THE NEW CAMBRIDGE ENGLISH SCHOOL [ICSE] RPC LAYOUT, BANGALORE

Std X: BIOLOGY
BIOLOGY Record (Internal Assessment) (20 Marks)

Instructions:
⮚ Write on the ruled side of the record book (Use black colour ink for writing) and
Draw on the plain side of the record book. Always start from the plain and ruled
side and consider them together as 1st page. Do not start from the ruled side
alone. Plain and ruled side should go hand in hand.
⮚ Draw on the plain side of the record book:
✔ Use pencil to draw and label with pencil using scale.
✔ All labelling should be on the right side of the diagram one below the other
(as far as possible).
✔ The arrow for labelling can start from any point but must end at the same
point.
✔ Do not colour the diagrams. Avoid too much shading.
✔ No freehand drawing for chemical apparatus.
✔ Freehand drawing for all diagrams which do not have chemical apparatus.
✔ Do not use pen, colour pencil and sketch pen on the plain side. Use only a
pencil.
✔ Every diagram should have a heading written in pencil.
⮚ Experiment to be written on the ruled side as given in the Notes below.
⮚ Diagrams to be drawn on the plain side according to the Notes.
⮚ Do not refer to the diagrams from the textbook to draw. Draw diagrams from this
pdf only.
⮚ Do not write anything in the certificate page. We will make you complete in the
class.
⮚ Write page number in the Index but do not write anything in the columns - Date
of experiment and Date of Submission. Will make you complete those two
columns in the class.
⮚ It is very important to complete the record book as this is the internal
assessment for your X standard board exam and this will be evaluated for
20 marks.
⮚ Complete the INDEX (given in the third page).

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Do not copy the above certificate in your record book. It is a sample certificate.

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 INDEX
Sl.no Name of the experiment Page Date of Date of Rem
no. experiment submission arks
I PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
1. Diffusion
2. Roots absorb water
3. Osmosis
4 Potato Osmoscope
5. Endosmosis and Exosmosis
6. Transpiration- Bell Jar Experiment
7. Rate of transpiration in dicot leaf
8. Ganong’s potometer
9. To show that the leaves of the green
plants prepare starch by
photosynthesis
10. To show that chlorophyll is necessary
for photosynthesis
11. To show that light is necessary for
photosynthesis
12. To show that carbon dioxide is
necessary for photosynthesis
13. To show that oxygen is evolved
during photosynthesis
14. Cell division - Mitosis in plants
II ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
15. Structure of the Human Heart

16. The Excretory System in man

17. Nervous System in Human
18. Structure of the Human Eye
19. Structure of the Human Ear
20. Endocrine glands in Human beings

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS

DIFFUSION

Aim - To demonstrate the process of diffusion in the laboratory.

Materials required - Potassium permanganate tablet and beaker containing water.

Theory
Diffusion is the movement of molecules of a substance from the region of their higher
concentration to the region of their lower concentration when they are in direct contact
with each other. It is an important phenomenon in organisms. Gasses reach the cells
because of diffusion; movement of molecules in organisms also takes place because of
diffusion.

Procedure :
→ Take a beaker containing water.
→ Drop a tablet of potassium permanganate in it.

Observation:
The water turns pink in colour.

Conclusion:
We conclude that molecules of potassium permanganate diffuse in water because after
sometime the water in the beaker turns pink.

Precautions:
→ Clean water should be taken in the beaker.
→ The potassium permanganate tablet should be introduced carefully in the beaker. It
should not break into pieces.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS

Aim : To show that roots of a plant absorb water.

Materials required:
Two big test tubes, water, oil and a young plant with roots intact.

Theory:
Water is very important for plants. It is the medium for transport of materials since a lot of
materials dissolve in water. Green plants use water for photosynthesis. Water is absorbed
by the plant from the soil with the help of the roots.

Procedure:
→ Two test tubes are taken. These are labelled A and B.
→ They are filled with water.
→ In ‘A’ test tube a young plant is kept. The test tube B is without a plant.
→ The level of water in the two test tubes is noted.
→ A few drops of oil are introduced in both the test tubes to prevent loss of water by
evaporation.
→ The test tubes are left undisturbed for a while.
Observation:
The level of water in the test tube in which the plant was kept fell after sometime.
In the other test tube, it remained the same.

Conclusion:
We conclude that roots of a plant absorb water.

Precautions:
→ A healthy plant should be taken.
→ The level of water should be carefully noted.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS
OSMOSIS
Aim: To demonstrate osmosis in the laboratory.

