479

Journal ofFood Protection, Vol. 45, No. 5, Pages 479-4831A.pril1982)

Copyright ©, International Association of Milk, Food, and Environmental Sanitarians

Practical Applications of Food

Dehydration: A Review 1•2
F. E. CUNNINGHAM
Animal Sciences Department, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506

(Received for publication March 9, 1980

ABSTRACT types of driers and examples of foods dried are cited in

Removal of water from foods is one of the oldest methods of Table 1.
preserving foods. Today nearly all foods can be preserved by a Drying methods and types of driers have been
variety of controlled dehydration processes. Many chemical and discussed in detail by Brown et aL (8), so this review only
physical changes can take place during food dehydration and briefly mentions types of driers in relation to food
those changes determine the ultimate quality of the dried and products commonly dried by different drying methods.
rehydrated product. This review concerns some of the more Following is a potpourri of dehydrated foods, most of
common drying methods, selected drying processes for various which are readily available to consumers.
foods and a summary of the nutritive value of dehydrated Alcoholic products. Beer containing high alcohol and
foods. low total solids is produced by freeze drying (J8).
Whiskey may be dried by first encapsulation with
dextrins, soluble polysaccharides or gelatin, added to a
This review appraises selected facets of food 30-60% alcohol concentration. The constantly stirred
preservation by drying. Engineering aspects of the unit slurry is spray-dried under low temperature. Ten percent
operation of drying were well presented in a symposium of the alcohol is lost during spray-drying; however, a
published in 1978 (42). That symposium generally dealt stable powder is produced. Whiskey and brandy powders
with drying theory and modeling, drying of granular with wide application in the confectionery industry (55)
materials and drying of continuous sheets. can be produced.
Food preservation by moisture removal is based on Apples. About 4o/o of the U.S. apple crop is used in
microbial growth and chemical reactions occurring only dried products. Dried apples are prepared as rings,
when moisture is available. By removing moisture, quarters, slices, chopped or as powder. Tunnel
deteriorative reactions are reduced or prevented. The dehydration is the commonest method of drying, but
influence of water activity on microorganisms in food is some apple products are dried in kilns (20). Apple
the subject of a review article (J9). Food spoilage by nuggets, a low-moisture product, are vacuum-shelf-
microorganisms tolerating low water activities was dried.
reviewed by Troller (49). Apricots. About 19o/oofthe total apricot crop is dried.
This paper identifies food products preserved by About lSo/o is dehydrated in tunnel dryers, while the
dehydration, with processes normally used, and sum- remainder are sun-dried as halves. The cut fruit is
marizes the nutritive value of dehydrated foods. sulfured to preserve color and nutritional quality (11). To
Dehydratedfoods and drying processes improve their appearance, apricot halves are often dried
Many types of commercial driers are used to remove for 3 to 5 h in the sun, then dehydrated, which, of course,
moisture from a wide variety of food products. The type differs from sun-drying. Apricots, when pureed, are
of drier selected depends upon the food to be dried, dried by the foam-mat technique (25).
operation costs, the necessary operating conditions and Bananas. Approximately So/o of the banana crop is
the desired physical form of finished product. Common sun-dried. Strips or dices are tray dried and, occasion-
ally, puree of banana may be drum or spray-dried (11}.
Dehydrated banana products are gaining popularity,
particularly in developing countries (44).
1Contribution No. 81-298-R, Department of Animal Sciences and

Industry, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State

Butter. The manufacture of a powder containing 80o/o
University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506. butterfat originated in Australia (21). Butter, containing
2Presented at the Sympasium on Food Dehydration, Kansas State 80o/o fat, 18o/o non-fat milk solids and 2% moisture, can
University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, September 26, 1980. be spray-dried in vertical tower driers. The product has

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 45, APRIL 1982

480 CUNNINGHAM

TABLE 1. Common types of driers and examples offoods dried (15).

Drier Product

Drum drier Milk, certain vegetable juices, cranberries and bananas

Vacuum shelf drier Limited production of certain foods
Continuous vacuum drier Fruits, vegetables
Continuous belt (atmospheric) drier
Freeze driers Meats
Spray driers Whole eggs, egg yolk, blood albumin and milk
Rotary driers Some meat products, usually not used for food products
Cabinet or compartment driers Fruits and vegetables
Kiln driers Apples, some vegetables
Tunnel driers Fruit and

