Sreedhar’s CCE BIOLOGY

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISAMS

Diversity in Living World
All things are identified and categorised on the basis of their body forms and
functions. Some characteristics are likely to make more wind-ranging changes in

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body than others.
The scientific study of various aspects that attempts to recognise, describe, named
and arrange the diverse organisms according to an organised plan based on the
unique features of species and groups is known as Systematis (GK. Systems-order
or sequence)
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It involves the following four parts
i) Identification i.e., finding the correct name and position of an organism according
to the established plan of classification.

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ii) Classification : i.e. the arrangement of different organisms into different
groups
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iii) Nomenclature i.e., a system used for naming the organisms.
iv) Taxonomy which involves framing of rules for classification
In modern science world, taxonomists consider identification, classification and
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nomenclature as the basic steps towards taxonomy.

Hierarchy of Classification
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The hierarchial system or a series of classification was introduced by Linnaeus but
his series lacks two categories i.e., phyla and families. Some biologists like Ernst
Haeckel (1894), Robert Whittaker (1958) and Carl woese (1977) also worked to
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distribute all living entities into broad categories called kingdoms.

The major categories of hierarchy are given below.
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The basis of this hierarchy categorisaton is too separate organisms on the basis of
characteristics i.e., from larger or higher to smaller and smaller and groups to
reach the basic unit of classification, i.e, species.
Binomial System of Nomenclature
Carolus Linnaeus had devised a system of scientific or technical naming of plants
and then animals.

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This technical naming system is named as the binomial nomenclature. In this

system, every animal and plant has given a named consisting of two words out of
which, first word indicates the genus to which organisms belongs hence called
hence generic name or generic epithet and the second word indicates the species
of the organism specific name or specific epithet.
Some Important Common Names and their Scientific Names
Common Name Scientific Name
Man Homo Sapiens
Leopard Panther pardus
Tiger Panther tigirs
Lion Panther leo

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Pea Pisum sativum
Cat Felis domestica
Frog Rana tigrina
Rice Oryza sativa
Mustard Brassica campestris
Gram
Wheat
ha Cicer arietinum
Triticum aestivum
Cow Bos indica
Mango Mangifera indica

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 Categories of Classification
Two kingdom system was given by Linnaeus, i.e., Animals and Plants.
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Three kingdom system was given by Haeckel, i.e., Animals, Plants and Protista.
Four kingdom system was given by Copeland, i.e., Animals, plants, Protista,
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Five kingdom system was given by RH Whittaker i.e., Moneral, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, Animal.
 Kingdom - Monera
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Kingdom-Monera was firstly proposed by Ernst in 1866. It includes the small, simple,
microscopic organisms that are found everywhere as plentiful prokaryote (such as
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Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, etc) These prokaryotes are mostly unicellular organism,

which do not have a true (well defined) nucleus and organelles.
Eubacteria (Prokaryote) are also called as true bacteria because they lack nucleus.
It includes bacteria, cyanobacteria of blue-green algae and mycoplasma,
actinomycetes, rickettsia, etc.
 Bacteria
Bacteria was discovered by Antony Van Leeuwenhoek in 1683 and named by
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Ehrenberg in 1829. These are basically of unicellular form. These are ubiquitous
and found in all places where organic matter is present, i.e., in water, soil, over and
inside the organisms, etc. They usually vary in shape and size.
 Shapes of Bacteria These are of seven types, i.e., coccus (spherical or oval), bacillus
(like cylinder or rod), spirillum (spirally coiled), vibrio (curved like a comma), stalked
(with a stalk), budding (swollen at some places) and mycelial (filamentous).
 General Characteristics of Bacteria
(i) They have thick cell wall (made up of chitin) and an inner cell membrane (made
up proteins and phospholipids.
(ii) Most bacteria are autotrophic (i.e., can either be photosynthetic) and some of
them are heterotrophic.
(iii) Bacteria may be saprophytic (derive food from dead plants and animals, e.g.,
Pseudomonas), symbiotic (derive food by living in the body of living beings or hosts,
e.g., Rhizobium), or parasitic (derive food directly from tissues of living plants or

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animal” These are responsible for causing various diseases.