Material required:
Stand, thistle funnel, water, sugar solution, animal bladder or egg membrane
[semi permeable membrane] and beaker.

Theory:
Osmosis is a phenomenon in which there is a movement of water molecules from a
region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration through
semipermeable membrane.

Procedure:
→ A thistle funnel is taken.
→ An animal bladder is tied at the mouth of the funnel.
→ The thistle funnel is fixed to a stand in an inverted manner.
→ A beaker filled with water is taken and kept at the base of the stand.
→ The thistle funnel is introduced in the beaker.
→ Sugar solution is poured into the stem of the thistle funnel.
→ The level of the solution is marked.
→ The apparatus is left undisturbed for a few hours.

Observation:
The level of the sugar solution rises in the stem of the thistle funnel.

Conclusion:
The water from the beaker moves into the thistle funnel through the animal bladder which
is the semi-permeable membrane.

Precautions:
→ The animal bladder should be intact.
→ The level of the sugar solution in the thistle funnel should be carefully noted.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS

POTATO OSMOSCOPE

Aim: To demonstrate the process of osmosis with the help of a potato osmoscope.

Materials required:
Potato, knife, 20% sugar solution, petri dish, beaker, water and long oil pins.

Theory:
Osmosis is a very important process as :
→ It helps plants to absorb water from the soil.
→ It helps in movement of water from one cell to another in organisms.
→ It helps in many types of plant movements.

Procedure:
→ Take a large, firm potato and peel it.
→ Make one end of the potato flat.
→ Make a hollow cavity in the potato as shown in the figure. The sides and base should
be intact. The cavity has to be made in the end opposite to the flat end.
→ Fill the cavity about ¾ with a sugar solution and mark its level with a oil pin placed
in a slanting manner. This is the Osmoscope.
→ Place the osmoscope in a petri dish which is half filled with water.
→ Leave it undisturbed for about an hour.

Observation:
There is a rise in the level of the sugar solution present in the hollow cavity.
It can be marked with another oil pin.

Result:
Water enters from the petri dish into the cavity across the cell membranes of the potato
cells because of osmosis.

Precautions:
→ The osmoscope should be made carefully. The base should not be damaged.
→ The oil pin should be carefully placed to mark the initial level of the sugar solution.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS
ENDOSMOSIS AND EXOMOSIS

Aim : To study endosmosis in plant cells.

Materials required:
Tradescantia Rhoeo leaves, NaCl solution 0.3% and 10% water, forcaps, needle,
coverslips, beakers, compound microscope, glass slides, dropper, brushes, blotting paper,
watch glasses and physical balance.

Theory:
If the external environment of a cell has higher solute concentration as compared to
the cell sap, then the solution is called hypertonic. Cells placed in such a solution
will show exosmosis as water will move from inside the cell to the outside.
If the external environment of a cell has a lower solute concentration as compared to
the cell sap, then the solution is called hypotonic. Cells placed in such a solution
will show endosmosis as water will move from inside the cell to the outside.
The external environment of a cell is described in terms of its tonicity.

Procedure:
→ Prepare solutions of 0.3% and 10% NaCl by dissolving 0.3g and 10g of NaCl
[weighed in a physical balance] in 100 ml of distilled water respectively in separate
beakers.
→ Take two watch glasses. Put a few drops of 0.3% NaCl in one and label it and put a
few drops of 10% NaCl in the other with a dropper and label it.
→ Remove peels from the leaves of the plants taken and place them in their respective
watch glasses.
→ Wait for about 5 minutes.
→ Keep the peels carefully on glass slides spread with a brush and place coverslips
with the help of a needle.
→ Remove any extra fluid on the slide with a blotting paper.
→ Observe the peels under a compound microscope.

Observations:
→ The slide with 0.3% NaCl shows turgid cells as the solution is hypotonic so water
moves in due to endosmosis.
→ The slide with 10% NaCl shows plasmolysis [shrinkage of protoplasm] as the
solution is hypertonic to water moves out due to exosmosis.

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Precautions :
→ Peels should be transferred carefully from the watch glass to the glass slide.
→ Air bubbles should be avoided.
→ Do not let the peel get folded.
→ There should be no fluid on or around the coverslip. It should be removed with the
help of a blotting paper.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
TRANSPIRATION
Bell Jar Experiment

Aim - To show that plants carry out transpiration with the help of their leaves –
Bell Jar experiment.