good stability with no particular processing or drying house treatment, through semi-dry and dry sausage, to
problems (7). dried beef Gerky), to complete lyophilization.
Cheese. Cheeses are spray-dried, drum-dried or Cooked, ground meat can be dried in a hot-air dryer.
freeze-dried. Soft cheeses are usually freeze-dried. Finely-divided meat can even be spray-dried. Pork fat
Well-cured cheese, selected for flavor, is shredded and tends to become rancid after hot-air drying. Nor is
dried at room temperature, with air flow, to 8-12% hot-air drying suitable for uncooked meat. Freeze-drying
moisture. In the second stage, temperature is increased
and the cheese is dried to about 3o/o, then compressed or
grated for use in macaroni, soups, salads or other cheese
dishes.
Other fruits. California accounts for more than 90% of
the U.S. dried fruit production and much of it is
produced in counter-current tunnel dehydrators (1 1).
Most fruit juices are dried by spray-drying, vacuum
pufffoam-drying, or foam mat-drying (25). Raisins, figs,
and dates are almost exclusively sun-dried. Many fruits
are partially dried by solar energy, then finished in
tunnel dryers. About 65% of all raisins are sun-dried, but
all golden bleached raisin grapes are dehydrated in
tunnel dryers.
Coffee. Considerable coffee is spray-dried, although
vacuum and drum-drying are also used. Large hollow-
sphere particles can be produced by dehydration in a
vertical tower-type spray drier (JJ). Coffee is probably the Figure 1. Flow diagram of a Blaw·Knox vertical spray-drying
most important item freeze-dried from liquid food system. (Courtesy o_fBlaw-Knox Food and Chemical Co.)
extracts. Some coffee may also be vacuum puff
foam-dried and foam spray-dried (50).
Eggs. Many kinds of driers have been used in
producing egg solids. Drum driers probably were first
(25), but they are not used extensively because high
temperatures damage the heat-sensitive proteins in the
egg. Spray-drying is now the most commonly used
method of dehydrating eggs. Many types of driers are
used, depending on the product, yolk, whole egg or
white, to be dried. The cone-shaped Swenson Gray-Jensen
spray drier was one of the first types used for whole egg
and yolk. A flow diagram of Blaw-Knox Vertical Spray
Drier is shown in Fig. 1. The exhaust air from the main
chamber may be passed through several secondary
collectors. The box-shaped Rogers spray drier (Fig. 2)
uses bag filters extensively to dry egg whites (5). Some
eggs are dried by foam mat-drying, and freeze-drying.
Dehydration of meats. Different degrees of drying as
applied to meat products range from ordinary smoke- Figure 2. A Rogers spray drier. (Courtesy of C. E. Rogers Co.)

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION. VOL. 45, APRIL 1982

 APPLICATIONS OF FOOD DEHYDRATION 481
is the best method to dehydrate meats as far as Nutritive value ofdehydrated foods
rehydration and acceptability are concerned. Considerable loss of vitamins can accompany fruit
Beef is cooked on steam-heated drums or in drying. When apricots are sun-dried, without sulfuring,
steam-jacketed kettles, then dried further in tunnel 76-82% of vitamin A and nearly all vitamin C are lost.
dryers or in vacuum steam-jacketed melters. Beef is also But when the fruit is treated with sulfur, much of both
freeze-dried in vacuum shelf dryers. vitamins are retained (54). Ascorbic acid losses in
Chicken and turkey products are prepared in a variety drum-dried apples were reported to be So/o by Escher and
of ways. Cooked, diced poultry is dried in tunnel dryers, Neukom (16). Labuza (34) reported that the overall loss
in cabinet dryers, or on conveyor belt dryers. Finely- of ascorbic acid in sun-dried peaches totaled 90%.
ground suspensions of poultry meat can also be spray- Freeze-dried samples of fruit juices retained a high
dried. Poultry skin is frequently spray-dried to be used in percentage of ascorbic acid. All samples retained 96-99%
flavoring other food products. Poultry products are also of their original ascorbic acid. During storage, however,
freeze-dried (20). considerable ascorbic acid was lost (1).
Milk. A variety of milk products are spray-dried in During moisture removal from vegetables, nutrient
dryers like the DeLaval Spray Drying System shown in loss varies widely. During low-temperature drying,
Fig. 3. Whey is usually spray-dried; other milk products tomato concentrates lost no ascorbic acid. For air-dried
may be drum-dried, vacuum puff foam-dried, or foam rutabagas, Hein and Hutchings (24) reported some losses
mat-dried (25). of thiamin (approximately So/o), the same as from
air-dried snap beans, peas and corn, compared with 29%
from carrots. Losses of beta-carotene from dehydrated
carrots have been reported as high as 80% during
vacuum-drying (54), 40% loss during explosion puffing
and in ordinary air-drying (4), and as low as 13 o/o for
freeze-drying (6). Losses of beta-carotene from carrots
during various drying methods are summarized in Table
2.
Nutritional qualities of drum-dried bean powders were
~.P.
PUIIIf determined (38) to be 20% of thiamin, pyridoxine, niacin
and folic acid. And losses of folic acid from dried beans
Figure 3. Diagram of a DeLaval spray-drying system. (Courte· can be as high as 50% (31).
sy ofDeLaval Separator Co.) De Groot (12), who compared drying techniques,
reported no damage to the protein in lima beans.
Seafoods. An infinite variety of seafoods are dehy-
Considerable information is available on the nu-
drated without processing problems. Minced fish is
dehydrated mostly in cabinet dryers (3). Surprisingly, a tritional value of dried potatoes. Ascorbic acid losses
during processing can be quite high (Table 3). The low
considerable amount of fish is still sun-dried (26).
retention of ascorbic acid and folic acid are thought to
Vegetables. There are innumerable articles dealing
stem from heat destruction and leaching during
with the proper conditions for dehydrating vegetables
blanching. During the entire process of potato dehydra-
(20,33,40), most of which are dehydrated in convection
tion, total retention averages 9o/o thiamin, 83% protein
type machinery, as illustrated in Fig. 4. This dryer can
and B6 , and less than 50% of ascorbic and folic acids (2).
dry sliced raw onions to a final 4% moisture at 10,000
lb/h. Nutrient losses are significant during both blanching and
TABLE 2. Loss of(3-carotene in drying carrots to 3o/omoisture.

