Nuclear Physics TNOU

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
MPHS-42
SEMESTER - IV
Department of Physics
School of Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University
577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai - 600 015
www.tnou.ac.in
March 2023
Name of the Programme: M.Sc., Physics
Course Code: MPHS-42
Course Title: Nuclear Physics
Curriculum Design
Dr. E. Kumar
Assistant Professor of Physics
School of Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai - 15
Dr. P. Shanmugavelan
Assistant Professor of Chemistry
Department of Chemistry
School of Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai -15
Course Writer
Dr. A. N. Seethalakshmi
Assistant Professor,
Department of Physics,
The MDT Hindu College,
Tirunelveli – 10
Course Coordinator & Content Editor

Dr. E. Kumar
Assistant Professor of Physics
School of Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai - 15
Total No of Pages: 150
March 2023 ( First Edition)
ISBN No: 978-93-5706-469-9
©Tamil Nadu Open University

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SYLLABUS
COURSE TITLE : NUCLEAR PHYSICS
COURSE CODE : MPHS 42
COURSE CREDIT : 4
COURSE OBJECTIVES
While studying the NUCLEAR PHYSICS, the Learner shall be able to:
CO 1: Impart the knowledge regarding the fundamentals and basics of Nuclear
Structure
CO 2: Acquire knowledge about the various nuclear models.
CO 3: Learn the basic concept of nuclear reaction and nuclear decay
CO 4: Study about Nuclear forces and Properties of nuclear forces
CO 5: Learn the basics of elementary particles and their classification.
COURSE SYLLABUS
BLOCK I: Nuclear Structure

Distribution of Nuclear Charge-Nuclear Mass-Mass Spectroscopy-Bainbridge and
Jordan, Neir, Mass Spectrometer-Theories of Nuclear Composition (proton-electron,
proton neutron)- Bound States of Two Nucleons-Spin States-Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle-Concept of Hidden Variables-Tensor Force-Static Force-Exchange Force.
BLOCK II: Nuclear Models

Liquid Drop Model: Bohr Wheeler Theory of Fission-Condition for Spontaneous
Fission- Activation Energy-Seaborg’s Expression.
Shell Model: Explanation of Magic Numbers-Prediction of Shell Model-Prediction of
Nuclear Spin and Parity-Nuclear Statistics-Magnetic Moment of Nuclei-Schmidt
Lines-Nuclear Isomerism.
Collective Model: Explanation of Quadrupole Moments-Prediction of Sign of Electric
Quadrupole Moments.
BLOCK III: Nuclear reaction and nuclear decay

Types of nuclear reactions, elastic scattering, inelastic scattering, disintegration,
radiative capture, direct reaction – conservation laws – law of conservation of energy,
momentum, angular momentum, charge, spin , parity. Nuclear reaction kinematics –
Expression for Q-value Nuclear decay: Gawmow‟s theory of alpha decay, Fermi‟s
theory of beta decay – Fermi and Gawmow Teller selection rules – internal conversion
– nuclear isomerism
BLOCK IV: Nuclear forces and Properties of nuclear forces

Deuterons – properties of deuteron- ground state of deuteron – excited state –
magnetic quadrupole moment of deuteron- neutron- proton scattering at low energies
– proton – proton scattering at low energies – meson theory of nuclear forces-
reciprocity theorem – Breit- wigner one level formula
BLOCK V: Particle Physics

Leptons-Hadrons-Mesons-Hyperons-Pions-Meson Resonances-Strange Mesons and
Baryons-Gell-Mann Okuba Mass formula for Baryons-CP Violation in Neutral Kaons
(K0) Decay- Symmetry and Conversion Laws-Quark Model-Reaction and Decays-
Quark Structure of Hadrons.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE:
1. Introduction to Nuclear Physics – Herald Enge, Addision Wesley Pub. Co,