Materials required - Bell Jars, healthy green potted plant, a pot with
soil and polythene bag.

Theory -
Transpiration is a process in which loss of water in the form of water vapour from the
aerial parts of the plant body. It is classified as:
→ Stomatal transpiration : The loss of water vapour takes place from the stomata which
are minute pores present on the surface of the leaf. These are surrounded with guard
cells that are turgid, the stomata open and when they are flaccid they close.

→ Cuticular transpiration : In some plants the loss of water vapour takes place from the
cuticle present above the epidermis of the leaf or stem.

→ Lenticular transpiration : Some of the old stems of plants have pores called lenticels.
When water vapour is lost through the lenticels it is called lenticular transpiration.
Transpiration rate is affected by a number of factors like humidity, light, temperature,
wind. CO2 concentration and water in the soil. These are the external factors. Some of the
internal factors are leaf area and structure of the leaf.

Significance of transpiration
→ It influences absorption of water from the soil.
→ The water absorbed by the plant helps in photosynthesis
→ It helps in cooling the plant.
→ It leads to wilting of the plant.
→ Excessive transpiration leads to stunted growth.
Procedure:
→ The potted plant is watered well.
→ The potted plant is kept on a flat surface.
→ The pot and the soil surface is covered with a polythene sheet.
→ The pot without the plant is also kept on a flat surface and covered with polythene.
→ Both the pots are covered with dry bell jars.
→ They are left undisturbed for about half an hour.

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Observations:
Drops of water are seen on the inner surface of the bell jar which was used to cover the
potted plant. There were no water droplets in the other bell jar.

Conclusion:
Water vapour which is lost from the aerial parts of the plant condenses and so water
droplets are seen. There is no other source of water in the set up. No droplets are seen on
the bell jar which was placed over the pot without the plant.

Precautions:
→ The potted plants should not be exposed to bright sunlight.
→ A healthy plant should be chosen for the experiment.
→ The soil surface should be covered properly with a polythene bag.
→ The bell jar should rest properly on the flat surface to ensure that no air enters.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
TRANSPIRATION
Rate of transpiration in a dicot leaf

Aim: To compare the rate of transpiration from the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf
using cobalt chloride paper.

Materials required : Filter paper, cobalt chloride [CoCl2] solution, glass slides, rubber
bands, dessicator and a potted plant.

Procedure:
→ Cut thin strips of filter paper and dip them in CoCl2 solution.
→ Dry the cobalt chloride paper strips thoroughly in a dessicator.
→ The pink coloured strips become blue when dried in a dessicator.
→ Two strips are taken and one is fixed on the lower surface and the other on the upper
surface of a leaf with the help of glass slides and rubber bands.
→ Observe the time taken for the strip of the lower surface and the strip of the upper
surface to change colour from blue to pink.

Observation:
It is observed that the strip fixed on the lower surface of the leaf turns pink earlier as
compared to the strip attached to the upper surface.
Conclusion:
The strip changed colour from blue to pink because of the water vapour released from the
leaf due to transpiration. Since more stomata are present in the lower surface the strip fixed
to the lower surface turned pink quickly.

Precautions:
→ The cobalt chloride strips should be dried completely.
→ The cobalt chloride paper strips should not be handled with wet hands.
→ The strips should be completely covered with glass slides.
→ The strips should be covered with glass slides and the rubber bands should be fixed
properly.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
TRANSPIRATION
GANONG’S POTOMETER

Aim : To measure the water taken in by a plant because of transpiration, with

the help of Ganong’s potometer.

Materials required : Ganong’s potometer, twig of a plant like coleus,

knife, water, beaker and colouring agent [eosin]

Procedure:
→ The twig of a plant is taken.
→ It is cut with a sharp knife and fitted at one end of the capillary tube.
→ The graduated capillary tube is filled with water.
→ One end of the tube is made to dip in a beaker containing coloured water.
→ An air bubble is introduced into the horizontal graduated capillary tube by lifting the
bent capillary tube above the coloured water.
→ As the process of transpiration takes place from the twig the bubble moves forward.
This is because of the suction force which pulls the water from the beaker.
→ Since the capillary tube is graduated the reading would give an idea about the
volume of water lost.
→ The air bubble can again be brought into the capillary tube by releasing some water
from the stop cock.

Observations:
As the process of transpiration takes place from the twig the bubble moves forward. This is
because of the suction force which pulls the coloured water from the beaker. Since the
capillary tube is graduated the reading would give an idea about the volume of water lost.

