McAda
m.jpg

9.2 Objectives
Student will be able to:

1. Identify type of agricultural wastes that can be recycled and formulated for compost-
making
2. Produce compost from agricultural wastes and reapply to soils or plants as fertilizers

41
 9.3 Methodology
A. Material for compost (inputs):
• Chicken manure or goat manure
• Molasses or brown sugar
• Effective Microorganisms
• Green wastes (freshly cut plant leaves, fruit wastes, banana peels) - must be shredded
• Brown wastes (dried grasses, plant branches, planting medium wastes, rice husks)- must be
shredded
• Additional : coffee wastes, egg shells, kitchen wastes (exclude blood)
• Container for compost making (depend on volume of compost inputs)

B. Methods for compost making:

• Students can be divided into 1-2 groups

• Each members in each groups must ensure to collect wastes beforehand and shred the
wastes into finer particles (1-4 mm)
• During the practical class, students will lay the wastes layer by layer (green wastes-brown
wastes, molasses) into the container
• Molasses, IMO or EM can be added with water and sprayed into the heaps after several layers
• Repeat the layering and addition of molasses and microorganism.
• The heaps can be compacted half way the layering process until finish
• Close the container and monitor the temperature and composting processes
• Students must monitor and add water accordingly, turning the compost heaps when
necessary.

9.4 Keywords
Compost, wastes, C:N, microorganisms, organic fertilizer

9.5 Activity
• Look for material that has higher C:N ratio, source of P and K normally used for compost
material.

42
 • Waste from postharvest of crop should also add as compost material.
• Make the compost using the methods mentioned in 9.3.
• Record the changes of composting process for one month.

9.6 Student Observation

Group: __________
Date compost preparation/making:______________________ Compost
Inputs / Raw Materials (Name and descriptions):
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Image of the original compost pile:

Table 9.1 Observation and actions:

Day / Date Odour Colour Other Notes/ Observations Action

9.7 Summary

43
Recycling of farm wastes into compost is promoted in sustainable agriculture as a mean to return
the nutrients (from the wastes) back to the soils. The proper methods or technologies of
composting are dependent on wastes; type and volume (capacity). Challenges of composting is
to maintain the right aeration and moisture throughout the composting process to produce a good
quality compost with desirable nutrient content. This compost eventually can be used as soils
amendment with fertilizing values and improving soils and the farm overall input.

References
Kementerian Pertanian dan Industri Asas Tani. Garis Panduan MyGap Malaysia.
http://www.moa.gov.my/documents/20182/29039/MyGAP+%281%29.pdf/a0817aa1-47cf-4fa9-
99e4-e31c93264746

Jabatan Pertanian Daerah Klang. Penyediaan IMO (Indigenous Microorganisma) & Penyediaan
Kompos (blog). http://doaklang.blogspot.com/p/ilmu.html

44
Unit 10: Field Visit
Muhamad Hazim Nazli

10.1 Introduction
Various Malaysians staple item that had been produced via agriculture struggle to meet the
national demand causing low self-sufficiency levels. For decades, the government
continuously is making huge efforts in improving the national agriculture industry mainly by
starting with the National Agriculture Policy 1984-1991. Though, many agriculture sectors
still struggle to fulfill the government projections until today as agriculture is a complex and
ever- changing system that depends not just on the technical aspect of the production but
also various environment and sociological factors.

The abundance of crops, livestock and aquatic organisms available for cultivation with
various specific requirement highlights the complexity of agriculture management especially
in integrated farming. Apart from that, most agriculture produce are bound to the erratic
weather in determining the quantity and quality of those produce. In this situation, the
importance of good agriculture management is highlighted as human can only adapt to the
environment rather than changing it drastically. A developing country including Malaysia still
depends heavily on smallholders and large-scale farms that are still rely on manual labour
for their productions. These agriculture producers then interact with the consumers through
the human controlled market chain. These human interactions from production until
consumption further complicate today modern agriculture management thus demanding it to
be more dynamic.

In conclusion, the modern agriculture system does not only have to be technically species-
specific but also assimilates with the diversity contributed by the ever-changing natural
environment and human society. Hence, the students need to realize the complexity of the
agriculture system in addition to the massive efforts that are needed by the farmers in
bringing food from farm to the table. In doing so, a field visit must be done to expose the
students towards various sectors in agriculture system ranging from upstream until
downstream activities.

10.2 Objectives
Student will be able:

45
1. To exposed to the current agriculture activities within UPM and nearby areas.
2. To comprehend the various activities in upstream and downstream agriculture.
3. To understand the various hurdles and risks in agriculture activities.

10.3 Methodology
1. The class must choose a location of any upstream or downstream activities within the
agriculture system. Locations with both type of activities and near with the university
are encouraged. For better understanding, the management must be able to give brief
explanation regarding each process of the selected production system. It is best if the
students were given the opportunity to be involved with the production process. The
students should be encouraged to ask questions regarding the agriculture
management practised there. The proposed visit time is during the practical time but
the classes may allocate a longer period depending on the group consensus subjected
to the university approval.

2. The students should be divided into smaller groups for them to discuss their
observations, reflect and prepare a report of the field visit. The report must incorporate
what have been learned during the lecture and practical sessions. The report can be
submitted via Putrablastdk or presented in the class. Assessment via video recording
of the discussion or debate are encouraged.

10.4 Keywords
Agriculture system, productions, upstream and downstream activities.

10.5 Activity

• The students need to take notes and picture of each process shown by the
management.
• Group report must be done in detail regarding the processes observed followed by
reflections.
• Assessment through group presentation and video recording of the report is optional.

10.6 Student Observation

1. Agriculture related activities that had been exposed during the field trip
2. Connect what had been observed with what had been learned during the lecture and
practical sessions.

46
 3. Summarize all the observations either good or bad in report or presentation session.

10.7 Summary
Agriculture is a complex and ever-changing system that depends on various technical aspect
of the production as well as the environment and sociological factors. There are myriad of
sectors in agriculture that can be broadly classified in either upstream or downstream activities.
The students should understand the complexity of the agriculture system that require massive
efforts by various industrial players especially the farmers and appreciate all of the efforts that
are needed in bringing food from farm to our table.

References
Bochtis, D., Sørensen, C.A.G. & Kateris, D. (2018). Operations Management in Agriculture.
Academic Press Elsevier.

Cheryl, J. Baldwin. (2015). The 10 Principles of Food Industry Sustainability. West Sussex:
Wiley-Blackwell

Jain, H. K. (2018) The Green Revolution: History, Impact and Future. Houston: Studium Press
LLC.

47