FMP-502

Farm and Earth Moving Machinery

4(3-1)
Instructor: Dr. Abdul Ghafoor
Deptt. of Farm Machinery and Power,
UAF

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 FMP-502:
COURSE OUTLINES

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Grading Policy
 Grading Policy (Subject to change):

Theory (60 Marks)

Final Exam = 60%
Mid-term Exam = 30%
Assignment + Project + Quizzes = 10%

Practical (20 Marks)

Lab Notebook = 4-6 marks
Viva Voce = 2-4 marks
Final Written = 10-12 marks
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 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOs):
Sr. CLOs Domain Taxonomy PLO
No. level

1. DEFINE the basic knowledge and concepts Cognitive 1 1

of agricultural machinery in farming
operations
2 ANALYZE the problems regarding Cognitive 4 2
selection and use of agricultural machinery

3 SOLVE the mechanical and hydraulic Cognitive 3 2

problems of machinery due to farm
operations
4. DEMONSTRATE individually the operation Psychomotor 4 9
of agricultural machines for various farm
operation

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 Suggested Readings:
1. Haddock, K. 2017. Modern Earthmoving Machines, Enthusiast
Books, Sofia, Bulgaria.
2. Haycraft, W. R. 2002. The Story of the Earthmoving Equipment
Industry. Library of Congress cataloging, USA.
3. Mehta, M. L., S. R. Verma and S. K. Mishra. 2016.Testing and
Evaluation of Agricultural Machinery, DAYA Publishing House, New
Dehli India.
4. Singh, T.P. 2016. Farm Machinery, PHI Learning Private Limited,
Dehli, India.

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 LECTURE- 1
MECHANIZATION, ITS
OBJECTIVES, CONSTRAINTS
AND POLICY
MEASURES/FUTURE
PROSPECTIVES

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 FARM MECHANIZATION
FARM:
Area of land which a farmer holds on which different
agricultural activities are taking place.

MECHANIZATION:
Replacement of human and animal power by means of
machines is called mechanization.

FARM MECHANIZATION:
Farm mechanization means performing farm operations
with the help of machines e.g. tillage, seeding,
fertilization, weeding, harvesting, threshing, conveying,
etc. 7
Farm Mechanization may be classified into two groups;

1. Farm Power
2. Farm Machinery

For power at farm, the main source of power is tractor.

The major machinery/implements used at farm are;

1.Sub-soiler 2. Disc plow 3. Chisel plow
4.Disc Harrow 5. Cultivator 6. Rotavator
7. Seed drill 8. Sprayers 9. Reaper
10.Thresher etc.
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 Objectives of Farm Mechanization
 Better farming operations right from seedbed
preparation till final consumption of crop.
 Increased cropping intensity due to timely operations.
 Relieving the area under fodder crops set aside for work
animals.
 Increased the area under cultivation through
development of culturable wasteland.
 To reduce the cost of production and to improve quality
of farm produce.
 To make the farm life easy and comfortable/enjoyable.
 To improve soil structure.
 Creation of more employment in agro-associated fields.
 To flatten the awkward labour peaks.
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Scope of Farm Mechanization in Pakistan
Farm mechanization has a wide scope in Pakistan. Farm
mechanization can be used for different purposes. Those
are;
 Use of cultureable waste land
 To solve water shortage problem
 Timely operations
 Labor Problems
 Electrification of farms
 Increased productivity through machines
 Use of Tractors as a power source
 Use of farm implements/machinery for improved
operation efficiency
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Scope of Farm Mechanization in Pakistan
 Better land leveling for efficient use of water for
irrigation purpose
 Proper weed eradication
 Better plant protection practices
 Better quality of products
 To promote precision agriculture

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 Constraints in mechanization
 Farm mechanization has shown good results as of
raising the agricultural production and improving the
standard of living of cultivators. However, a number of
arguments have been advanced against farm
mechanization such as:
1. Small size and scattered holdings of the farmers stand in
the way of mechanization. As a result of this, farm
machinery generally remains under-utilized.
2. Majority of small cultivators are poor who are not in a
position to purchase the costly machinery like tractors,
combine harvesters etc.
3. The farm machinery have large turning radius and thus
require comparatively larger farm for economical use.

