English Literature

NATIONAL TESTING AGENCY (NTA)

PAPER – 2 || VOLUME – 2

World, British, Post Colonial & Literature

Issues OF ENVIRONMENTAL
 UGC NET PAPER – 2
literature
S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

BRITISH LITERATURE
1. Victorian Age (1837 – 1901) 1-31

2. Modern Age 31-41

3. Absurd theatre 42-47

4. Nobel Awardees/writers 47-51

5. War Poets 51-54

6. Oxford Poets 54-56

7. Bible 56-58

WORLD LITERATURE
1. American Literature 59-70

2. Holocaust 70-71

3. German Literature 72-75

4. Russian Literature 75-80

5. French Literature 80-83

6. Greek Literature 83-85

Post – COLONIAL LITERATURE

1. Afro – American Writers 86-88

2. African Writers 88-93

3. Canadian Writers 93-96

4. Australian Writers 96-99

Indian literature
1. Indian Writers & Translation 100-116

2. Dalit Literature 116-118

Victorian Age (1837 – 1901)
• Queen Victoria became the queen of England in 1837.
• There were change in social condition
o 1832 Reform Act
o 1837 Chartist Act
o Industrialization colonial attempts of England for the sake of resources.
England was at the top of the world, had become super power and had
more than 50 colonies.
o This was the time on various changes on various grounds.
o Victorians were dealing with the problem of religious crisis. Young people
didn’t have faith in God and old one also was questioning on this. Because of
the technical development they were losing faith.
o It was the time of high industrialization which resulted in great
unemployment.
o England controlled more than 50 countries and 700 islands.
o The rise of science Charles Darwin came with his theory of origin of species
1891 which is called the survival of the fittest.
o This inspired lots of writers to go for crime fiction novel. Also known as ‘New
gate Novels’.
• Benjamin Disraeli -he started a group Called ‘silver fork school’. This were the
group of writers, writing for Aristocratic class and Benjamin in his famous work
‘Sybil’ talked about two nations. He said that England having two nations inside
one which is very rich and the one is very poor.
• Youth was losing faith in God that’s why Victorian senior writers professors of
theology they thought it is mandatory to bring faith in youth so they started
‘oxford’ Movement” also known as the tractarian Movement.
• It was the time Italian Renaissance inspired Victorians like Robert Browning,
Arnold and lady Browning.
• Condition of women in Victorian – Victorian labour loss which made women
work for more time, less paid, their wages were given to their husbands.
• Victorians or England they had set up companies in many countries like India,
Australia, Canada and other countries. They were colonizing these countries and
took control.

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• In England they started getting cheap labour because they transported African,
Indian labours at cheap cost.
• Arnold showed the passive or darkest side of the Victorians and Browning
showed the bright and positive side of this age. Then Jennyson showed the fine
blending of victorian’s positivity and negativity.
• 1832 Reform Act – Victorians for the first time set electoral system. But the
voting rights were given to the rich people with land Rights. Then this act is
reformed in 1837 also known as the Chartist Act where the voting rights were
given to the poor class also and the man without land. But the voting right is not
given to the labourers and slaves. And voting right to the women is given in
1920, suffrage movement.
Oxford Movement
• This movement is also known as ‘Tractarian Movement’. Few professors of
oxford university like John Henry Newman and Edward Pugin. The clergies and
the professor of theology.
• They decided to launch a movement to re-support the religion and this is the
reason John Henry Newman is called the intellectual father of oxford
movement. Newman and Edward wrote lots of pamphlets it supported Anglo-
Catholicism.
• They were of the view that Victorian advancement and development was
actually the result of God. Because God has chosen the white race as their
weapon or deserving people that is why they were reforming the rest of the
countries.
• When Henry Newman and Edward started writing pamphlets and tract, their
long religious pamphlets were called tract, this is the reason it is called
‘Tractarian Movement’.
• This movement was also supported by John cable, Edward Marsh and other
writers. The immediate result of oxford movement was that theological studies
were re-introduced in oxford university Cambridge university and in schools.
Earlier in private school Theological studies were banned, only classical
literature was studied. Then unnecessary right was given to the popes were
confiscated. The concept of Divine Right came to an end.