(iv) They reproduce asexually by binary fission.
(v) Sexual reproduction is absent in them but it may occur parasexually by conjugation
(two cells fuse and transfer genetic material) and transformation (manipulation of
genetic profile by picking up foreign DNA from any external medium).
(vi) Some bacteria that live in liquids have long, thread-like structures called flagella
for rythmic movement.
(vii) They perform respiratory activities by mesosomes.
(viii) Some bacteria produce methane (from formic acid) and C0 2 and known as
methanogenic bacteria, e.g., Methanococcus.

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(ix) Some bacteria have the ability to live in salt rich media and impart brownish
colouration to salt, known as halophilic, e.g., Halococcus.
(x) All spore producing bacteria are gram positive and become purple on colouration.
The cellular walls of such bacteria are composed of murine.
Kingdom - Protista
The kingdom-Protista was created by Haeckel (1886). These were the first eukaryote
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to evolve about 1000 million years back. This kingdom mostly includes auatic
unicellular eukaryotic cells.
General Characteristics of Protista

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i) Cell structure surrounded by plasmalemma as cell membrane.
ii) Cell wall is composed of cellulose, protein strips (pellicle) and silica.
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iii) Cell organelles like mitochondria, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus,
chromosome, etc are present in the fully developed forms.
iv) Ribosome i.e., 80 S are present.
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v) Chloroplast Photosynthetic forms of Protista like dinoflagellates, contain

chloroplasts with internal thylakoids.
vi) Reproduction can be both sexual and asexual.
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vii) Locomotary organs are cilia and whip-like flagella which occur in a number of
forms. They have typical 9 + 2 fibrils.
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viii) Locomotion found mostly pseudopodial [e.g., Amoeba), flagellar and ciliary. Modes
of nutrition can be autotrophic, heterotrophic or both.
• Cellulose digesting protists occur in termite and wood eating animals.
• Photosythetic protists like Gonyaulax cause red tide.
• Diatoms like Naviculal glides toward light.
• Protozoan protists like Amoeba, Plasmodium and Trypanosoma cause diarrhoea, malaria
and African sleeping-sickness, respectively.
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Kingdom-Fungi
These are the most primitive members and show a great diversity in morphologv
habitat.
Fungi are usually defined as a group of eukaryotic organisms. These are among
thallophytes or plants with a thallus, i.e., are simple plants (not differentiated into
roots, stems and leaves). They may possess a single cell (unicellular) or multiple
(multicellular). Structurally, they have definite cell wall and true nucleus but
chlorophyll.
Types of Fungi
Fungi are mostly heterotrophic in nature.
On the basis of nourishment they classified into three main types on
1. Saprophytic Fungi
2. Parasitic Fungi
3. Symbiotic Fungi

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General Characteristic of Fungi

i) Structure Body is made up of a number of elongated, tubular filaments known
as hyphae. The body of a fungus having hyphae is known as mycellium.
ii) Cell wall Made up of tough complex sugar, called chitin or fungal cellulose.
iii) Food reserve In the form of glycogen and oil.
iv) Reproduction can be sexual, asexual and vegetative.
(a) Sexual It includes the formation and union of two gametes or their nuclei.
(b) Asexual Through the formation of spores, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus, etc.
(c) Vegetative By fragmentation, budding, fission, etc.
v) These are also spore-forming, e.g., yeast, mushrooms, Aspergillus, Penicllium,
Rhizopus and Agaricus.

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Kingdom-Plantae
Kingdom-Plantae includes green, brown and red algae, liverworts, mosses, ferns
and seed plants with or without flowers. These are multicellular eukaryotes and
generally have chlorophyll in the photosynthetic regions.
Classification of Plantae
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Kingdom-Plantae has been further described under Thallophyta, Bryophyta arnd
Tracheophyta.