U.S.A.
2. Nuclear Physics – Irving Kaplan, Oxford & I.B.H Pub & Co.
3. Nuclear Physics – D.C.Tayal, Himalaya House, Bombay.
4. Elements of Nuclear Physics - M C Pandia and R P S Yadav
5. Nuclear Physics an Introduction - S B Patel
6. Atomic Nucleus – R.D.Evans, Mc-Graw Hill, 1955.
7. Nuclear Physics – R.R.Roy and B.P.Nigam, John Wiley 1967
Web Resources
1. Nuclear Physics - Definition, Nuclear Physics Theory, Radioactivity, Applications,
Examples, and FAQs (byjus.com)
2. Introduction to Nuclear Physics I Nuclear Physics II PHY 652 l MSc Physics l Physics
Guide - YouTube
3. Liquid Drop Model of Nucleus ( Binding Energy Formula) - YouTube
4. Liquid Drop Model l Nuclear Physics II ll MSc Physics Physics Guide - YouTube
5. Nuclear Physics || Liquid Drop Model & Semi- Empirical Mass Formula | CSIR-
NET/GATE Physics Problem - YouTube
6. Mod-01 Lec-17 Shell model - YouTube
7. Mod-01 Lec-18 Shell model Contd.. - YouTube
11. Collective Model of a Nucleus l Nuclear Physics II MSc Physics l Physics Guide -
YouTube
12. Collective Model | Physical sciences | Unacademy Live - CSIR UGC NET | Rahul
Mehla - YouTube
13. Mod-01 Lec-22 Collective models - YouTube
14. Types Of Nuclear Reaction (Part 2) l Nuclear Physics II PHY 652 l MSc Physics l Physics
Guide - YouTube
15. Nuclear Transmutation by Deuterons in details l Nuclear Physics l MSc Physics l
Physics Guide - YouTube
16. Types of Nuclear Reactions l Nuclear Physics II PHY 652 lMSc Physics l Physics Guide
- YouTube
17. Radioactive Decay - Definition | Radioactive Decay Law | Types of Radioactive Decay
(byjus.com)
18. Radioactive Decay and existence of Neutrinos in Beta-decay. Nuclear Physics MSc 3rd
- YouTube
19. Gamow's Theory of Alpha Decay AND Geiger Nuttal Law - YouTube
20. [DERIVATION ] Gamow's Theory of Alpha Decay - YouTube
21. Fermi Theory of Beta Decay | part-I | By Dr Asmat Elahi/English |Physics in Focus
#NuclearPhysics - YouTube
22. Nuclear Physics - Nuclear Decay : Fermi Theory of Beta Decay - 1 - YouTube
23. Properties of nuclear force||Saturation||Strong in nature & more||Lec:3||Bsc/Msc
- YouTube
24. Lecture 7 (5th Semester) - Nuclear forces - YouTube
25. Deutron Wave Function || Why Deuteron do not have any Excited States ???? || MSc
Physics - YouTube
26. Mod-01 Lec-11 Deuteron - YouTube
27. Mod-01 Lec-12 Deuteron Cont.. - YouTube
28. Mod-01 Lec-13 Deuteron Cont.. - YouTube
29. Mod-01 Lec-14 Scattering of nucleons - YouTube
30. Mod-01 Lec-15 Low energy n-p scattering - YouTube
31. Mod-01 Lec-16 Theories of nuclear forces - YouTube
32. Particle Physics master cadre Physics | Lecture -1 | Bansal Academy - YouTube
33. Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics - Richard Feynman - YouTube
34. Particle Physics| Introduction | Amazing In-Depth Lecture Series - YouTube
35. MSc Physics Classes || Introductory video of Particle PHYSICS || Classification of
Various Particles - YouTube
36. Particle Physics 1: Introduction - YouTube
37. Particle Physics 2: Creation and Annihilation Operators and Mass - YouTube
38. Particle Physics 3: Angular Momentum and Spin - YouTube
39. Particle Physics 4: Rotation Operators, SU(3)xSU(2)xU(1) - YouTube
40. Particle Physics 5: Basic Introduction to Gauge Theory, Symmetry & Higgs - YouTube
41. Particle Physics 6: Particles & Supersymmetry - YouTube
COURSE LEARING OUTCOMES
After completion of the NUCLEAR PHYSICS, the Learner will be able to:
CLO 1: Explain the Distribution of Nuclear Charge, Nuclear Mass ,Bound States of
Two Nucleons, Spin States and Pauli’s Exclusion principle
CLO 2: Discuss the Stability and properties of different nuclei by various nuclear
models.
CLO 3: Describe Radioactive α, β, γ -decay of nuclei by their respective quantum
mechanical theories, Conservation laws and various nuclear reactions.
CLO 4: Discuss the method and analysis of Scattering process & understand meson
theory of nuclear forces
CLO 5: Discuss the Elementary particles as the building blocks of matter and
interacting fields. Conservation laws and quantum numbers for
production and decay of particles.
Contents
Page
S.No. Title
No
1 BLOCK I - NUCLEAR STRUCTURE 1
1.1 Unit 1: Distribution of Nuclear Charge 2
1.2 Unit 2: Conservation Laws and Symmetry 10
1.3 Unit 3: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 17
1.4 Unit 4: Concept of Hidden Variable and Exchange Force 20
2 BLOCK II: NUCLEAR MODELS 34
2.1 Unit 5: Liquid Drop Model 35
2.2 Unit 6: Shell Model 44
2.3 Unit 7: Collective Model 51
3 BLOCK III: NUCLEAR REACTION AND NUCLEAR DECAY 55
3.1 Unit 8: Nuclear Reaction and Conservation Laws 56
3.2 Unit 9: Nuclear Decay 65
3.3 Unit 10: Nuclear Isomerism 83