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 Constraints in mechanization
4. Lack of proper knowledge of farmer to purchase farm
machinery, operate and maintain it properly leads to
wrong choice, makes it uneconomical and risky too.
5. There is great shortage of diesel in the country as a
whole. Thus, to use so extensive oil based farm
machinery is not desirable for many farmers.
6. The lack of repair and replacement facilities especially in
the remote rural areas is another hindrance in efficient
small farm mechanization.
7. Due to the seasonal nature of the agriculture, the farm
machinery remains idle for much of the time. Thus, idle
machinery means unnecessary high costs unless proper
alternate use of such machinery in the off-season is made.
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 Policy Measures/Future Prospectus
 Some policy measure for the wide spread adaptation of
farm machinery should be taken as follows:
1. The total use of the farm machinery is much less.
Therefore, there is need to enhance its productive use as
a result of which, the fixed cost can be reduced
significantly.
2. The use of the tractor for custom hiring should be
encouraged through legislative measures.
3. The distribution of tractors from area to area should be
normalized so that the custom hiring is increased.
Further, the small farmers having operational holding of
less than 4 hectares need to be discouraged to own the
tractors unless they have substantial grounds to make
economical use of it. 14
 Policy Measures/Future Prospectus
However, to solve the problems of mechanization of smaller
holdings, the possibilities can be:
(a) Cooperative management of farm machinery;
(b) Financing of second hand tractors for small farmers;
(c) Extension services to advise the suitability of various
makes, models and horse powers for different size of
operational holdings;
(d) Devising smaller machinery suitable for small farms
which constitute the vast majority of farmers but the
machinery has to be effective and less costly.
4. Suitable crop planning on the farm and in the area can
be quite useful to gainfully employ the tractor. The
monoculture of crops and varieties in the area results in
high seasonal fluctuation in its use. 15
5. Technical know-how should be provided to the farmers with
respect to appropriateness of farm machinery for the
situation and for its proper use.
6. A standardization and quality-marking stations of farm
equipment should be established in potential areas of the
country.
7. The farm machinery suitable for different types of soil and
operations for important crops should be developed and
manufactured.
9. The useful farm equipment should be identified and imported
to cut down time and expenditure on research.
10. Training relating to farm machinery and equipment should
be imparted to the farmers and artisans.
11. Service units should be encouraged and mobile service units
should be started. Adequate and soft loans for such purposes
should be provided. 16
TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

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 TILLAGE

• Tillage in general defined as

the mechanical manipulation of soil for any purpose.

• From agriculture point of view

Tillage involves the breaking, stirring, turning, or

conditioning of soil surface to develop a favorable soil
environment for the germination and growth of
particular crop.

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 Objectives of Tillage
The main objectives of tillage are;

• To develop a desirable soil structure for seed bed or root

zone.
• To increase soil aeration by loosening soil and thereby
reducing soil density.
• To minimize soil resistance to root penetration.
• To control weeds or to eradicate unwanted plants
(Thinning).
• To improve soil fertility by mixing crop residues or trash
or green manuring.

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 (Continue…)