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1. Thallophyta
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The plants belonging to this category are commonly known as algae. The term
algae was first given by Linnaeus in 1755.
These are chlorophyll bearing, photosynthetic, autotrophic, thalloid plants and whose
body is not differentiated into true roots, stems and leaves. Algae are commonly
found in both fresh-water and marine habitats, wet rocks and soil, tree trunks, etc.
The basic and forms of algae are highly Variable, i.e., from filament (e.g., Spirogyra)
to colonial (e.g., Volvox).
Algae has smallest chromosomes of all known organisms.
 Types of Algae
Algae are further divided into three main classes on the basis of their pigments,
stored food and flagellation. These are
1. Green Algae
2. Brown Algae
3. Red Algae
• Algae growing on ice are called cryptophytes while those appearing on the rocks are
called lithophytes.

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 Reproduction in Algae
There are three modes of reproduction that occur in algae.
(a) Vegetative It includes fragmentation, budding, harmogonia, etc.
e.g., Spirogyra, Sphacelaria, etc.
b) Asexual Through zoospores, akinetes, aplanospores, autospores, monospores,
bispores, polyspores, endospores and hypnospores. e.g., Ulorhrix, Vaucheria, etc.
c) Sexual There are three different types of sexual reproduction. These are isogamy,
anisogamy and oogamy, e.g., Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, etc.
 2. Bryophyta
These are the simplest and first among terrestrial plants occupying an intermediate
position between thallophyta and pteridophyta. These are non-vascular autotrophic,

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non-flowering and non-seeded plants. These are also known as amphibians of
plant kingdom because they possess certain features, which enable them to live on
both land and water habitats, e.g., Anthoceros, Polytrichum, Funaria, Marchantia, etc.
 General Characteristics of Bryophyta
i) Bryophytes get differentiated to form stem and leaf-like structures. Plant body is
thallus-like, attached to substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
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ii) The main plant body is haploid. It produces gametes hence is called a gametophyte.
iii) In bryophytes, vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are for the conduction of
water and other substances.

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iv) The plants are monoecius (as they bear male and female sex organs on some
plant).
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v) Bryophytes contains chlorophyll pigments and can make their own food hence
are autotrophs. In bryophytes, reserve food material is starch.
vi) Cell wall is made up of cellulose which is surrounded by a pectic layer containing
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galacturonic acid.
vii) The male sex organ is called antheridium (pl-antheridia). While, the female sex
organ is called archegonium (pl-archegonia). Sex organs are covered by a sterile
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jacket.
viii) In bryophytes, only oogamous type of sexual reproduction is present. They may
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also reproduce vegetatively.

 3. Tracheophyta
The plants having well organised vascular system for the conduction of food and
minerals are kept under this sub-kingdom. The tissues which help in the conduction
are xylem and phloem. There are about 2.75 lakhs species which come under this
rub-kingdom. These are further divided into pteridophyta, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
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(i) Pteridophyta
Plants under this sub-group are seedless vascular plants that reproduce by means
of spores. These are also known as cryptogams. The term pteridophyta was coined
by Haeckel 1866. There are about 13000 species of pteriodophytes that have been
recorded. e.g., Selaginella, Salvinia, Marsilea, etc are found in moist and moderate
temperature.
 Characteristics of Pteridophyta
(a) Pteridophytes are mainly found in cool, damp shady place while some may also
be found in sandy soil conditions.
(b) Their size varies from a fraction of centimeter (e.g., Azolla) to 20 m (in free ferns)
(c) Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
(d) Vascular tissues are found for the conduction of water and other substances
from one part to another and they consist of xylem and phloem.
(e) The main plant body is known as sporophyte. The spores of these plants are
produced in sporangia.

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(f) Sporangia containing leaves called sporophylls are present. Meiospores are formed
inside the sporangia.
(g) Male sex organ is called as antheridium and the female sex organ is called as
archegonium.
(h) Pteridophytes show alternation of generation.
(ii) Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms (Gk. gymno means naked and sperma means seed) are the plants
with naked seeds, in which there is complete lack of ovary, i.e., ovules are not
enclosed by an ovary wall. These are small group of plant with only 900 living
species. These plants are generally found in the colder parts of northern hemisphere.
A number of gymnosperms are known as ornamental plants.