Conclusion:
Transpiration takes place from the leaves and results in absorption of water by the roots.
This water then moves up to the leaves through the stem.

Precautions:
→ The entire apparatus should be filled with water. There should be no air spaces.
→ The air bubble should be carefully introduced.

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LIMITATION OF A GANONG’S POTOMETER
→ Introducing the air bubble is not very easy.
→ The twig may not remain fully alive for a longer time.
→ Any changes in the outside air temperature may affect the position
of the air bubble in the capillary tube.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Aim - To show the leaves of green plants, prepare starch by the process of
photosynthesis.

Materials required - Healthy green potted plant, alcohol, beaker, burner, Petri dish, tripod
stand, iodine solution and a shallow vessel containing water.

Theory
Photosynthesis is a process in which green plants are able to make their own food in the
presence of sunlight [photo-light; synthesis to make]. The food is prepared with the help of
simple raw materials like carbon dioxide and water. The plants make sugar which on
polymerization forms starch. Carbon dioxide is taken in by the stomata and water is
absorbed from the soil by the roots. Chlorophyll present in the leaves traps sunlight. The
first phase of photosynthesis is dependent on light but the second phase is independent of
light. This mode of nutrition is called autotrophic nutrition. The process is represented in
the form of an equation as:
sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 ↑
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis is a very important process because many animals depends on the food
which is prepared by green plants. Moreover oxygen is released which most organisms
need for respiration.

Procedure :
→ Expose the healthy green potted plant to sunlight
→ Give water to the plant properly
→ After 4 – 5 hours 2 or 3 leaves are plucked.
→ The leaves are boiled in a beaker containing alcohol over a water bath.
→ The leaves start becoming colourless. Heating is then stopped.
→ The leaves are removed from the beaker and washed well with water.
→ The leaves are then dipped in a vessel containing iodine.

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Observation:
The leaves turn blue black when dipped in iodine.

Precautions:
→ The plant selected for the experiment should be a healthy green one.
→ Boiling in alcohol should be done in a water bath because alcohol is highly
inflammable.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Aim - To show that Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials required - A potted plant with variegated leaves like coleus/croton [green in
some parts and non-green in some parts] pencil, notepad, iodine solution, alcohol, petri
dish, beaker, tripod stand, burner and vessel containing water.

Procedure :
→ A healthy plant with variegated leaves is taken and kept in darkness for about 24
hours to destarch it.
→ It is exposed to sunlight.
→ After 4 – 5 hours 2 or 3 leaves are plucked.
→ A drawing of the leaves is made in a notepad to mark the green and non- green parts.
→ The leaves are then boiled in alcohol over a water bath.
→ The leaves become colourless after some time.
→ They are washed with water and dipped in iodine solution.
Observations:
The green parts of the leaves turn blue black in colour.

Conclusion:
The green parts of the leaves have chlorophyll so they carry out photosynthesis. Thus, they
make starch which gives a blue black colour with iodine.

Precautions:
→ The drawing of the leaves should be done carefully.
→ The plant should be well watered.
→ The leaves should be boiled carefully since alcohol is inflammable.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Aim - To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials required
Black strips of paper, glass slides, a healthy green plant, alcohol, water, beaker, water bath,
spirit lamp, tripod stand, rubber bands, petri dish and iodine solution.

Procedure :
→ A healthy green plant is taken.
→ It is destarched by keeping it in darkness for about 24 hours so that the food made
earlier is used by the plant.
→ The next day, one of the leaves is covered in the middle with black strips of paper.
→ The black strips are fixed with glass slides with the help of rubber bands.
→ The plant is exposed to sunlight for a few hours.
Observation:
The portion of the leaf which was covered with the black strips of paper did not turn blue
black when dipped in iodine the rest of the leaf did.

Precautions:
→ The plant should be destarched properly.
→ The leaf should be boiled in alcohol over a water bath because if we boil directly,
the alcohol can catch fire.
→ The black strips of paper should be fixed properly and that portion of the leaf on
which the strips are attached should not be exposed to sunlight at all.
→ After a few hours, the experimental leaf is removed. It is boiled in alcohol in a
beaker over a water bath.
→ When the leaf becomes colourless it is removed and washed with water.
→ The leaf is dipped in iodine.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 12
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Aim - To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials required
Glass bottle, split cork, potassium hydroxide solution, a healthy potted plant with long
green leaves, iodine solution, alcohol, spirit lamp, tripod stand, beaker, water bath
containing water and petri dish.