• To minimize soil erosion by employing deep tillage,

Mulch tillage, contour tillage.
• To establish specific soil surface configuration such
as beds, furrows, ridges, etc. for planting, irrigation,
drainage or harvesting operations, etc.
• To incorporate and mix fertilizer, pesticide, or soil
amendments into the soil.
• To accomplish segregation of roots, rocks, foreign
objects, etc. from soil.
• To break hardpan, tillage pan or sodic pan developed
underneath the root zone.
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 Tillage Terminologies
1. Tilth:
It is defined as degree of aggregation of soil
particles. Ideal tilth is secured when soil is aggregated
into crumble like particles that allow free access of air
and water
2. Tillage tool:
It is defined as an individual soil working element
such as disc blade, cultivator shovel, tine of cultivator,
etc.
3. Tillage Implement:
A tillage implement is made of a single tillage
tool or a group of tillage tools, together with a frame,
wheels (if any) control and protection devices and any
other structural and power transmission components. 21
4. Minimum Tillage:
It refers to the cultivation of only that part of the soil
which is going to be used for seeding/sowing of crops.
This is some times called as strip tillage or zone
tillage.
Objectives:
i. To reduce mechanical energy and labor
requirement.
ii. To conserve moisture and reduce soil erosion.
iii. To save time by doing operations necessary to
optimize soil conditions for crop growth.
iv. To minimize crop water requirements in draught hit
areas by controlling water infiltration/evaporation.
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5. Zero-tillage:
It is termed as direct drilling or seeding. In this tillage
method, seed is directly drilled or planted into the
stubbled field of previous crop by opening upto 5 to 8 cm
soil strip with a fluted coulter.

6. Mulch tillage/Conservation tillage:

This tillage involves cutting the roots of weeds and plants
and leaving the crop residues over the soil surface or mix
into the top few centimeters of soil. The main purpose of
the tillage is to reduce the wind and water erosion.

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25
 Types of tillage implements
Tillage operations are often classified as;
 Primary tillage
 Secondary tillage
Primary tillage:
The initial breaking up of soil after crop harvest is
generally called as primary tillage.
Secondary tillage:
The operations carried out after primary tillage such as
breaking/pulverization of clods to prepare seed-bed
ready for planting is called as secondary tillage.

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 Primary tillage implements:
These implements are used for initial/major soil working
operation. They are normally designed to cut and invert the
soil and thereby reduce soil strength, cover plant materials
and rearrange aggregates. The primary implements are
given as;

i. Mould board plow (MB plow)

ii. Disc plow
iii. Chisel plow
iv. Sub-soiler

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 Secondary tillage implements:
These implements are used after primary tillage
implements mainly to cut and pulverize the soil and to
some extend invert the soil.
The secondary implements work at comparatively shallow
depths ranging from 3 to 6 inches.
Secondary tillage implements are;

i. Disc harrow
ii. Bar harrow
iii. Tine cultivator
iv. Sweep cultivator
v. Rotavators
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 Primary tillage implements
1. Mould Board (MB) Plow:
It is used after harvesting the crop to cut/loosen and
invert the soil into furrow slices with varying degree of
pulverization depending upon type of mould board
plow, soil type and speed of plowing. The specific
functions of MB Plow are;
To cut and break the soil.
To lift the soil.
To turn the soil.
To pulverize the soil (To some extent).
To burry weeds, trash and manure.
To plough deep. 29
Mould Board Plow

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 Parts of Mould Board Plow
i Share:
It is the first part of the plough to enter the soil and
cut a furrow slice.
ii Mould board:
The cut soil is lifted upward to the mould board
where it is inverted by the curvature of this
component.
iii Land side:
Assist in making a neat furrow. It presses against
furrow wall absorbing the side way thrust of the
plough. It may have detachable heel.
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Parts of Mould Board Plow

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iv. Frog:
The component that joins the share, mould board and
land side.

v. Beam:
Provides connection between the plough and source of
power.

vi. The Shin:

This is the cutting edge of mould board just above the
land-side and behind the share.