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 General Characteristics of Gymnosperms
(a) Plant body is sporophytic which is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves.
(b) Root system is well-developed with tap roots.
(c) Roots of some gymnosperm have symbiotic relations with fungi known as
mycorrhiza, e.g., Pinus.
(d) Stems are branched (e.g., Pinus) or unbranched (e.g., Cycas).
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(e) All gymnosperms are perennial and woody, forming either bushes or trees.
(f) Wood is monoxylic, (e.g., Cycas) or pycnoxylic (e.g., Pinus).
(g) Pollination in gymnosperm is anemophillous, i.e., it takes place by wind.

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(h) Gymnosperms show the tendency of polyembryony.
(i) Plant possesses vascular tissues (xylem and phloem), these are arranged in
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vascular bundles.
(j) Flowers are not found. Two types of sporophylls, microsporophylls and
megasporophylls are usually aggregated to form distinct cones or strobili, poller
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cones (male cones) and seed cones (female cones) respectively.

 iii) Angiosperms
Angiosperms (Gk. angio means covered and sperma ‘means seed) are seed bearing
plants which seeds are enclosed by ovary (fruits). Sporophylls, pollen grains and
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ovules are nised into flowers. There are about 2,50,000 species of angiosperms in
the nature. They evolved about 130-160 millions years ago. These are found in wide
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range of habitats, i.e., from land to upto 6000 m in Himalayas or Antartica and
Tundra.
They have cotyledons (seed leaves) which are the structures present in the plant
embryos of the seed. They appear green when seed germinates.
 General Characteristics of Angiosperms
a) Leaves found are simple or compound.
b) The male sex organ in a flower is stamen while the female sex organ is pistil or
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carpel which encloses the ovule.
c) Double fertilisation takes place and triploid (3n) endosperm develops from the
zygote.
d) Vascular tissues are present.
e) These are saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic while, some of them are autotrophic
in nature.
 Classification of Angiosperms
Angiosperms can be classified into two categories on the basis of cotyledons
a) Monocotyledons (Monocots) These are embryo with single cotyledon.
General features of monocotyledonous seeds are
* Stomata are dumbbell-shaped.
* Roots are not developed, secondary growth absent.
* Floral parts in sets of three or its multiples.
* A cambium is absent.
* Vascular bundles are scattered and closed.
e.g., grasses, bamboo, sugarcane, cereals, bananas, pals, lilies, orchids, onion, etc.

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(b) Dicotyledons (Dicots) These are embryo with two cotyledons

General features of dicotyledons seeds are
* Stomata are kidney shaped.
* Roots develop from radicle.
* Secondary growth often present.
* Floral parts in multiples of four or five.
* Vascular bundles of the stem possess cambium.
* Vascular bundles are open and present in ring.
e.g., hardwood tree species, pulses and most fruits, vegetables, spices, etc.
 Classification of Animalia
Modern animal-kingdom has been divided into two main sub-kingdoms

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i) Sub-kingdom Protozoa
ii) Sub-kingdom Metazoa
 Sub-kingdom Protozoa
Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms, many of which
are rotile. As known today, protozoans are usually single celled and hetrotrophic
eukaroytes containing non-filamentous structures. Protozoans are the most primitive

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and the amplest animals found on the earth’s surface.
General Characteristics of Sub-kingdom Protozoa
* These are extremely small ranging in length between 10-52 micrometers but can

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also grow as large as 1 mm.
* They were formely considered to be the part of the family protista.
* They move around with the help of whip-like tails called flagella (5-10  m long),
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hair like structure called cilia (20-30  m long) or foot-like structures called
pseudopodia (2-20  m thick).
* All protozoans digest their food in stomach like compartments called vacoules.
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* These are mainly saprophytic, parasitic, symboitic or holozoic in nutritional

activities.
* They show respiratory and excretory activities by the exterior pathway, which are
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diffused in the respective bodies.
* Reproduction occurs both by asexual and sexual means.
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e.g., Amoeba, E.coli, Leishmania donovani, Plasmodium, Euglena, etc.