Procedure :
→ A healthy green plant with long leaves is taken.
→ The plant is kept in darkness for 24 hours.
→ The next day, a bottle containing potassium hydroxide is taken and its mouth is
closed with a cork which is split in the middle.
→ One of the leaves of the plant is introduced through the split cork into the bottle. Only
half the leaf is introduced.
→ The plant and the bottle are exposed to sunlight for a few hours.
→ The leaf which was introduced in the bottle is removed.
→ It is bottled in alcohol in a beaker which is kept in a water bath.
→ The leaf becomes colourless.
→ The colourless leaf is washed in water and dipped in iodine.
Observation:
The portion of the leaf which is inside the bottle does not give a blue black colour with
iodine but the portion of the leaf which is outside gives a blue black colour with iodine.

Conclusion:
The portion of the leaf which was inside the bottle in which there was potassium
hydroxide did not get carbon dioxide due to the absorption of CO 2 by KOH, so it could
not make food.

Precautions:
→ The plant should be properly destarched.
→ The split cork should be fit tightly in the mouth of the bottle so that the
apparatus is airtight.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 13

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Aim - To show that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.

Materials required - Beaker, glass funnel, Hydrilla, plant twigs, water, splinter, matchbox,
test tube and sodium bicarbonate.

Procedure :
→ Hydrilla plant twigs are taken in a glass funnel.
→ The funnel is invented in a beaker containing water.
→ A test tube filled with water is inverted over the stem of the funnel
→ A pinch of sodium bicarbonate is added in the water contained in the beaker, so that
carbon dioxide is produced.
→ The apparatus is kept in sunlight for a few hours.

Observation:
Bubbles are seen rising from the stem of the funnel. After some time the test tube loses all its
water and becomes empty. A glowing splinter is introduced in the test tube, it bursts into
flame.

Conclusion:
The gas evolved in the test tube is oxygen as its support combustion.

Precautions:
→ Hydrilla plant twigs should be completely submerged in water.
→ The empty test tube should be carefully removed by placing the thumb at the mouth of
the test tube.
→ Sodium bicarbonate should be added to the water so that the plant gets carbon
dioxide which is needed for photosynthesis.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 14

CELL DIVISION – MITOSIS IN PLANTS

Aim - To study the various stages of mitosis in plant cells from permanent slides.

Materials required - Permanent slides of various stages of mitosis and

compound microscope.

Procedure :
Permanent slides are fixed under the low power of the microscope first and thus the high
power of the compound microscope and the cells are carefully observed to identify the
stages of mitosis.

Observation:
Following are the stages and changes of Mitosis observed in a plant cell in the permanent
slides.

1) Interphase:
It is a stage of preparation in which the cells prepare themselves to divide. The
nucleus becomes slightly bigger in size. The chromatin fibres and nucleolus are
distinct. Synthesis of new material takes place in the cell.

2) Prophase:
→ The chromatin starts changing into thread like chromosomes [Early prophase]
→ Each chromosome then divides into two chromatids which are joined by a
rounded body called centromere.
→ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear [Late prophase]

3) Metaphase:
→ The chromosomes become short and thick and very distinct.
→ The nuclear membrane disappears completely.
→ Spindle is found with the help of spindle fibres.
→ The chromosomes are arranged in the centre of the spindle.
This region is called the equatorial plate or metaphase plate.

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4) Anaphase
→ Each centromere divides into two
→ Each chromatid is drawn a part and starts moving towards the pole. [Early
Anaphase.
→ The spindle fibres contract and are at the end of Anaphase. An equal number
of chromosomes is present at each of the pole [late Anaphase]

5) Telephase
→ At each pole chromosomes change into chromatin networks.
→ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
→ Two daughter nuclei identical to the present nucleus are formed.

6) Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm takes place by a cell plate which extends from the
slides and two daughter cells are formed.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 15

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART

AIM : To study the internal structure of the human heart with the help of a
chart/model.

MATERIALS REQUIRED : A model/chart of the human heart.

THEORY :
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood and the blood vessels.
Blood is the transporting fluid which transports a lot of materials like food, gases,
wastes and hormones. Blood flows through the blood vessels hence it is called a
closed circulatory system. Heart is a muscular organ which pumps blood.
It is present in the chest cavity in between the lungs.

