The document discusses the agrarian systems and revenue administration practices of rulers in the Delhi Sultanate from the 13th to 14th centuries. It describes the reforms implemented by Alauddin Khilji to increase revenue and control, the policies of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq which aimed for balance, and the complex actions of Muhammad Tughlaq which led to both centralization efforts and economic disruptions.
The document discusses the agrarian systems and revenue administration practices of rulers in the Delhi Sultanate from the 13th to 14th centuries. It describes the reforms implemented by Alauddin Khilji to increase revenue and control, the policies of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq which aimed for balance, and the complex actions of Muhammad Tughlaq which led to both centralization efforts and economic disruptions.
The document discusses the agrarian systems and revenue administration practices of rulers in the Delhi Sultanate from the 13th to 14th centuries. It describes the reforms implemented by Alauddin Khilji to increase revenue and control, the policies of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq which aimed for balance, and the complex actions of Muhammad Tughlaq which led to both centralization efforts and economic disruptions.
The document discusses the agrarian systems and revenue administration practices of rulers in the Delhi Sultanate from the 13th to 14th centuries. It describes the reforms implemented by Alauddin Khilji to increase revenue and control, the policies of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq which aimed for balance, and the complex actions of Muhammad Tughlaq which led to both centralization efforts and economic disruptions.
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In his work, The Agrarian System of Moslem India, M.H.
Moreland has primarily focused on
examining the methods by which the state assessed and collected its share of the peasant's produce and how portions of this share were allocated to a class of ‘intermediaries’.
The Muslim Kingdom of Delhi
The Muslim Kingdom of Delhi was established in 1206 by Qutbuddin Aibak as the Sultan. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Delhi Kings ruled a large territory from the Indus to Bihar and from the Himalayas to the Narbada, with temporary extensions further south and east. However, by the end of the 14th century, the kingdom began disintegrating into independent states. The kingdom was divided into provinces governed by governors (who received orders directly from the king or court ministers), villages grouped in parganas, and possibly intermediate administrative units called "divisions."
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)
Significant changes related to the agrarian system during the Sultanate come forward only around 1300, when Alauddin Khilji introduced reforms in the system. He implemented certain agrarian reforms aimed at political and military control. His aim was to weaken Hindu Chiefs and rural leaders to prevent rebellion, who were perceived as a threat due to their independent traditions and potential disloyalty to Muslim rulers. For this, he implemented several measures, like- Fixing the revenue demand at 1/2 of the produce without any deductions to reduce the surplus income of the Chiefs. Abolished the Chiefs' perquisites/ haqq, bringing all their land under full-rate assessment. The assessment method was changed to Measurement based on standard yields. A grazing tax was imposed to reduce their income from uncultivated land. These measures increased the royal treasury's income while limiting the Chiefs' ability to accumulate military resources. (The success of these policies enabled Alauddin to maintain internal peace, economic stability and focus on his military campaigns, including his conquest of the Deccan.)
Delhi and the River Country along with part of North Rohilkhand were Reserved lands (khalisa) and were managed by the Revenue Ministry. To deal with Inflation and the need to maintain a large standing army paid in cash, Alauddin implemented the Price Control Policy in Delhi for controlling supplies, transport, and consumption, which stabilized prices for about 12-13 years. Regulations mandated that the entire revenue from the River Country and 1/2 from Delhi be paid in kind.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325)
When Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne, he faced several challenges in maintaining the administrative system established by Alauddin as Qutbuddin, the immediate successor of Alauddin had completely neglected governance, leading to a period of disorder and debauchery. Ghiyasuddin implemented significant reforms in the revenue administration of the kingdom- He abandoned Alauddin's method of Measurement in favour of Sharing (produce was divided at the time of harvest between the landowner and the cultivator based on a pre-agreed ratio), which relieved peasants from paying the full revenue in case of crop failure. Ghiyasuddin also restored the position of Chiefs and headmen, allowing them to keep their perquisites without assessment and taxation from grazing was exempted. However, they were restricted from extracting additional revenue from peasants. He curtailed the activities of corrupt officials within the Revenue Ministry and appointed Governors from the nobility, ensuring that they received due consideration. But also made it clear that their position and dignity would depend on their behavior, and any misappropriations would be severely punished. Governors appointed by Ghiyasuddin held their position on farming terms, meaning they remitted a stated sum of surplus revenue to the treasury, rather than settling annually based on actual receipts and expenditure. He aimed to achieve gradual development without imposing excessive burden on the population. So, he implemented a policy of limiting enhancements in revenue demands to about 10% at a time to ensure that any changes in revenue collection were moderate and manageable for the people.
Overall, Ghiyasuddin's policies aimed to achieve a balance between the interests of the state and the welfare of the people.
Muhammad Tughlaq (1325-51)
Muhammad Tughlaq's reign was marked by complex and often contradictory actions, which has led chroniclers like Zia Barani to struggle to portray him as a brilliant yet impractical ruler. Barani’s descriptions highlight Muhammad Tughlaq's attempts at centralization and administrative reforms in agrarian policies. Muhammad Tughlaq attempted to enhance revenue and centralize administration in outlying provinces, including the River Country. However, these efforts led to discontent among peasants and speculators who failed to meet revenue expectations. He sought to increase revenue from the River Country, which was primarily reserved for the treasury. However, the extent of the increase was excessive, resulting the impoverishment of peasants. He transferred the capital to Deogir (1329) and subsequently return to Delhi (1337). This disrupted the economy, particularly in the River Country, which heavily relied on the Delhi market. His reign also saw the introduction of the concept of improving cropping patterns, indicating a shift from mere maintenance and extension of cultivation. Assignments of revenue in Muhammad Tughlaq's reign were not extensively documented by Indian chroniclers, but a book from Damascus indicates that military commanders in Delhi were not required to maintain troops from their own resources. Instead, troops were paid from the treasury, while commanders received their income in the form of Assignments of revenue. Overall, his reign was characterized by ambitious yet often flawed policies, leading to administrative challenges and economic disruptions, especially in the River Country.