 Phylum-Porifera (Sponges)
This phylum was studied by RE Grant in 1825 who called the group of these animals
to be poriferans or porous animals as porifera means organisms with holes. This
phylum zontains the most primitive multicellular animals, called sponges, usually
referred to as pore bearers. These holes or pores lead to form a canal system that
is used as a circulating or passage system for water movement to supply food and
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oxygen throughout the body.
 General Characteristics of Porifera
* These animals have hard skeletal covering outside the body.
* They are either spherical or does not have any definite shape.
* No distinct tissues or organs are found.
* Mostly marine, few fresh water, all aquatic, solitary or colonial, sessile.
* Cells are loosely arranged and do not form definite layers, hence not regarded as
true diploblastic.
* Body is with many pores (ostia), canals and chambers that serve the flow of water
and their exhalent pore is called osculum.
*Body from is sac-like, cylindrical, tubular, cushion-shaped, muti-branched, etc,
symmetry or no symmetry.
Digestion is intracellular, i.e. within the individual cells.
All sponges are hermaphrodite but cross-fertilisation takes place.
In sponges, both asexual land sexual reproduction can occur.
In sponges, both asexual and sexual reproductin can occur.

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e.g., Sycon(scypha), Spongilla (fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (bath sponge)
 Phylum-Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
Cnidaria is the modern name of the phylum coelenterata. There are about 9000
specie cniderians. The name cnidaria has been derived from the stinging cell or
cnidob present on the body of these organisms. This phylum is known to include
lower invertebrates having radial symmetry.
 General Characteristics of Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
* All cnidarians are aquatic, mostly marine while some are fresh water also (Hydra
* Symmetry is radial or biradial.
* Body organisation is of cell-tissue grade.
* Body wall is diploblastic with two cellular layers; outer epidermis and inner
gastrodermis.

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* These are generally polymorphic having a variety of forms called zooids. These of
two types-polyp and medusa.
* Polyp is involved in asexual reproduction whereas medusa performs sexual
reproduction.
* Exoskeleton is chitinous (perisare) or calcareous (corals).
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e.g., Physalia (Portugese man of war), Adarnsia, Pennatula, Gorgonia and Meandeina
-Hydra, Jellyfish (Aurelia).
 Phylum-Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
This group includes more complexly designed animals which are primitive, bilatera.

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symmetrical, acoelomate and worm-like animals, commonly known as flatworms.
The are the first simplest triploblastic animals, i.e., have three layers of cells that
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form differentiated tissues. This allows the foundation of body linings as well as
some organs
 General Characteristics of Platyhelminthes /
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* It includes animals like insects (which are parasitic in nature).

* These are free living, commensal or parasitic forms.
* Have leaf like or ribbon like body.
* Have tissue organ grade of organisation.
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* Adhesive structures like hooks, spines and suckers and adhesive secretions are
common in parasitic forms.
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* The body is flattened, dorsoventral (from top to bottom) and hence called flatworms.
* Digestive system is branched and incomplete without anus. They have flame cells
for excretion.
* They have only one opening, i.e., mouth (anus is absent).
* Mostly monoecious (hermaphrodite) with complete reproductive system.
Fertilisation is internal, may be cross or self.
* No true body cavity or coelom is present. e.g., Taenia (tapeworm), Fasciola (liver
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fluke).
 Phylum-Aschelminthes/Nematoda (Round/Ringworms)
This is categorised as a distinct phylum. It includes roundworm and ringworms.
 General Characteristics of Aschelminthes
* These are mostly aquatic, free-living or parasitic.
* Body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
* Body cavity (pseudocoelom) is not lined by mesoderm hence, they possess a false
coelom.
* Digestive canal is complete with mouth, specialised pharynx, straight, non-
muscular intestine and posterior anus.
* No circulatory and respiratory system are found. Nervous system of cerebral ganglia
or of circumcentric ring is present.
* They are usually parastic worms and cause diseases like elephantiasis (filarial
worms). e.g., Ascaris (round worm), Wuchereria (filiaria worm), etc.
 Phylum-Annelida
Animals belonging to this phylum have elongated body divided, bilaterally

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symmetrical, trriploblastic, truely coelomate and metamerically segmented into
similar metameres and generally found in variety of habitats like fresh water,
marine water as well as on land.
 General Characteristics of Annelida
* They are mostly aquatic and some are terrestrial.
* Some organisms are commensal and parasitic in nature.
* Body is differentiated into segmental manner with the segments lined up one
after the other from head to tail and are termed as true worms.
* They are diploblastic.
* They have true coelom.
* They have well developed digestive system.
* They have kidney as excretory organ (for the excretion of waste products).