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Lord Alfred Tennyson
• Born 1809 – 1892
• Father of Victorian literature
• Why he is called father of Victorian lit.
Because Victorian literature was divided into two parts. The writers supporting
optimism like Browning and writers supporting pessimism like Arnold. It is
Tennyson where we can find positivity and negativity mixed together.
• Tennyson became famous in his school timing when he wrote. Fi poem
Timbacto and got Chanceller’s Medal.
• He was the longest poet laureate after Wordsworth.
Ulysses
• Written in 1842. Greatest warrior of the Trojan war.
• Ulysses is an old man sitting with his aged wife near the hearth and he talks
about his brave deeds.
• He was a Greek warrior who fought in a battle of Troy and played a vital role in
defeating Trojans. But when Trojans were defeated, Ulysses came back to his
country or his kingdom called ‘Ethaca’. But Ulysses and his commanders and
other soldiers lost their way in the sea and next ten years he kept on wandering
in the sea.
• So, he came back to his wife he became very old and he said I am Ulysses I have
done lots of impossible task I have killed demons, kings and many legendary
kings and I can’t die like this. My end should not be sitting next to my wife.
• Here he called his people to go on another journey he says our life is of a hero
we are not common people.
“It is never too late to seek a new world”
“How dull it is to be unburnished
To make a pause not to shine in use”.
• Opening lines
“I am the part of everything I have met”
• He says we will go for another journey will go for another land, will discover it
my wife Penelope and my son Telemachus will take care of the kingdom Ethaca.
• This poem gives the example of Victorian positivity.

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‘Tithonus’
• It is a dramatic monologue. Here is a handsome boy Tithonus. He is loved by a
goddess and he asks goddess to give him one boon.
• Goddess says you can ask for any book but that will be the only boon. He says I
want to be immortal and goddess makes him immortal but when Tithonus asks
to be immortal he forgets to mention to be young forever.
• When the poem starts Tithonus is already of 400 years. He is very old his skin is
touching the ground he is not able to walk and the dramatic monologue starts
he says that one should not try to exceed the limits if God doesn’t want us we
should not do that.
• This poem shows pessimism.
‘Lotus Eater’ 1842.
• It is Ulysses, still wandering in the sea after many months they have seen land
and he asks his comrade to sail faster. He says ‘Courage’ and he pointed
towards the shore.
• When they go to the island, they were very hungry and they found a plant looks
like a lotus they started eating it and the critus say that the plant of lotus was
actually the plant of opium.
• So, opium’s effect made them drowsy they became half conscious and they
started celebrating the time of laziness they said why we should work hard all
we know that we have to die. We should enjoy now and should not go back to
our homes.
• First word of the poem is ‘Courage’
Last line of this poem “No we are Men”
• Better than other races and we have responsibilities we have our posterity
waiting for us we have to create history for them and they start their journey
once again.
‘In Memoriam’
• It is a long poem in Memorium where tennyson took 17 years to complete this it
is written on the death of his best friend Arthur Henry Hallam.
• In this poem collection there is a small poem Break, Break, Break-in this poem
he is standing at the beach at the shore of the term ‘objective co-relative’ was

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 coined by Washington Allston. T.S. Eliot talked about objective co-relative in his
Hamlet essay
‘Hamlet and His Problems’
• Ocean looking towards the waves when the waves are thrusting themselves on
the rocks Tennyson becomes happy that the waves are also angry and by
thrusting themselves by the rocks, they are showing their anger.
• This is the example of objective co-relative where the inner motions are mixed
with the outer emotion existence of nature
• Lady of shallot
• Defence of Lucknow
• Princess – 1847 – he talks about the emancipation of women.
• Tennyson has written 3-4 dramas
o Becket
o Harold
o The cup
o Queen Marry
• Victorian positivity is inspired by –August competes – Father of positivism.
Robert Browning (1812 – 1889)
• Browning became famous when he read poetries of Elizabeth Barrett Browning
and he fell in love with her. He went and told her that your poetries touched my
heart.
• After the courtship of six months where Elizabeth Barett’s cousin helped them
to be together they eloped and went to Italy. She is six years elder to him.
People wanted to Robert to be the port laureate but he denied and asked them
to make poet laureate his wife for she deserves more.
• My Last Duchess
o It is a dramatic monologue
o It is a kind of work that deals with
o Italian Renaissance (dealing with poetry, painting etc.)
• Tragedy in five words
o “And all smiles stopped together”
• Andrea Del Sarto
o It is a story of a painter who has been deceived by his wife.