BLOCK IV: NUCLEAR FORCES AND PROPERTIES OF
4 89
NUCLEAR FORCES
4.1 Unit 11: Deuteron 90
4.2 Unit 12: Scattering and Meson Theory of Nuclear Force 100
4.3 Unit 13: Reciprocity Theorem and B-W Formula 108
5 BLOCK V: PARTICLE PHYSICS 117
5.1 Unit 14: Classification of Elementary Particles 118
5.2 Unit 15: Conservation Laws and Symmetry 130
5.3 Unit 16: Quark Model 134
Appendix – Plagiarism Certificate 142

BLOCK I - NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
Unit 1: Distribution of Nuclear Charge
Unit 2: Conservation Laws and Symmetry
Unit 3: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Unit 4: Concept of Hidden Variable and
Exchange Force
1
UNIT 1
DISTRIBUTION OF NUCLEAR CHARGE
Structure
Overview
Objectives
1.1 Nuclear charge distribution
1.2 Mass Spectroscopy
1.2.1 Bainbridge and Jordan Mass-spectrograph

1.2.2 Double-focusing Mass Spectrometer
Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Answers to check your progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their
constituents and interactions. Other forms of nuclear matter are also
studied. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics,
which studies the atom as a whole, including its electrons. Many
properties depend on details of the nuclear structure. What are the
alternatives for the nuclear distributions used in calculations? In this
chapter we will discuss about Nuclear charge distribution and Mass
spectroscopy.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to explain:

➢ Nuclear Charge Distribution and Experimental information.
➢ Bain -bridge Mass Spectrograph and its advantages.
2
1.1 NUCLEAR CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
The early theorists, without a c c e s s to computers, had strong

reasons to use analytical descriptions of charge distributions
and potentials, that enabled series expansions of analytical
solutions of the wave functions within and close to the nucleus.
A common choice was the homogeneous charge distribution
inside a radius R = R0A1/3, where A is the mass
number of nucleus. The most important parameter for many
properties is the expectation value hr2i which has the value 3R2/5
for the homogeneous nucleus. Already this simple distribution gives
the correct analytical behavior of the electronic wave
functions at r = 0 and has been used in many early analyses.
These expansions are also useful for a general understanding of the
effects involved.
Experimental information
Experimental information about charge distributions are derived from
many sources, including electron scattering. The experimental data
indicate that R0 ' 1.2 fm gives a reasonable approximation for the
homogeneous distribution. Clearly, the tail of a real nucleus is less sharp
than indicated by the homogeneous distributions. It is often described in
terms of a “skin thickness” t, defined as the distance in which the charge
density falls from 90% of its central value to 10%. Experiments indicate
that t is about 2.3 fm for most nuclei. The primary data from electron
scattering experiments are expressed in terms of a “Fourier-Bessel
expansion”. It shows the resulting charge distribution for several different
nuclei. Another source are muonic X-ray energies. These probe
somewhat different moments, the “Barrett moments” hrke−αri, of the
nuclear distribution. Nevertheless, the results are quoted also in terms of
hr2i Optical isotope shifts provide an important source of complementary
information, in particular for chains of radioactive isotopes. It is found that
the changes in charge radius along an isotope chain are, in general,
smaller than indicated by the textbook formula above. The isotope shifts
also reveal an “oddeven staggering” of the hr2i values, providing evidence
of nuclear shell structure . A spectacular recent application is the
precision determination of the “deuteron structure radius” from the
hydrogen-deuterim isotope shift of the 1s – 2s two-photon resonance.
3
1.2 MASS SPECTROSCOPY:
Mass spectroscopy contains to play an important role in nuclear physics

because differences in masses between neighbouring nuclides reflect
differences in binding energies of the last nucleons. This is of great
interest and can be used for predicting disintegration and reaction
energies. Another important application of mass spectrometry is the
determination of the relative abundances of isotopes in a mixture.
Knowledge of the masses of middle weight and heavy nuclei is particularly
important in the theories of nuclear forces and nuclear structure.
1.2.1 Bainbridge and Jordan Mass-spectrograph
It is one of the best mass spectrographs, invented by K.T. Bainbridge
and E.B. Jordan. The systematic diagram, illustrating the main
components of the instrument is shown in fig.1.16. When the 1270
_
electrostatic analyser is employed, the resulting velocity dispersion can be
just annulled by a momentum filter if the total magnetic sector angle is
60o. The stray field at the edge of the magnet can be corrected by cutting
the edges of the poles by about 1.6 gap widths. These two filters have
been so arranged that the combination possesses the further advantage
of linear mass scale.
4
Ions are produced in a high voltage (20kV) low current discharge tube
with a fairly broad energy spread. They emerge into a cylindrical
electrostatic energy filter E maintained at a good high vacuum pressure
10-6 mm of Hg. It contains of a pair of cylindrical plates of radius of
curvature 25cm. The ions emerging from the energy filter E are then
analysed by the magnetic filter M into different mass species. Each
component is focussed as a line trace on the photographic plate. The
exit slit of the energy filter, the apex of the magnet and the photographic
plate are collinear.
After an exposure to the ion beam the plate is developed and the
positions of lines on the plate are observed with a travelling microscope.
By measuring ∆M, the width of the spectral line produced on the plate by
ions of mass M, the mass resolving power 𝛿(=M/∆M) of the mass
spectrograph can be calculated. The Bainbridge Jordan instrument, with
R approximately equal to 25cm for each filter, has a resolving power of
the order of 104. This corresponds to the separation on the photographic
plate of about 5 mm between spectral lines produced by ions differing in
mass by 1 per cent.
This instrument can measure atomic masses very accurately as it