PROCEDURE:
→ Observe the model given by your teacher carefully and note down its features.
→ Draw it in the practical notebook and write the comments.
→ The chart given by your teacher should also be observed carefully and correct
labelling of the sketch showing the structure should be done.

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 STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART

→ The human heart is a muscular organ protected by a membrane called the

pericardium. It is a double walled membrane which has pericardial fluid.
→ It has four chambers. The upper two chambers are called atria or auricles and the two
lower chambers which are larger are called ventricles. They have muscular walls.
The walls of the ventricles are thicker than the auricles.
→ There is a septum present between the atria and the ventricles which separates them.
It is called atrio-ventricular septum.
→ The auricle and ventricle of the same side are connected and the openings are
guarded by valves. The valve between the right auricle and the right ventricle is
called the tricuspid valve and the valve between the left auricle and left ventricle is
called bicuspid valve.
→ Various blood vessels bring blood towards the heart and also carry blood away from
the heart.
→ There is a band of muscles in the corner of the right auricle called the
sino-atrial node [SAN] near the opening of the vena cava.
→ There is a band of muscular tissue present in the lower side of the right
atrium called as the atrio- ventricular node [AVN]
→ There is a bundle of fibres which is present in the atrio-ventricular septum
called the bundle of HIS. This divides into branches which spread over the
ventricles. These are called Purkinje fibres.

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FUNCTION OF THE HUMAN HEART
The human heart beats 72 times per minute. The heartbeats correspond to the contraction and
relaxation of the auricles and the ventricles. The blood circulates within the heart because of
this and the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the chambers is also responsible for
pumping of the blood from the heart to various parts of the body. The heartbeat is initiated at
the SA node. There is a complete separation of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from
various parts of the body and it is poured into the right auricle. From the right auricle the
blood goes into the right ventricle. The blood from the right ventricle goes to the lungs for
oxygenation with the help of the pulmonary arteries. The oxygenated blood is brought to the
left auricle with the help of pulmonary veins. From the left auricle it goes to the left ventricle
and then into the dorsal aorta which distributes the oxygenated blood throughout the body.
The aorta and pulmonary arteries are provided with valves. The valves in the heart prevent the
backflow of blood. This system of circulation in the human heart is called double circulation.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 16
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Aim - To study the structure of the human urinary system with the help of a
chart/model.

Materials required - A model/chart of the human urinary system.

Procedure: The urinary system is very vital for the body. It helps in getting rid of waste
materials in the body. Nitrogenous waste is produced all over the body. The blood carries
this waste to the kidneys which act like filters. They remove the waste from the blood and
the blood then goes back into circulation. If the waste is not removed it is very toxic for the
body.

Procedure :
Structure of the Human Urinary System:
The urinary system consists of the following parts:
1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra

KIDNEYS
1. Kidneys are reddish brown coloured, bean shaped structures present on either side
of the vertebral column, in the abdominal cavity.
2. Each kidney weighs about 120 – 170g and measures about 10 – 13 cm in length.
3. It has an outer convex surface and inner concave surface.
Towards the middle of the concave surface there is depression called hilum
from which ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter into the kidney.
4. The kidney is enclosed in a tough layer called a capsule.
5. The kidney internally shows the presence of an outer cortex and an inner
medulla.
6. Each kidney has millions of microscopic tubular structures called nephrons.

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URETERS:
These are a pair of ducts each of which arise from a kidney and ends in the urinary
bladder.

URINARY BLADDER:
This is a muscular bag-like structure in which the urine collects and it gets stretched. The
urine is thrown out of the body from time to time.

URETHRA:
The Urinary bladder leads into the urethra which is a narrow tube. At the end of the
urethra an opening is present through which the urine is expelled out.

Functioning of the Human urinary system:

Each kidney has millions of nephrons which are tubular structures and act like filters. The
arterial blood laden with nitrogenous waste reaches the kidneys. The blood is filtered in
the nephron, and the useful materials are reabsorbed. The waste is retained in the kidneys
to be passed to the ureters and then the urinary bladder. The blood without the waste then
goes back into circulation.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 17

NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN

MATERIALS REQUIRED : A model/chart of the human brain.

THEORY :
The nervous system is a very important system of the body which brings about control and
coordination. It is made up of nerve cells or neurons. It consists of the central nervous
system [CNS] and peripheral nervous system [PNS]. The central nervous system consists
of the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves arising
from the brain and the spinal cord. This system also consists of the sense organs that help
us to react to the changes in the environment. The human brain has a number of different
parts which carry out major functions of the body.