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 o “My moon my everybody’s moon everybody books at her and calls his”.
o English title – call the faultless painter
• Prospice
o Line – “I was ever a fighter so one fight more the best and the last”.
• Last Ride Together
o Optimistic poem
o Opening lines –
o “Fail I alone in the words and deeds All man strive and who succeed”.
o Thomas Rhymer coined the term ‘Poetic Justice’
• Porphyria’s lover
o In this poem a lover kills his beloved by wraping his pony tail around her
neck thrice.
o It deals with the supremacy or spirituality of love.
o Pied piper of Hamelin – poetic justice famous line
o “In that city there were rats who fought with dogs and kills the fats.”
o Took babies out of the cradle
o Fra Lippo Lippi (Deals with Italian Renaissance)
o Rabbi ben Ezra
• Grammarian’s funeral
o Deals with teacher and student relation. Students takes his dead body on
top of the mountain for cremation because he dedicated his life after
knowledge so he is not common man.
Mathew Arnold (1812 – 88)
• He is the most pessimistic writer of Victorian age. He was the follower of
classical tradition.
• Arnold theory of poetry was that “Poetry is criticism of life (under the laws) of
poetic beauty and poetic truth”.
• Arnold hated Victorian development.
Dover Beach, 1867
• “The sea is calm tonight”.
• The poet is talking to his imaginary beloved he says the sea is calm and gives us
the melancholic message. He says that life is full of tragedies.
• “Sophocles long ago herd it on the shore of Agean”.
“The sea of faith

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• Was once, too at the full and round earths.
• People had trust they loved each other they had affection but the world now
seems totally fake.
• And then poet gives a message
o “Ah! love let us be true
o To one another”.
• If we become true to each other we can maintain our relation and we can
change the world.
• “And we are here as on a darkling place swept with confused alarms of struggle
and flight,
• Where ignorant armies clash by night.
• Here he says the world is dark and dismal place where armies clashing
ignorantly. World is full of chaos.
• On Shakespeare
o In this work he questions. “Others abide our questions we ask and ask thou
smile.
o John cable is known as the god father of Arnold. John cable started oxford
movement.
• Rugly Chapel
o It is an elegy on Matthew Arnold’s father Thomas Arnold
o Thomas Arnold is credited with launching the private schooling system in
Victorian age.
o Matthew completed this after death of his father. It was 15 years.

Q. Why did you celebrate your father after 15 years of his father’s death?
Matthew replied this to his mother in a letter he said that I wanted to be my
father celebrated by the greatest writer of the age. Now I have achieved that
standard (He was prof. poetry at oxford).
• Memorial verses on Wordsworth
o Balder Dead
o Nors’s mythology

Thyrsis
• It is an elegy on the death of Arthur Hugh clough.
• Clough was a friend of Arnold and was himself a writer in classical tradition.

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• Clough’s famous work is Amours De voyage and Bothy of Tabarna.
• Soharab and Rustom
o It is based on a Persian writer: Firdausi, Firdausi wrote a famous book “Shah
Nama”.
o Famous quote from the book: “Truth sets and the lips of dying man”.
• Empedodes on Etna
o Dramatic monologue
o Empedodis climbed on volcano Etna to commit suicide he gives message
talks about the futility of life and how he repels on this.
• Christina Rosetti
o She is the part of pre-Raphadite brotherhood. It was the movement started
by G. Rosetti, Christina Rosetti and her brother William rosetti.
• Goblin market
o In this poem threre are two sisters who were supposed to be lesbians.
o There is a famous line when one of sisters dying of lust or symbolic lust
another sister says.
▪ “Eat me Eat me Eat me
Drink me drink me drink me”.
▪ It is regarded as a classic of LGBT (Lesbian gay Bi-sexual Transgender).