has following advantages:
i. The mass displacement scale across the photographic plate is
very nearly linear;
5
ii. No attempt is made to deduce the mass of an ion from
the electron optics of spectrograph;
iii. The position of one spectral line is carefully compared with the
position of known mass reference lines;
iv. Once the dispersion factor ∆M/∆x across the detector is known,
M is determined from the measurement of the line spacing ∆x;
v. It has a resolving power of the order of 104

vi. The simultaneous focusing of velocity and direction enables the
use of beams diverging in direction to a much greater extent than
possible in other type of apparatuses and results in higher
intensities.
Because of the limited and nonlinear contrast scale of a
photographic emulsion, this instrument is less desirable for the
instrument is desirable for the measurement of isotopic abundance
ratios.
1.2.2 Double-focusing Mass Spectrometer
During recent years, mass spectrometry has advanced rapidly. One of
the most useful instruments was that of A.O. Nier and his group,
designed in 1951 at the University of Minnesota. It has extremely high
resolving power and sensitivity and is especially designed for searching
rare isotopes and measuring relative abundances. It now can measure
masses to an accuracy of about one part in a million. The accuracy is
increased by increasing the size of the apparatus and by using an
ingenious form of electrical recording.
Positive ions are formed in the ion source by the electron bombardment
of the gas under investigation. The ions are accelerated through a
potential difference of 40kv and are focussed on the fine slit S1, which is
0.0008 cm wide. This acceleration is equivalent to an energy filter of the
type shown in fig. 1.11. The second slit S2, 0.02 cm wide limits the
angular divergence of the ion beam entering the 900 electrostatic energy
filter. The energy filter has a pair of cylindrical plates placed 2 cm apart
with a radius of curvature of the order of 50 cm. A symmetric potential of
the order of 3 kV is applied to the plates. This filter will deflect and focus
the ions in such a way that ions of the same energy will converge toward
the same point on the slit S3 (0.4 cm wide). The ions are again
directionally focussed by the magnetic filter such that ions of the same
momentum passing through the same point at S3 will converge to ward
6
a point at slit S4 (0.0008 cm wide). The dimensions of the filters and the
slit distances are chosen so that the second velocity dispersion cancels
the first but the total mass dispersion is non zero. A mass spectrum is
therefore produced at S4. The lateral position of the impact of a given
ion at S4 is dependent only on the mass of the ion and practically
independent of velocity and the direction of the ion through slit S1.
Equations (39) and (40) show that the only ions which can be transmitted
successively through both filters must have the specific charge.
𝑣
𝑛𝑒 𝑟0 𝑉
= 𝑑 = 𝐾. 2
𝑀 𝑟𝑚2 𝐵 2 𝐵
Where K is a constant for any particular slit arrangement.

The mass spectrum of descrere values of 𝑛𝑒/M can therefore be obtained
by changing V, or B, or both. In order to avoid uncertainties due to
hysteresis in the magnet, generally B is kept constant and mass spectrum
is obtained by varying the potential applied to the electrostatic filter.
Simultaneously the accelerating potential at the ion soure exit is varied
proportionately. Both potentials being obtained from a common potential
divider. The transmitted ion current will generally be in the domain of 10-
12
amp or less and can be measured accurately with an electrometer or
an electron multiplier tube. The isotope abudances are closely
proportional to the magnitude of the peaks of the positive ion current.
The electrostatic deflector is a sector of cylindrical capacitor. The central

ray of the diverging beam enters and leaves the magnetic sector normal
to the field boundary. Calculations for these indicate that a beam diverging
from a point at a distance I from the field boundary converges at point at a
distance l from the exit field boundary. These distances are related as:
1 1
+ = 𝑘 sin 𝑘𝑟0∅
1 𝑘𝑟0∅ 𝑙 𝑘𝑟0∅
𝑙 + ( ) tan ( 2 ) 𝑙 ′ + ( ) tan ( 2 )
𝑘 𝑘
Where ∅ is the sector angle, r0 is the orbit radius for the central ray,
k=√2/r0 for electrostatic deflector and k=1/r0 for magnetic deflector. This
eqn is similar to the optical lens equation 1/v+1/u=1/f.
Numerical parameters for the Nier spectrometer

