Sports Med 2003; 33 (13): 941-947

LEADING ARTICLE 0112-1642/03/0013-0941/$30.00/0

© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved.

Clothing and Thermoregulation

During Exercise
Timothy P. Gavin
Human Performance Laboratory, Departments of Exercise and Sport Science and Physiology,
East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

Abstract Exercise increases heat production. During exercise in both warm and cold
conditions, the major dilemma is the dissipation of the heat produced from
muscular activity. The use of clothing generally represents a layer of insulation
and as such imposes a barrier to heat transfer and evaporation from the skin
surface. In warm environments, additional clothing increases thermal insulation
causing more rapid increases in temperature during exercise and imposes a barrier
to sweat evaporation. However, clothing can serve a protective function by
reducing radiant heat gain and thermal stress. Recent research suggests that
neither the inclusion of modest amounts of clothing nor the clothing fabric alter
thermoregulation or thermal comfort during exercise in warm conditions. In the
cold, most reports do not support an effect of clothing fabric on thermoregulation;
however, there are reports demonstrating an effect. Clothing construction does
alter thermoregulation during and following exercise in the cold, where fishnet
construction offers greater heat dissipation. Future research should include condi-
tions that more closely mimic outdoor conditions, where high work rates, large
airflow and high relative humidity can significantly impact thermoregulation.

The purpose of this article is to provide a brief and on the effect of protective clothing on tempera-
overview of the effects of clothing on thermal bal- ture regulation during uncompensable heat.[5,6]
ance during exercise. To ensure a basic understand-
ing of the variables involved in thermoregulation, 1. Thermal Balance
the factors affecting temperature balance will be The maintenance of a stable core temperature is
discussed. The characteristics of clothing will then dependent upon the balance between heat produc-
be discussed followed by the effects of clothing on tion from metabolism and heat gain from the envi-
thermoregulation in warm and cold environments. ronment, and the loss of heat by conduction, convec-
Lastly, recommendations on future research direc- tion, radiation and evaporation. The balance can be
tions will be discussed. There are several topics on represented by the heat exchange equation:
the interaction between clothing and thermoregula-
tion that will not be discussed in this article. The
±S = M − (±W ) − E ± K ± C ± R ( mW )
2

reader is directed to excellent reviews on biophysi- where: S is heat storage, M is metabolism, W is

cal heat transfer,[1,2] influence of clothing during positive or negative work, E is evaporation, K is
exercise/work on the biophysics of heat transfer,[3,4] conduction, C is convection and R is radiation.
942 Gavin

As is easily observed from the heat exchange Fibres such as wool and cotton absorb moisture
equation, metabolism always acts to increase heat from the skin more effectively than synthetic fibres
storage, and evaporation always acts to decrease and are generally more comfortable. However, the
heat storage. In humans, heat is produced and gained absorption of sweat, which is termed ‘regain’, can
by increases in metabolism and the positive or nega- increase the weight of the garment and can provide
tive work accomplished. Conduction of heat occurs undesirable post-exercise evaporative cooling. In
between molecules of two contacting surfaces. Con- recent years, several new fabrics have been designed
vection refers to the physical exchange of heat be- with improved wicking properties, but with low
tween the body and an adjacent moving medium regain.
such as air or water. Thermal radiation is radiant
energy emitted by a medium that is solely due to the 3. Exercise in Warm to Hot Environments
temperature of the medium. Evaporation occurs
both from the respiratory tract and the skin. Increased muscular activity during exercise
When thermal balance is achieved, the heat causes an increase in heat production in the body
stored is equal to 0. During exercise, heat storage due to the inefficiency of the metabolic reactions
will typically increase. This increase can easily be involved in providing energy for muscle force de-
observed by increases in mean body temperature velopment, which must be dissipated to prevent
(TBODY). deleterious increases in TBODY.[9] During semi-nude
(shorts, socks and shoes) exercise between 10 and
30°C, core temperature is essentially a linear func-
2. Clothing
tion of metabolism and is independent of ambient air
temperature, while skin temperature is essentially a
Several factors must be considered when evaluat- linear function of the ambient air temperature and is
ing clothing properties. The ‘clo’ unit is an index of not significantly dependent on metabolic rate.[10]
clothing thermal resistance. One clo represents the The use of clothing generally represents a layer of
clothing necessary to allow a resting individual to be insulation and as such imposes a barrier to heat
in a comfortable state when the ambient temperature transfer[11] and evaporation from the skin surface.[12]
is 21°C (70°F).[7] Six factors affect the insulation The rate of water evaporation from the wet skin
value of clothing:[8] surface is dependent upon the air velocity and skin-
1. Wind speed – increased speed disturbs the zone of clothing-ambient air vapour pressure gradients.[13]
insulation. When clothing interferes with the evaporation of
2. Body movements – pumping action of arms and sweat from the skin, increases in skin and core
legs disturb the zone of insulation. temperature, as well as a reduction in cooling effi-
3. Chimney effect – loosely hanging clothing venti- ciency are observed.[3,14] Given that evaporation is
lates the trapped air layers from the body. the most important mechanism for heat dissipation
4. Bellows effect – vigorous body movements in- during exercise, clothing that poses the least amount
crease ventilation of air layers for conserving body of resistance to evaporation may prove beneficial.
heat. For a warm to hot environment, this would be rela-
5. Water vapour transfer – clothing resists the pas- tively minimal clothing, which can range from a
sage of water vapour and thus decreases body heat basic swimsuit (and accompanying top for women)
loss by evaporative cooling. to a short-sleeve T-shirt and mid-thigh shorts.
6. Permeation efficiency factor – how well clothing Outdoor activities such as running and cycling
absorbs liquid sweat by capillary action (‘wicking’); incorporate a significant airflow. This airflow would
wicking sweat away from the body surface reduces increase convective heat dissipation and promote
the cooling effect of evaporation, thus improving evaporation by reducing the water vapour pressure
clothing’s effectiveness for conserving body heat. surrounding an individual. For example, running at

© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (13)
Exercise, Clothing and Thermoregulation 943

Cotton/wool blend
10 km/h represents a convective airflow of ~2.8 m/ 37.9 100% cotton
Wind
sec, while cycling at 30 km/h represents a convec- 100% polyester

Rectal temperature (˚C)

tive airflow of ~8.4 m/sec. Thermoregulatory stress 37.7
(sweat rates and skin temperatures) is greater under
conditions of no airflow.[15] In addition to increasing 37.5

convective and evaporative heat loss, increasing air

37.3
velocity also decreases the total thermal insulation
of clothing (Itot).[16] It has been estimated that an 37.1
increase in air velocity from 0.25 to 0.50 m/sec
reduces Itot by 50%.[17] 36.9

35.7
3.1 Additional Clothing Increases

Mean skin temperature (˚C)

Thermal Stress
35.3

As might be expected, greater surface area cov-

34.9
ered by clothing can affect the thermoregulatory
response to exercise. Greater surface area coverage
promotes more rapid increases in rectal temperature 34.5

(TRECTAL) during exercise in 20°C and 60% relative

humidity conditions and greater sweating.[18] Kenny 34.1
et al. have also demonstrated a greater rise in oe-
37.4
sophageal temperature during exercise with the ad-
Mean body temperature (˚C)

dition of commercial coveralls compared with a T- 37.2

shirt and shorts.[19] These studies demonstrate clear
detrimental effects of additional clothing on thermo- 37.0
regulation.
36.8

3.2 Clothing as a Barrier to 36.6

Sweat Evaporation
36.4
Evaporation of sweat is a very effective method 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time (min)
of heat elimination from the body as it has been
Fig. 1. Temporal changes in rectal temperature, mean skin temper-
shown that 1g of water evaporated absorbs 0.578 ature, and mean body temperature among three clothing ensem-
kcal at skin temperature.[20] It is generally accepted bles: cotton/wool blend, 100% cotton and 100% polyester. Rectal
that clothing acts as a barrier to evaporation of sweat temperature was significantly lower in the cotton wool blend, and
mean body temperature and mean skin temperature were signifi-
and is disadvantageous to body heat regulation cantly greater in 100% polyester (reproduced from Kwon et al.[24]
during hot humid conditions. Nagata has demonstra- with permission).
ted that the greater the amount of clothing worn, the
lower the evaporative sweat rate.[20] In addition, 3.3 Clothing Protection from the Sun
while clothing that absorbs sweat has been shown to
be more comfortable, the cooling efficiency for the Exposure to the sun during exercise represents an
body of such absorbed sweat will be much less than increase in radiative heat load. Clothing blocks the
that of sweat evaporated from the skin. Brownlie et radiant heat of the sun and reduces thermal stress.[3]
al. demonstrated that clothing with limited vapour Exercising in the shade as opposed to in the sun can
permeability caused significant increases in thermal reduce radiative heat gain as much as 100W and
stress during treadmill running in 25°C.[21] reduce the need for evaporative heat loss.[22] The

© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (13)
944 Gavin

colour of clothing can affect radiative heat gain, moregulation during intermittent exercise at 40% of
where white clothing reduces radiative heat gain and maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2max) with and
physiological strain during exercise compared with without 1.5 m/sec wind in 30°C.[24] All clothing
black clothing.[23] ensembles consisted of long sleeve shirts and full
trousers. During rest and exercise with no wind,
3.4 Effect of Clothing Fabrics there were no differences in TRECTAL, mean skin
temperature (TSK), or TBODY (figure 1). However,
Do differences in clothing fabric alter thermoreg-
with the application of 1.5 m/sec wind, TSK was
ulatory responses to exercise? Kwon et al. investi-
lower in all ensembles. Interestingly, during exer-
gated the effect of three clothing fabric ensembles
cise with wind, the wool/cotton blend demonstrated
(wool and cotton blend with high moisture regain,
a significantly lower TRECTAL, while the 100%
100% cotton with average moisture regain, and
100% polyester with low moisture regain) on ther- polyester ensemble resulted in higher TSK and
TBODY. The 100% polyester ensemble was asso-
S-N ciated with higher heart rates independent of wind
Mean body temperature (˚C)