James Thomson
• He is famously called English Edgar Allan Poe. Because he has achieved
mysticism in his work.
• Works:
o Sunday up the River
o Sunday at Hamstead
o The city of dreadful Night
• Edward fitzgerald (1809-83)
o He has translated the rubaiyat of omar Khayyam. Omar Khayyam was a
Persian poet and his rubaiyat was discovered by fitzgerald in a very
interesting way.
o He was interested in oriental romances or literature.
o He was looking for a new topic while looking for a new topic he was
searching the books in the library and he eventually found a book which was

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 written by Umar Khayyam he translated this. The translated version in after
338 years of the main publication.
o Fitzgerald’s the Rubaiyat of omar Khayyam has been re-studied by Swami
Param Hans Yoga Nand in the book “Vine of Mystic”.
• Arthur quiller couch
o His famous pseudonym is ‘Q’.
o His famous wok is “oxford Book of English verse” here he has compiled all
the poetries from 1250 AD to 1918.
• These Pre-Raphaelite writers are called the romantics of Victorians.
Pre-Raphailite Brotherhood.
• This was the movement in 1850’s by D.G. Rossetti, William Holman Hunt,
Christina Rossetti, William Morris. They formed a group of painters and poets
and they took their inspiration from painters.
• Why they are called Pre-Raphaelite?
• They supported Raphaels poetry (Kind of controversial thing). They were the
painter poets. They were irritating the style of Raphael.
o D. G. rossetti is the head of this group. He is famous for his work “The
blessed Damozel” He is influenced by keats.
o D.G. Rossetti’s wife Elizabeth Elanor siddal was a beautiful lady she became
the ideal character of the group.
o When Elizabeth siddal died D.G. Rossettie buried all his books in the grove as
he said that his inspiration is nomore. But his friends suggested him to
publish the works and then he excavated the grave got the books back and
published the book in the world.
o D.G. Rossetti didn’t like his middle name. Dante Gabriel Rossetti. (Gerard
Manley Hopkins also didn’t lie his middle name).

Blessed Damozel (1850).

• It is also a painting and name of the poetry.
o Sister Helen
o My sister sleeps
o A sonnet collection – House of life.
o The white ship

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W.M. Rossetti- ‘Germ’ 1848
• He is the editor of the magazine and he wrote only one poem which was
published at the cover page of the magazine.
• Christina Rossetti – ‘Allen Elleym’ pseudonym of her.
• It is believed that she loved William Morris but she could not marry and then
she joined nunnery.
“Goblin Market”
• This book deals with the lives of two sister Lizi and Laura they go to buy fruits in
the market there are lots of merchants and they are called goblin men. They try
to seduce these two girls but the girls maintaining the Victorian standard and to
avoid losing virginity they prefer to go for a lesbian relation.
• Come buy come buy so morning and evening maids heard the goblin’s cry”.
• Though the poems are is considered to be a poem for children. Christina
Rossetti’s goblin market contains eratic under tone and disturbing references of
the darker animalistic races of human and inhuman emotions and behaviour.
• A story of two sisters who fall into the hands of dangerous merchant Goblin
men goblin market is a cautionary tale that retrays the idea of female
companionship is the remedy to threatening male sexuality. This is how they
have celebrated sisterly love or lesbianism.
William Holman Hunt
• She has written the biography of all the writers of pre-raphalite and the
movement.
• His famous work is pre-Raphelitism and Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, published
in 1905. (‘Autumn leaves’ written by Indian writer ‘Ram Nath Kak 2002 deals
with the condition of Kashmir)
J.E. Millais (John Everett Millais)
• He was a member of royal society and he made a painting “Christ in the house
of his parents” and then he wrote a poetry on this. ‘Lorrenzo and Isabella’,
‘Autumn Leaves’.
o (A.C.) Algernon Charles Swinburne
• His famous work is “Atlanta in Calydon”, in 1865. Here he talks about the ideal
greek tragedy and he celebrated this thing.