∅𝐞 = 𝟗𝟎 ∅𝐦 = 𝟔𝟎
r0e= 18.87 cm. r0m=15.24cm.
le=le’=6.61 cm. lm=34.77 cm, lm’=20.73cm.
7
Satisfy the lens equation for both sectors. It shows that particles diverging
from slit S1 will be directionally focused on slit s3 by the electrostatic lens
and then again directionally focused on slit s4 by the magnetic lens. Thus
we see that particles of different velocities will be focused from slit s1 to
slit s4. It can be shown that the total magnetic dispersion of Nier
spectrometer is given by the relation.
D(M)=0.133 (∆M/M) meter.
As the width of slit S4 is 0.0008 cm hence the maximum possible value of

which can be detected will be 0.0008cm.
Thus resolving power of this spectrometer is given by
R.P/ = (∆M/M) = D(M)/0.133=6x10-5
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1.What is nuclear charge distribution?

2. What is Bain-Bridge Mass Spectrograph?
LET US SUM UP
✓ The charge distribution is mainly determined by the

arrangement of the protons, and the matter distribution by those
of the neutrons and protons combined. The charge distribution is
most conveniently studied by using a probe that interacts only with
the charge, and in this respect the electron is ideal.
✓ A Bainbridge mass spectrometer basically consists of a
discharge tube which produces ions. The discharge tube
discharges a beam of positive ions into a tube. These positive ions
are produced when one or more electrons are removed from any
atom. The tube has two slits named S1 and S2 which makes them
collimated.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The charge distribution is mainly determined by the

arrangement of the protons, and the matter distribution by those
of the neutrons and protons combined. The charge distribution is
most conveniently studied by using a probe that interacts only with
8
the charge, and in this respect the electron is ideal.
2. Bainbridge mass spectro-meter is an instrument used for the
accurate determination of atomic masses. A schematic
diagram of this spectrometer is shown in Fig. Atoms with one or
more electrons removed, have a net positive charge and they
become positive ions
3.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What was the Mass Spectro-Graph used to discover?

2. What are the application of Mass spectroscopy?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Nuclear Physics – Irving Kaplan, Oxford & I.B.H Pub & Co..
2. Nuclear Physics – D.C.Tayal, Himalaya House, Bombay
Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6LoWEs8z1A4
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=josqjcH79PE
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXi246lq6Rs
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ivtgtanGpc
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=reZ9OLXBYPQ
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-d89s6Y3Sm0
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tsZAj26JxCs
8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzarLVLtnBk
9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVK6pgVeRDQ
9
UNIT 2
CONSERVATION LAWS AND SYMMETRY
Structure
Overview
Objectives
2.1 Theories of Nuclear Composition
2.2 Proton – Electron Theory
2.3 Proton – Neutron Theory
Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
You are now familiar with nuclear structure. In this unit, we discuss about
Proton -Electron theory and Proton _neutron theory. Until the discovery of
neutron this hypothesis was proposed. The fact that certain radioactive
elements emit alpha and beta particles both of them are corpuscular in
nature led to the idea that atoms are buildup of some elementary. This
theory was widely accepted as N and P are similar in many respects and
removed many discrepancies.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to