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Types of mould board
a) Stubble type:
It is short but broader mouldboard with a relatively abrupt
curvature which lifts, breaks and turns the furrow slice.
This is best suited to work in stubble soil that is under
cultivation for years together.
This type of mouldboard is not suitable for lands with full
of grasses.
b) Sod or Breaker type:
It is a long mould board with gentle curvature which lifts
and inverts the unbroken furrow slice. It turns over thickly
covered soil. This is very useful where complete inversion
of soil is required by the farmer.
This type has been designed for used in sod soils (soil with
much of grass)
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c) Slat type:
It is a mouldboard whose surface is made of slats placed
along the length of the mouldboard, so that there are gaps
between the slats.
This type of mouldboard is often used, where the soil is
sticky, because the solid mouldboard does not scour well
in sticky soils.

d) General purpose:
It is a mouldboard having medium curvature lying between
stubble and sod types. The sloping of the surface is
gradual. It turns a well defined furrow slice and pulverizes
the soil thoroughly.

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e) Hydraulic Reversible M.B Plough

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 Plough accessories
Jointer:
Small irregular piece of metal of shape of an ordinary plough
bottom. purpose is to turn over a small ribbon like furrow
slice directly in front of the main plough bottom.
Coulter:
to cut the furrow slice vertically from the land ahead of the
plough bottom.
It cuts the furrow slice from the land and leaves a clear wall.
It also cuts trashes which are covered under the soil by the
plough.
Gauge wheel:
Auxiliary wheel maintain an uniform depth.
Jointer Coulter
Throat clearance
It is the perpendicular distance between point of share and
lower position of the beam of the plough
Bottom Mould Board Plow

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2. Disc Plow
It has similar functions as M.B. Plow but disk plow is
preferred in stony, rocky, and sticky soils (Clay soil)
because the disk rolls over the stones. Due to rolling action
of disks, the soil that is stuck with discs is removed
automatically.

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Advantages Disadvantages:
It is used in stony and It does not turn and
rocky areas pulverize the soil so
In obstruction, this effectively as mould
plow will ride over. board plow
In sticky soils (Clay) It does not cover
the soil would be vegetation and trash
removed and cleaned by effectively
rolling action of disk. It is more costly
It penetrate deeper than Since it goes to deeper
mould board plow depth, it requires more
Its maintenance cost is horsepower.
less since there are no It leaves the soil cloddy
share or shin and rougher.
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 Design and Construction
 It consists of round, concave, heat treated disks with
sharp edges in order to cut the soil.
 Diameter of disks varies from 20-40 inches(50-100 cm).
 Size of plow is specified by diameter of disk.
 Thickness of disk varies from 0.5cm to 1.0cm.
 The disks are placed 22.5-30cm apart.

Disc and Tilt angle:

The disks when fitted have two angles;
(1) Disk angle:
The disk blades are set at an angle from the forward line
of travel called the disk angle. It varies from 42 to 45
degree. It controls the width of the furrow as well as
degree of pulverization. 45
(2) Tilt angle:
The angle of disk from the vertical line is called the tilt
angle.
It varies from 15 to 25 degree. It controls the depth of
penetration.

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47
Disc Plow

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Disc Plough

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(3)Chisel Plow:
The implement such as mould board plow, disk plow work
in top soil but chisel plow is used for subsurface tillage.
Features:
• Chisel plow goes upto a depth of 25-38cm.
• In erodable soils the chisel plow has been considered the
best to overcome the problem of run-off.
• It consist of two and three shanks fixed to a box type
structure.
• The shank may be straight, curved, or tapered.
• It works in hard pan below level of plowing.

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51
Chisel Plow

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(4)Sub-Soiler:
• It is identical in shape to a chisel plow except that a
single shank is used.
• It works upto a depth of 100cm.
• It goes much deeper.
• It is simple and ridge in construction.
• It is operated in sub-soil below to break hard pan and
make soil suitable for root development.
• It is usually operated after 3-5 years.
• It should be operated in dry and hard land, if it is
operated in wet soil, it will produce a compacted path
in soil.
• The horsepower required to pull sub soiler is 65-85hp.
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Sub-Soiler

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 Secondary Tillage Implements
1.Disk Harrow:
Disc harrow is similar in shape as disc plow except they
are smaller in size. Five or six disks are mounted on one
axle to make a gang. The concavity of disk harrow is less
as compared to disk plow, which results into less soil
inversion and more pulverization.