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William Morris
• William Morris is working for a society to preserve the monuments. The society
is called Anti-Scrab society.
• His famous work is “The Earthly paradise”.
• The earthly paradise title has been taken from Dante’s Inferno.
• It is based on chaucer’s Canterbury tales. It has lots of stories (24 tales).
• Another book is “News from Nowhere” it’s a utopian Novella. 1890
• He has given a job to preserve the old monuments, buildings, architectures etc.
• He also started two magazines knows oxford and Cambridge magazines, 1856.
Victorian Novelist
• 19th century is primarily (realistic approach towards life) known for realism. It
was the time when whole world going through a drastic change England in 1850
is at the top of the world along with more than 50 colonies.
• The condition of England was very drastically changed. There were super rich
people aristocrats and poor class. They all are living together. They had huts,
slums and royal buildings. Even there were some people who would sell their
tooth, nail or hair to make or earn money.
• Victorian Novelists have beautifully portrayed the exact reality of the world at
that time. The writers of Victorian age in England they had their own experience
in India in other colonies because they were appointed as an emperor police in
these colonies.
• Along with these things there were lots of writers who rose to prominence from
poverty and they had their own experience industries as a labour class such as
Charles Dickens.
Charles Dickens (1812 – 1870)
• When he was 12 years old his father was imprisoned in Marshall Sea prison
Charles Dickens had to work as a labour. When he was working in a company
where he was given the task to put labels on melted bottles. He himself had
narrated this.
• In his bookd “David Copperfield” he talks about his pathetic journey as a labour.
• Dickens once wrote that the pen which wrote David copperfield was often debt
in his own blood famous quotation “The pen which wrote David Copperfield
was often debt in his own blood”.

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• Dickens talks about his book David Copperfield, published in 1849. He says like
many fond parents. I have in my heart of hearts of favorite child and his name is
David Copperfield.
• David Copperfield is totally narrated in first person.
• He had his own newspaper called Morning chronicle and Evening chronicle. He
started working for them and he started his own periodicals.
• He became shareholder in Morning and Evening chronicle
• His first fame came with sketches by Boz.
• Boz was the pseudonym of his brother which was used by Dickens.
• It was published in 1836 – 1837.
• Pickwick papers was written by Dickens and other two writers. One writer
Robert Seymour who has committed suicide and his widow field the complaint
against Dicken.
• Pickwick paper’s character Sam valler. He is introduced in chapter 10.
Nicholas Nickleby 1838
• Here Victorians schools have been satirist by Dickens. Nicholas has lost his
father in his early age and has to take care of his sister and mother.
• In this work the private schooling system has been harshly criticised specially
the depiction of Yorkshire school.
• In this book there is a character square’s is a person who has been given a
unique kind of punishment of transportation. The punishment of transportation
is very much famous in Victorian age.
• Old Curiosity shop 1840
• It is a story of small girl Nell Trent. she faces lots of tragic things and is living
with her grandfather (gambler), tries to survive in society but she dies of
poverty.
• Queen Victoria, she has praised the work on little Nell’s death is called the most
pathetic scene.
Martin Chuzzlewit (1848)
• A Christmas carol (1843)
• It has four ghosts (Jacob Marley) Elenzer Scrooge, Bob
Bleak House (1852)
• It has comment on government sector famous character in this is lady deadlock.