Drying process Temperature-time Average retention

Tray air-dryinga 200F-2h 74o/o

150 F- 6 h

Explosion puf£3- 200 F - 2 h in tray 81%

Exploded at 35 lb/in.2
Finished at 150 F
Total time 5.5 h

Freeze-dried a 160 F 1000 ~o~Hg 85%

4to5h

Freeze-dried b ? 90%
aDelia Monica and McDowell (14),
bsweeney and Marsh (52).

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 45, APRIL 1982

482 CUNNINGHAM

fatty acids in spray-dried compared with freeze-dried

milk. But other work reported no loss of fatty acids in
roller-dried milk (4).
During spray-drying or drum-drying, milk loses very
little of vitamins A or D (22, 23).
The effects of drying method on eggs have also been
studied. When hot air-drying, vacuum-drying, spray-
drying and freeze-drying were compared, insignificant
changes occurred in the biological quality of the egg
protein (12). Drying does not destroy vitamin A, thiamin
Figure 4. A multiple stage conveyor dryer. (Courtesy of The or riboflavin in eggs, but dried eggs lose vitamin A (54).
National Drying Machinery Co.) It is generally agreed that drying does not affect the
protein quality of meat. In comparing hot air-drying,
dehydration, but more during blanching than dehydra- vacuum-drying and freeze-drying, de Groot (12) found no
tion (2). For air-dried potatoes, Hein and Hutchings (24) damage to the proteins in chicken meat with hot
reported 25% losses of thiamin. When potatoes are air-drying. Accelerated freeze-drying had no affect on
steamed and dehydrated, no vitamin C can be recovered protein of beef or fish (4).
(54). Thiamin losses of meats and vegetables are shown in
During drying of dairy products, protein quality is Table 4. Riboflavin losses average 4 to 6% in freeze-dried
generally not affected. In comparing hot air-drying, chicken cubes (34). Schroeder (49) summarized the losses
vacuum-drying, and accelerated freeze-drying, de Grott for water-soluble vitamins during drying of foods.
(12) reported that protein quality was not significantly Nutrient losses from dehydration are usually a small part
altered, but freeze-drying produced the best results. of the total loss (16). Hein and Hutchings (24) reported
Although milk is not an important source of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid losses for 9
10% is lost during spray-drying and 20 to 30% during vegetables and in only 2 instances did the loss exceed
roller-drying (.32,54). There is no loss of riboflavin with 10% when the blanched product was considered 100%.
drying of milk so long as light is excluded. With In general, losses of thiamin and other water-soluble
spray-drying 20% of vitamin C is lost, and slightly more vitamins, except ascorbic acid, were less than 10%during
with roller- drying. conventional drying (6).
It is not clear whether drying effects essential fatty Freeze-drying yields the highest possible quality and
acids. Pol and de Groot (46) found a decline of 30 to 40% maintains the highest nutritional value of any drying
TABLE 3. Ascorbic acid loss in
Air temperature (F) Drying time (h)
Tray o/o Loss
First Second First Second
stage stage stage stage
Wood 200 -170 120-140 0.92 4.08 24
Metal 100-130 120-140 1.05 2.28 26
Metal 200-170 120-- 140

TABLE 4. Thiamin losses in

Product Conditions Loss Reference

Freeze-dried pork ? 30o/o Karmas eta!. (38)

Freeze-dried chicken ? 5 to 6o/o Roew et a!. (48)

Freeze-dried pork -40° c 5% Thomas and

Freeze-dried chicken 1000 1-1Hg Calloway (53)
Freeze-dried beef ? ? ?

Vegetab les-beansa Air-dried 5o/o Harris and

Vegetables-cabbagea ? 9o/o von Loesecke (22)
Vegetables-corn a ? 4o/o
Vegetables-peasa ? 3o/o

Air-dried ? SO to 70o/o (6)

a Does not include blanching losses.

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION. VOL. 45. APRIL 1982

 APPLICATIONS OF FOOD DEHYDRATION 483

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JOURNAL OF FOOD PRO TECTJON, VOL 45, APRIL 1982