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 Disc Harrow
Disc harrows are general purpose tillage tool as their 2
passes are just equivalent to 5 passes of tine cultivator.
Uses:
 It is used after plowing to cut up vegetative matter that
may be on the surface, such as stalks, cotton stalks and
weeds, and to pulverize the soil.
 It is used after plowing to pulverize the soil to put in
better tilth for the reception of the seed.
 It is used for cultivating of crops.
 It is used for summer fallowing (ploughed but left
unsown).
 When seeds are broadcasted it is used to cover them.
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 Types of Disk Harrow
The gangs of disk harrow may be arranged to form
following types;
• Single acting disk harrow
• Double acting disk harrow
• Off-set disk harrow

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 Single acting disk Double acting disk
harrow: harrow:
 It consist of two sets of  It consists of front
gangs of disks (one set to and rear gangs of
the left and other to the disks.
right).
 The front gangs throw
 The left hand gang will the soil outward while
throw soil to the left and the rear gangs throw
right hand gang will throw the soil inward.
soil to the right i.e. in
opposite direction.  The implement will
pulverize the soil
 This type of soil, therefore, better and leave the
throws the soil outwards. field almost even.
 It leaves the field in an
uneven condition.
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Double Acting Disc Harrow

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Off-set disk harrow:
 It consist of two gangs of disks, off-set from line of
pull.
 The front gang throws the soil to the right and the
rear gang to the left.
 This type of harrow can be used in gardens with low
hanging branches of trees.
 It leaves the soil better.

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2.Field Cultivator/Narrow tine Cultivator
Important Features:
 It is just like chisel plow except that it is light in
construction.
 It goes to a shallow depth.
 It breaks clods and pulverizes the soil.
 If narrow tines are used, the soil between the tines is
skipped, therefore a greater number of operations are
required.

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 Tine Cultivator
 This implement does not invert the soil.
 A greater number of tines (from 9-17) may be used
with field cultivator depending upon size of cultivator.
These are classified into two categories;
i. Rigid tine cultivator
ii Spring tine cultivator (These are preferred as they
absorb shocks when hit an obstruction)
The depth of operation may be altered by;
 Changing the position of shovel on the tines by raising
or lowering it.
 Changing the pitch by means of the top link (in case of
mounted cultivator).
 Using the land wheel.
 Using the hydraulic system of the tractor
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Spring tine cultivator

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Rigid tine cultivator

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3. Sweep Cultivator:
Important Features:
 It is just like a narrow tine cultivator but instead of
narrow tines, sweep shovels are used.
 With the use of sweep shovels, no soil is skipped.
 Other features are the same as those of narrow tine
cultivator.
Note:
Narrow tine cultivator and sweep tine cultivator are
used for secondary tillage as well as for intercultural
operation.

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Sweep Cultivator

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4. Bar Harrow:
The bar harrow are of two types;
i. Spike tooth bar harrow ii.Spring tooth bar harrow
Spike tooth bar harrow:
 It consists of sections.
 The width of section is usually from 1.5-2.0m.
 The section is rectangular in shape, containing the rods
on which pegs or spikes are mounted or welded.
 The thickness of peg varies from 0.25 to 0.75inches.
 The pegs are made of heat treated steel and may be
replaced or sharpened when worn out.
 The pegs are slightly tilted from vertical.
 No. of pigs in a section varies from 20-30
 Length of peg is around 9inches. 67
Bar Harrow

68
 Uses:

 It breaks crust of soil formed by beating action of rain

and reduce the compaction occurred by human, animal
or machinery.
 It smoothes and levels soil surface to some extent.
 It stirs soil.
 It covers the seed of broadcast.
 It penetrates to a depth of about 5cm.
 It can mix up the manure.
 It can be used for intercultural operation.