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• It is the force on British legal system
• The whole narration of the book is in first person and third person narrating.
Hard Times (1854)
• Important characters – grad grind and sissy Jupe.
• The opening line of the book is world classic “Now what I need is fact, fact and
fact.”
• The book is divided in three parts:
1. Sowing
2. Reaping
3. Garnering.
Little Darrut (1855)
• Mystery of Edwin Drood – (Uncomplete work)
• The tale of Swo college-london and paris It is set in London and Paris.
Q. Tale of two cities has war in Background which war it was?
• French Revolution.
• The tale of two cities is based on book written by:
it is French Revolution written by Carlyle published 1859. Past and present.
Line “It was the best of the time. It was the worst of the time”
Great Expectation (1860)
• Thomas Carlyle criticised the look by saying at pip nonsense while.
• G.B. shaw has praised the book and
• Said it consistently truthful.
• After David Copperfield great expectation is the only book which has completely
first-person narration.
• It has a character who has been studied through psycho analysis theory lady
sunshine.
• Story – Lady Havisham has been deceived by his lover and he leaves her at the
church door and goes away.
• When the news came that her lover has run away at the wedding time she was
wearing one slipper, wedding gown and at a particular time when the news
came she has stopped all the wall clocks and she never changed her dress. This
is how lady Havisham raises her cousin daughter stella and makes her hate man.

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Oliver Twist (1837)
• It deals with the crime among the children character which is famous – fagon
(pick – pocket)
Baraly Rudge (1841)
• It is a historical novel.
• Subtitle – A tale of riots of 80.
Dombey and Son (1846)
• It is a first book in Victorian Novelists where we have a railway transportation
scene.
Thomas Hardy (1840 – 1928)
• Thomas Hardy is not only a classical writer. He is a writer who has nicely
portrayed Victorian society, middle class poor class in his books.
• He’s given the order of merit award.
o Wessex – vessex is the settling of his imaginary novels.
o He used the imaginary setting vessex for the first time – far from the
madding crowd (1874)
o Which is the first book – Desperate Remedies (1871)
o World classics books :-
Tess of the D’Urbeville
The Mayor of the casterbridge
Jude the observe
• Other works: ‘The Poor man and the Lady’ – it never got published because his
friend George
• Meredith told him not to publish it.
o Far from the Madding crowd 1814.
o Under the green wood tree 1872 (title from – ‘As you like it’)
o A pair of Blue eyes 1873

The Mayor of The Casterbridge (1886)

• This is the story of a poor man Michael Henchard. He is a drunkard he goes to a
village fair he gets drunk and when he is totally high, he auctions his own wife.
• He sells his wife to a sailor, Richard new son. Next morning when he becomes
conscious about his act, he feels guilty and takes an oath to avoid vine and

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 women for next 21 years. Then he leaves the village, goes to the city and
gradually becomes famous because he is taken as a saintly figure or a great man
who doesn’t even touch the vine.
• Then he has appointed as the mayor of the caster bridge. Time passes Henchard
is not only a settled Mayor but has started a business with Donald Farfrae.
• Now Michael Henchard is in a secret affair with a girl lucetla. Then story takes a
turn when Henchard’s wife appears infront of them and says you sold me to the
sculor and he is no more. She comes back with a daughter and claim this is your
daughter.
• But Michael Henchard didn’t tell his past to anybody and he can’t accept this if
he does so that will bring shame to him. Easily he is not ready to accept his wife
and daughter.
• Moreover, he has to keep his affair secret. Donald farfare becomes interested in
his girl and trues certain advances but Henchard doesn’t want farfare to be a
part of his girl’s life.
• This is how farfare and Henchard have certain issues and Donald Farfare takes
all money away and Henchard becomes very poor.
• Then one day in the court proceedings an old woman she comes to the court
and she identifies Michael Henchard and reveals that he sold his own wife. And
after some time, secret affair of his also is revealed and all of a sudden bad
news started coming from all the sides. Lucetta has been given a punishment
called skimanity rite for having illegitimate affair then Henchard is in the worst
condition and he realizes the role of fate and accepts it, makes a wish that he
should die unattended. This is how Henchard dies.
• Fall – Rise – Fall
Jude The Obscure (1895)
• It is the story of antihero-Jude crawley he wants to study though he is a mason
artist. He starts an affair with a girl called Arabella donn. She is very clever girl
and she be fools him of being pregnant and forces him to marry then he marries
Donn but Arabella leaves him and goes away.
• Now Jude is living in a worst condition He can’t get education in university and
he is working in stone query to make money one day his cousin comes to live
with him sue Bride head. Jude has feelings towards Sue.

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