PROCEDURE
→ Observe the model given by your teacher carefully and note down its features.
→ Draw it in the practical notebook and write down the comments.

→ The chart given by your teacher should also be observed carefully and correct
labelling of the sketch showing the structure should be done.

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BRAIN

→ The brain is protected by the cranium or brain box and the meninges. The meninges
are three layers – dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater. The brain has three main
parts – cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
→ The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain. It is divided into the right and left
hemispheres called cerebral hemispheres.
→ The outer surface of the hemisphere is convoluted.
→ The outer portion of the cerebrum contains cell bodies of neurons and since
they are greyish, it is called the grey matter.
→ The inner portion of the cerebrum consists of white matter which mainly
contains the axons.

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 The brain is divided into three regions:
a) Forebrain (b) Midbrain (c) Hindbrain.

The forebrain consists of cerebrum [which has been described], thalamus and
hypothalamus [at the base of the thalamus]. The thalamus coordinates sensory and motor
signals and the hypothalamus controls body temperature and secretes hormones.

The midbrain is present between the thalamus/hypothalamus and the pons. It contains
centres which regulate the movement of the eyes.

The hindbrain consists of pons, cerebellum and medulla. The medulla and the cerebellum
have been described in the structure of the brain. The pons consists of fibres that
interconnect different regions of the brain. It connects the cerebellum and medulla with the
cerebrum through the midbrain.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 18
STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EYE

Aim - To study the structure of the human eye with the help of a

model/chart and identify the various parts.

Materials required - A model/chart of the human eye.

Theory - The eye is an important organ of the human body. It helps us in seeing things
around us. We have two eyes lodged in sockets called orbits, but both the eyes help in
seeing a single object. This type of vision is called Binocular vision. The eyes also help
in distinguishing various colours.

Procedure :
→ The model provided by the teacher is observed from all sides.
→ It is divided into parts. Each part is observed carefully and identified.
→ The correct diagram of the eye is drawn properly and proper labelling is also
done with the help of the chart.
→ The eyes, two in number, are lodged in sockets or orbits in the front side of
the head. They are protected by upper and lower eyelids.
→ Each eye is in the form of a ball – like structure.
→ It consists of three layers, the external covering called sclera which is tough,
choroid layer, rich in blood vessels and covered with a black pigment to
prevent reflection of light and the innermost layer called retina which has the
photoreceptor cells, rods and cones and nerve cells connected to the optic
nerve.

→ A transparent, elastic and biconvex lens helps in focussing light on the retina.
→ The lens shows the presence of an aqueous chamber towards the front filled
with aqueous humour and vitreous humour.
→ The transparent part of the sclera is called cornea.
→ The lens is held in position with the help of suspensory ligaments joined to
the ciliary body.
→ Optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres which carry impulses from the retina
to the brain.
→ Blind spot is the spot where the optic nerve leaves and there are no rods and
cones so this part is not sensitive to light. Fovea or yellow spot is the most
sensitive part of the retina.

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 → Iris is a muscular diaphragm containing a pigment and gives colour to the eye.
It controls the amount of light entering the eye. The pupil is a hole in the iris
which allows this to happen.
→ Conjunctiva is the transparent protective covering of the eye.

WORKING OF THE EYE

Reflected light rays from the object enter the eye through the cornea and are converged
by the lens. An inverted image is formed on the retina. The light energy produces
chemical changes in the rods and cones which generate nerve impulses which are
transmitted to the cerebrum through the optic nerve and an upright image is formed on
the retina.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 19

STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EAR

Aim - To study the structure of the human ear with the help of a model/chart

and identify the various parts.

Materials required - A model/chart of the human ear.

Theory - The human ears are important sense organs. They help in distinguishing
various sounds and also help in maintaining balance. The external ear that
is the pinna is present outside but the main organ of hearing is present deep
within the skull.

Procedure :
→ The model provided by the teacher is observed from all sides.
→ It is divided into parts. Each part is observed carefully and identified.
→ The correct diagram of the ear is drawn properly and proper labelling is also done
with the help of the chart given by the teacher.

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EAR

→ The human ear consists of three main parts :
(i) External ear (ii) Middle ear and (iii) Internal ear

→ The external ear consists of the pinna made of cartilage and an auditory canal
leading to the eardrum or tympanic membrane.