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Spring tooth harrow:
 It consists of section on which curved bars are mounted.
 The thickness of the curved bar is 0.25 to 0.50 inches.
 The curved bar is made of spring steel.
 The number of curved bars in a section is around 12.
 The number of sections may vary according to horsepower
available.
 The length of curved bars may be upto 10 inches.

70
 Spring Tooth Harrow Uses:
 Because of spring action it can move easily on rocks
and stones.
 Because of curved bars it can pull out weeds.
 It can break up crust.
 It is used to increase moisture retention capacity of soil.
 It pulverizes the soil to greater extent.

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4. Rotavator
 It consist of number of curved blades fitted on horizontal revolving shaft.
 The shaft rotates with 200-300 rpm.
 It is operated with P.T.O shaft of tractor.
Uses and Advantages:
 It is used particularly for puddling operations.
 It cuts and invert the soil.
 It pulverizes the soil.
 It mix crop residue and organic matter with the soil. These operations like
cutting, inversion, pulverization are carried out in one operation.
Limitations:
• It requires more horsepower.
• It is expensive implement.
• Rotating blades may destroy useful bacteria.
• It destroys structure of soil, therefore it effects the aeration of soil.
• It is particularly used for puddling operation in rice zone and since it has to work
in flooded area, its working parts must be covered.
• It is used for mixing of crop residue in the soil.
ROTAVATOR

73
 ROTAVATOR

It is used as a primary cum secondary tillage impliment.It

helps to conserve previous soil moisture and pulverises
soil up-to 6 inches of depth.

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 74

 Rotavator / Rotary Tiller
 Preparing the land suitable for
sowing (without overturning
of the soil )

 For eradicating weeds

 Mixing manure or fertilizer

into soil

 To breakup and renovate

pasture for crushing clods

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 Rotary Tiller is ideal for smooth & speedy preparation for
root crops, fodder crops, orchards & cash crops.
 Enhances the soil fertility by mixing the residue of crops
like cotton, sugarcane, wheat and paddy.

 Efficient & economical for puddling. Suitable for dry and

wet soil condition because of sealed rotor bearings.

 Results in time & fuel saving. Lesser wear & tear of the
tractor as the soil preparation is accomplished in one or
two passes.

 Conserves soil moisture & helps water management as

tilling can be done immediately after harvesting the
previous crop.

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 76

 Advantages

 Rapid seed bed preparation

 Reduce draft compared to the
convectional tillage implement
 Less power loss
 Soil compaction reduce

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 77

 Types of rotary tiller
• Power rotary tiller

• Powered by tractor PTO shaft

• Note: The power required by

power tiller is 3 times greater than
the MB plough

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 78

 Principle of operation
 Applies direct tractor engine power to the soil
through the PTO with out the slippage of excessive
tractor weight.

 Good tillage management and proper operation, They

can provide a valuable tillage alterative to plough and
harrowing

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 79

 Two or three pairs of blades are used on each
flange which in turn are clamped to the rotor
shaft and may be shifted or removed for varying
tillage pattern

 As rotor shaft revolved each blade cut a slice

from untilled soil

 The cross sectional area of slice depend upon the

depth of tillage and the amount of the forward
tillage per cut

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 80

 Various factor effect the tilth
• Effect of soil
• Effect of rotor speed
• Effect of travel speed
• Effect of rear shield
• Effect of soil moisture
• Effect of number of blade

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 81

COMPONENT OF ROTARY TILLER

111 33

11
22
66
8

1100 77

55 44

1212 99

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 82

Cut section of Rotavator
Cut section of Rotavator
Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 83
 Size of cut or bite
• The size of the cut or bite of the rotary blade is
determined by the tractor forward speed, number of
blade and rotor speed

Dr. Abdul Ghafoor, Engr. Zeeshan Haydar 84

 (5) ROLLER
• Main objective of rollers are to consolidate the
soil, crust clods, and smooth the surface.

85
(6) Pulverizers

• Pulverizer is used to provide material size reduction for

pulverization of soil particle, shredding and turning soil.

86