38 SYN
COT
velocity. The 100% polyester ensemble caused
greater sweat production, but retained less sweat.
37 This study demonstrates that clothing fabric can
influence thermoregulation; however, most exercis-
ers would not wear full-length garments during ex-
36
ercise in 30ºC.
In an attempt to determine if clothing fabric can
35 affect thermoregulation in the heat when worn in
39 more common, warm weather ensembles, Gavin et
al. evaluated the effect of clothing fabric during
Rectal temperature (˚C)

38 exercise in 30°C and 35% relative humidity.[25] The

clothing consisted of three ensembles: semi-nude; a
synthetic material; and cotton. The semi-nude en-
37 semble consisted of a lycra racing swimsuit,
standard polyester anklet socks and running shoes,
36
and represented an ensemble with minimal insula-
35
tion load and maximal evaporative capacity. The
synthetic material ensemble was made from a syn-
Mean skin temperature (˚C)

34
thetic fabric claimed by the manufacturer to promote
sweat evaporation. Both the synthetic material and
33 cotton ensembles consisted of a crew neck, short
sleeve T-shirt, form-fitting cycling shorts (which
* extended to mid-thigh), anklet socks and running
32

* shoes. Each trial included 30 minutes of treadmill

31 running at 70% of V̇O2max and 15 minutes of tread-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (min) mill walking at 40% of V̇O2max. During the 30
Fig. 2. Temporal changes in mean body temperature, rectal tem- minutes of running, a simulated wind of ~11 km/h
perature and mean skin temperature among different clothing en- was applied, while a simulated wind of ~6 km/h was
sembles (reproduced from Gavin et al.,[25] with permission). During
applied during walking. In the synthetic material
exercise, there was no difference between clothing fabrics. COT =
cotton; S-N = semi-nude; SYN = synthetic material; * indicates ensemble, sweating efficiency was improved and
significantly different than COT or SYN. clothing regain reduced, as would be expected for

© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (13)
Exercise, Clothing and Thermoregulation 945

7 S-N
fabric that promotes sweat evaporation. However, SYN
neither the addition of clothing nor the clothing 6 COT

Temperature sensation
fabric used altered exercise thermoregulation (figure 5
2) or thermal/comfort sensations (figure 3). 4

3
4. Exercise in Cool to Cold Environments
2
In conditions of 0°C and no wind, humans can 1
exercise at sufficient levels to adequately maintain
0
core temperature while wearing 1 clo of thermal
5
insulation.[8] As the ambient temperature decreases,
significantly greater levels of clothing are required
4
to maintain core temperature. In contrast to the small

Sweating sensation
amount of clothing commonly worn during exercise 3
in warm to hot environments, exercise in cool to
cold environments requires that selections be made 2
on the appropriate levels of clothing insulation.
Clothing for outdoor winter activities is a complicat- 1

ed problem.[26] The ideal role of a clothing system is

0
to maintain the thermal balance of the user in vari- Pre Run End Walk Post
ous environmental conditions despite the user’s Fig. 3. Scaled sensation reactions of thermal comfort and sweating
level of activity. The balance between heat produc- among different clothing ensembles as measured during pre-exer-
cise seated rest (Pre), treadmill running (Run), end of treadmill
tion and heat dissipation is difficult to maintain. Too running (End), treadmill walking (Walk), and post-exercise seated
little clothing may lead to hypothermia, while ex- rest (Post). There was no difference between clothing fabrics (re-
cess amounts may lead to discomfort due to signif- produced from Gavin et al.,[25] with permission). COT = cotton; S-N
= semi-nude; SYN = synthetic material.
icant increases in TBODY and excessive sweating
and skin wettedness. Excessive skin wettedness is
associated with thermal discomfort,[3] while wet wear during exercise in 10°C.[29] During exercise in
clothing reduces the Itot.[27,28] Reduced sweat ac- 8°C, Holmér did not find any difference in thermo-
cumulation in clothing during exercise can reduce regulation or thermal sensations when exercising in
the probability of post-exercise chill and thermal wool or nylon garments in a single layer ensem-
discomfort.[29] In general, the principal thermoregu- ble.[28] In –2°C, Vokac et al. did not find any differ-
latory challenge during exercise in the cold is the ences between double-layer vests of cotton, cotton/
dissipation of metabolic heat, which can be alleviat- polypropylene, and polypropylene during simulated
ed by removing layers of clothing as the body recreational cross-country (Nordic) skiing.[30]
warms.[8] Thus, the ideal winter clothing in dry, cold During walking in –10°C in a three-layer ensemble,
conditions blocks air movement, but allows for Rissanen et al. did not observe any differences be-
water vapour to escape through the clothing if tween underwear made from cotton or orlon.[26]
sweating occurs.[8] However, there are reports supporting an effect
of clothing fabric on thermoregulation in the
4.1 Effect of Clothing Fabric
cold.[31,32] During 90-minute walking at ~5.5 km/h
During exercise in the cold, most studies have not in –10°C, a three-layer clothing ensemble with inner
found any difference in thermoregulation during the and middle layers made of wool or synthetic fibre
use of underwear made of different clothing resulted in significantly lower TSK and sweat ac-
fabrics.[26,28-30] In a three-layer system, there was no cumulation with synthetic fibre.[31] However, these
difference between wool and polypropylene under- authors concluded that the difference between

© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (13)
946 Gavin

fabrics was due to differences in Itot between the First, the effects of increased airflow to more closely
ensembles. Ha et al. demonstrated that during mild mimic outdoor conditions of exercise should be
exercise at 0°C, a single-layer of polypropylene investigated. Increases in airflow will reduce the
underwear in a three-layer ensemble keeps TSK and boundary layer of insulation and will increase evap-
TBODY warmer than a single layer of cotton during oration. Makinen et al. demonstrated that during
exercise and recovery, although these differences walking in a –10°C environment, a wind velocity of
are not apparent while wearing two layers of cotton 5 m/sec significantly lowers mean skin temperature
or polypropylene underwear.[32] (TSK) compared with conditions of 0 and 1 m/sec.[34]
Secondly, greater exercise intensities should be
4.2 Effect of Clothing Construction investigated. In general, most studies use only mild
to moderate exercise intensities. Future work should
Underwear knit structure can alter TSK, non- focus on higher exercise intensities, which would
evaporated, and evaporated sweat during intermit- result in higher sweat rates. The higher sweat rates
tent exercise in 5°C.[33] Comparing underwear made would lead to greater sweat accumulation. In the
from 1-by-1 rib, fleece, fishnet, interlock and doub- cold, this could produce significant post-exercise
le-layer rib, the fishnet construction allowed more chilling that may be affected by differences in cloth-
air to sweep over the skin, resulting in more effec- ing fabric or construction. Professional athletes in
tive ventilation and evaporation from the skin, re- sports such as cycling often experience a combina-
sulting in a lower TSK (figure 4). During intermittent tion of these conditions where significant terrain
exercise, evaporation rates are higher in underwear changes can produce significant changes in environ-
of fishnet construction compared with 1-by-1 rib mental conditions including dramatic changes in
knit.[29] It is clear that clothing construction can temperature and significant airflow.
affect thermoregulation. Thirdly, given that skin wettedness is associated
with discomfort, significant differences in clothing
5. Future Research Considerations regain may affect clothing comfort in warm environ-
The effects of clothing on thermoregulation ments. The use of a higher relative humidity would
would benefit from future research in three areas. reduce evaporative potential and increase regain of
clothing, especially cotton and wool garments.
Therefore, synthetic fibres with lower regain may
Fleece
1-by-1 rib prove beneficial during high humidity conditions.
Interlock
Double-layer rib
Fishnet
6. Conclusions
32
Mean skin temperature (˚C)

During exercise in warm to hot conditions, the

30 specific choice of clothing fabric does not appear to
impact thermoregulation during short-term exercise,
28 while white clothing can reduce radiative heat gain.
The addition of modest amounts of clothing does not
represent a thermoregulatory disadvantage. During
Exercise Rest Exercise Rest
exercise in cool to cold environments, clothing
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 fabric and especially clothing construction charac-
Time (min) teristics may influence thermoregulation. It is re-
Fig. 4. Mean skin temperature among different underwear con- commended that exercisers dress in layers to mini-
structions (1-by-1 rib, fleece, fishnet, interlock and double-layer rib).
Mean skin temperature was significantly lower in fishnet construc-
mise sweat accumulation in clothing as this can
tion and greater in fleece (reproduced from Nielsen and En- significantly reduce the thermal insulation of cloth-
drusick,[33] with permission of Springer-Verlag GmbH & Co. KG). ing and promote greater skin and body cooling.

© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (13)
Exercise, Clothing and Thermoregulation 947

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T.P. Gavin was supported by a National Institute on
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Aging grant AG-021891 and a State of California, Tobacco and post-exercise core temperature under different clothing
Related Disease Research Program (TRDRP) grant conditions. Int J Biometeorol 1999; 43: 8-13
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© Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (13)