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* Locomotory organs are segmentally repeated, chitinous bristles called setae
chaetae are embedded in skin.
* Blood vascular system is closed. They have haemoglobin in RBCs.
* Respiration occurs by moist skin or gills of parapodia and head.
e.g., Nereis, sea mouse (Aphrodita aculeata) earthworm (Pheretirna), leec: (Hirudinea-

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blood sucker), etc.
Phylum-Arthropoda
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These animals have body bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and metamerica
segmented. Phylum-Arthropoda is known to be the largest phylum of the an. kingdom.

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* Organ system level of body organisation.
* Appendages are jointed, usually one pair of a somite and with varied functions as
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jaws, gills, legs, etc.
* Digestive system is complete with mouth and anus. Mouth parts are adapted for
various modes of feeding.
* Respiration occurs by general body surface, gills, tracheae or book-lungs.
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* Circulatory system is of open type, i.e., blood

* Circulatory system is of open type, i.e., blood do not flow in vessels.
* Excretory organs are green glands or Malpighian tubules.
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* Nervous system is with a dorsal brain connected with a nerve ring.
* Sensory organs comprise of eyes, i.e., simple and compound, statocysts, taste and
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sound receptors.
* Sexes are usually separate (dioecious).
e.g., Economically important insects- Apis, Bombyx, Luccifer ; vectors- Anopheles
Culex and Aedes ; gregarious pest- Locusta (locust); living fossil-Limulus.
 Phylum-Mollusca
Phylum-Mollusca includes the largest invertebrates along with soft bodied animals
suet as snails, slugs, mussels, clams, etc. It is the second largest phylum after
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Arthropods having around 85,000 species. The term MoHusca was coined by
Johnstnoin in 1650.
 General Characteristics of Mollusca /
* The animals belonging to this phylum are mostly marine, however, some fresh
water and terrestrial forms are also found.
* They have thin fleshy fold or outgrowth of dorsal body wall which more or less
covers the body. It encloses a space, the mantle or pallial cavity between the orgar.
and the body.
* Digestive system is complete with a digestive gland or liver (hepatopancreas) and
rasping organ, the radula possessing transverse rows of teeth.
*The excretory system includes kidneys, which open into the mantle cavity. The
excretory matter is ammonia or uric acid.
* Respiration occurs through gills (called ctenidia) or mantle.
* Cirulatory system is of open type.
* A muscular foot is present for locomotion.
* They reproduce sexually, sexes are commonly separate but some are hermaphrodite.
Fertilisation may be external or internal.

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e.g., Pila (apple snail), Pinctada (pearl oyster), Sepia, etc.
 Phrhylum-Echinodermata
Echinodermata (Gk. echinos means hedgehog; derma means skin) literally means
‘spiny or rxrkly skinned’ and refers to the conspicuous spines possessed by their
skin. Some of rem are pelagic and a few are sessile. It includes around 6,000
species.
 General Characteristics of Echinodermata
* Organ system grade of body organisation. Triploblastic and coelomate.
* Bilateral symmetry in larvae and pentamerous radial in adults.
* Body is bilaterally symmetrical and coelomic cavity reduced.
* Body bears spines and pincer-like pedicellariae. The spines are protective in

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function.
* Digestive tract is complete. Vascular system is of open type and includes haemal
and perihaemal systems. There is no heart, respiratory organs include dermal
branchiae, tube feet, respiratory tree and bursae. No excretory organs are present.
* Nervous system is without a brain.
e.g., Starfish (Asterias), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (feather star), Cucumaria (sea
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cucumber) and Ophicura (brittle star).
 Vertebrates
These are commonly termed as higher chordates or euchordates. They repress
advanced chordates.

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General characteristics of Vertebrates are
* The animals belonging to this sub-phylum have a true vertebral column = internal
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skeleton, i.e., well developed and complete distribution of mus attachment points
for body movement.
* They structurally consist of four regions, i.e., head, neck, trunk and tail except
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neck and tail in some cases as in frog.