→ The middle ear contains the three ear bones or ossicles called malleus, incus and
stapes.
Malleus is hammer shaped, incus is shaped like an anvil and stapes are stirrup-
shaped. A Eustachian tube connects the cavity of the middle ear with the throat.
The stirrup fits on the oval window, a membrane covered opening leads to the
inner ear.

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 → The inner ear has a membranous labyrinth which has two parts – cochlea and
semicircular canals. The membranous labyrinth is present in a bony labyrinth. A
fluid called perilymph is present around the membranous labyrinth and
endolymph is present inside it. The cochlea has three parallel canals separated by
membranes.
→ The middle canal has the organ of corti which is the main organ of hearing.
→The semicircular canals present at right angles to each other help in balancing. One
end of each canal forms an ampulla. The bases of the canals are joined to the
cochlea with the help of two parts called utriculus and sacculus.

WORKING OF THE EAR

The pinna collects the sound waves, directs them to the tympanum which vibrates. The
ear ossicles also vibrate. The Eustachian tube equalise air pressure on either side of the
eardrum allowing it to vibrate. The stirrup which is the ear bone in contact with the
cochlea into vibration. The sensory cells present there are stimulated and impulses are
transmitted to the brain with the help of the auditory nerve. The ear also helps in
balancing with the help of the semicircular canals.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 20

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

AIM : To identify and locate the following endocrine glands with the help of a
model/chart – Adrenal, Pancreas, Thyroid and Pituitary.

MATERIALS REQUIRED : A chart or model showing the human endocrine system.

THEORY :
Endocrine system is a system which consists of endocrine glands. These glands are
ductless glands. They pour their secretions directly into the bloodstream. Secretions of
these glands are called hormones. Hormones are needed by the body in very small
amounts. An excess or an under- secretion of hormones if released in the body is
harmful and results in many diseases.

PROCEDURE
The model provided by the teacher is studied carefully. The endocrine glands are
removed from the model. Their shape is studied. Location of the glands with respect to
other organs is observed carefully and a correct diagram showing the location of the
glands is drawn. Correct labelling is done with the help of the chart.

Location and Identification of the following ENDOCRINE GLANDS

1. PITUITARY
It is a small projection [about the size of a pea] which hangs from the base of the
midbrain. It is popularly called the master endocrine gland because it controls the
secretion of the other endocrine glands in the body.

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2. ADRENAL
These are present just above the kidneys. Each adrenal consists of two parts –
cortex and medulla. The cortex releases hormones when it is stimulated by
hormones which are given out by the pituitary and medulla gives out hormones
which help in fighting stress.
3. PANCREAS
It is present just below the stomach. It is an irregular shaped elongated gland which
gives hormones that regulate the level of sugar in the blood.

4. THYROID
It is a bilobed butterfly-like gland which is present in front of the neck region just
below the larynx. It gives hormones that regulate growth and metabolism in the
body.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

1. PITUITARY
It is divided into anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. The anterior
pituitary secretes the following hormones:
→ Growth hormone - Regulates growth
→ Prolactin - Regulates growth of the mammary glands and production
of milk.
→ Thyroid stimulating hormone - Stimulates the
thyroid to produce thyroxine.
→ Adrenocorticotropic hormone - Stimulates the cortex part of the
adrenal to produce its own hormones.
→ Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone- Stimulate the
reproductive organs in males and females to produce their respective gametes
and hormones.
→ Melanocyte stimulating hormone
Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin responsible for skin pigmentation.

The posterior pituitary secretes the following hormones:

→ Oxytocin - Responsible for contraction of uterine muscles, aids in childbirth,
also helps in the expulsion of the milk from the mammary glands.

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2. THYROID
It has two lobes which are interconnected with a band of tissue called isthmus. The
thyroid produces a hormone called thyroxine which is responsible for growth. It
affects the rate of metabolism.

3. ADRENAL
It is a triangular shaped gland present above the kidney. In our body a pair of
adrenals are present. The adrenal consists of an outer cortex and the inner
medulla. The cortex secretes hormones called corticoids. Glucocorticoids regulate
carbohydrate metabolism, mineralocorticoids regulate absorption of mineral ions
like sodium and sex corticoids help in appearance of secondary sexual characters
at the time of puberty.
Adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline. These are called the
emergency hormones and help in releasing stress.

4. PANCREAS
It is present just below the stomach. There are two hormones released by special
cells of the pancreas. One is insulin which helps in keeping the sugar level of
blood in check by helping the cells in utilizing glucose. The other hormone is
glucagon which helps in raising the blood glucose level.

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