* They are bilaterally symmetrical, triplobastic, coelomic and segmented.
* They have complex differentiation of body tissues and organs.
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* They generally have completely developed functional systems, i.e., digestive
nervous, excretory circulatory, reproductive, etc.
Vertebrates are further classified into five classes such as Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves
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Mammalia.
 Class-Pisces
Pisces include aquatic or watery animals such as fishes (true fishes). General
characteristics of Pisces are
* T hey have an exoskeleton of dermal (skin) scales or plates.
* They have paired appendages in the form of pectoral and pelvic fins and muscular
tail that helps in body movement.
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* They have two chambered heart.
* They use gills for breathing by obtaining dissolved oxygen from water.
* They are exclusively aquatic and found in marine as well as fresh water.
* Air bladder present in fishes act as hydrostatic organ or ballast organ, which
enables the fish to maintain its depth without floting upward or sinking.
* They are cold blooded animals.
 Class-Amphibia
It includes animals who have the ability to live in water and on land. These animals
are suite different from fishes. In larval stage, they live in water and behave like
fish, i.e., twim in water using tail and breathe through gills. Whereas, the adult
forms live on land and behave like land animals, i.e., move through limbs, breathe
through lungs and skin.
General characteristics of Amphibia are
* Their body varies in the form that may be long or narrow, short or broad and
divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail or only into head and trunk.

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* They lack scales on their body but have mucus gland in skin.
* The endoskeleton system is largely bony.
* They have large mouth with teeth and mucous-coated tongue that helps in digestion.
* Respiration occurs by the help of gills, lungs and skin.
* Frogs in certain stages of their life span use gills to breathe. The heart is three-
chambered.
* They lay eggs for giving birth to young ones and for laying eggs, they need external
environment.
* They are cold blooded (poikilothermal).
e.g., Salamander, toad, common frog {Rana tigrina), tree frog (Hyla), Ecothophis.
* They are ammonotelic organisms that excrete soluble ammonia as a result of

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deamination, (process of removal of amino group, this occurs in the liver of humans).
 Class-Reptilia
The animals that creep belong to this class. They were the first to get fully adapted
for the life on dry land. .
General characteristics of Reptiha are
ha
* Their body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail.
* The skin of these animals is rough and dry without glands.
* They have exoskeleton of horny epidermal scales and endoskeleton is bony.

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* They show movements through crawling.
* Some of them also live in water but they return to land for breeding.
* They are usually cold blooded.
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* Respiration occur by lungs.
* They lay egg with hard covering of calcium carbonate.
* They include snakes, lizards, crocodiles and turtles.
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* Generally, they have three chambered heart but crocodile is an exception that,
has four chambers.
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e.g., Cobra, flying lizard (Draco), house wall lizard (Hemidactylus) etc.
 Class-Aves
It includes birds. They are very unique in morphology by having a coat of feathers
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and most of them can fly except some.

General characteristics of Aves are
* Their body is divisible into head, neck, c trunk and tail.
* They have modified hind limbs that are used for various purposes like hopping,
grasping, walking, perching, etc and forelimbs to fly.
* The skin of these animals is thin and dry, and endoskeleton is bony but delicate
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and light.
* They have a four chambered heart and are warm blooded.
* They lay eggs to produce their young ones. e.g., white stork (Ciconia ciconia), male
tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), ostrich (Struthio camelus), pigeon, sparrow, crow, kiwi
(Apteryx).
MAMMALS
Suckle young (feed babies with milk, skin covered by hair/fur breathe air give birth
lo fully formed young once)
Land Mammals Mammalia
Outer cars four limbs (arms legs)
Marsupiears
Care for and feed their young in their sacks.
Primates
Well developed1 hands / feet with fingers / toes, can judge distance, very intelligent
social animals form bonds with family friends.

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Rodents
(inawing animal, large incisor teeth (two nans) use like chisels to gnaw on hard
foods.
Marines Mammals
Animals which grow and live in the water, some only have sparse covering of hair.
Flying Mammals
use echolocation.1 nocturnal, roots in trees or eaves, under roots.

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ha
E
d
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C
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C

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