➢ Demonstrate the Nuclear Composition Theory
➢ Explain In P -N and P- E theory,

➢ discuss about finite size and spin consideration
10
2.1 THEORIES OF NUCLEAR COMPOSTION:
Rutherford’s nuclear theory based on the scattering of α-particles

suggested the nucleus to be of compact structure. Natural radio-activity
suggested that though the nucleus is compact, it is capable of emitting
several particles, e.g., α, β, ϒ, particles. The study of α and ϒ-ray spectra
suggests discrete levels in the nucleus while β-ray spectrum suggests a
new particle neutrino. Researches in artificial transmutation of elements
shows that α-particles, p,n, e- and e+ should be present in the nucleus
some how or the other. Cosmic rays studies predict us another of atomic
nuclei are:
I. All nuclei are +vely charged and the magnitude of the electric
charge is an integral multiple (Z) of the proton charge e.
II. More than 99.9 percent of the mass of an atom is concentrated
inside the tiny volume of the nucleus.
III. Nuclei are spherical or nearly spherical in shape having radius R
given by
R=R0A1/3
IV. The striking correlation between R and A suggests that there is a

universal density for nuclear matter.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑥1.66𝑥10−27
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌 = = = 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 4 𝜋(1.2𝑥10−15 )3𝐴
3
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1017
∴ Number of nucleons/c. c. = =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 (1.6𝑥10−27 )
= 1044 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 3
11
V. The nucleus is a tightly bound system of the nucleons with a large
potential energy.
Several theories of nuclear composition were put forward.
2.2 PROTON-ELECTRON THEORY
Prout suggested that all atomic weights were whole numbers and hence
could be assumed as the integral multiple of the atomic weight of
hydrogen. The slight change from the whole number was explained by the
presence of two or more isotopes. This hydrogen theory confirms the
presence of protons inside the atom. Since electrons are known to be
emitted from some nuclei, it was natural to believe in the beginning that
the electrons were the constituents of all nuclei. To account for the mass
of the nucleus whose atomic weight is nearly equal to the integer A, it was
necessary to assume that nucleus would consist A protons. But if this
were the case the charge on the nucleus would be A, not equal to the
atomic number Z. To remove this difficulty it was assumed that in addition
to A protons the atomic nuclei would contain (A- Z) electrons. These would
contribute a negligible amount to the mass nucleus but would make the
charge +Z as required.
This theory could explain the emission of α- and β-particles. Presence of
electrons in the nucleus showed that under the appropriate conditions one
of them might be ejected and two eletrons could combine with four protons
to form α-particle before emitting. This theory led to a number of
contradictions with experiments. We are giving few of them here.
Finite size
Since electrons are the spherical charges of finite dimensions, hence for
the heavy nucleus it is difficult to have several electrons as electron has a
small dimension.
Spin consideration
As electron and proton each has spin ½ (h/2π), hence the nucleus must
have integral spin if it contains an odd number of particles
(proton+electron) in the nucleus. But experimentally it has been found
that spin depends on the mass number A of the nucleus and is zero or an
integer for A even and is an odd half integral for A odd. For an atom
zXA(7N14) the no of particles inside the nucleus will be 2A-Z. Hence such
nucleus should have an half integral spin value, which is against the
observed facts.
12
Statistics-
For band spectra and Raman spectra the statistics of the 7N14 was found
to be Einstein- Bose. As it consists of 2A-Z fermions, hence should obey
Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Magnetic moment consideration –
Since the nucleus is electrically charges and the rotation of charged
particles gives rise to a magnetic moment. The magnetic moment
(eh/4𝜋m) of a proton is nearly 1837 times less than that of an electron.
The magnetic moments of all nuclei are small in comparison with the
magnetic moment of an electron. This shows that electron is not the
constituent of the nucleus.
Wave mechanical consideration –
According to the Heisonberg’s uncertainty principle ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝~ℎ. Suppose
that the principle is applied to an electron in the nucleus. The uncertainty
in position ∆𝑥 = 10-14 m as an electron is confined to a sphere of diameter
10-14m. Thus the uncertainty in the momentum
∆𝑝~10−34 / 10−14 (= 10−20 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟).
It is now assumed that the momentum p of the electron is same adjust

found for the uncertainty . Hence total energy of the electron is given by
E2=p2c2+m 2c4=9x10
0 -24+6.6x10-27
Or
E~3=10-12 joule or 20 MeV.
According to this result a free electron confined within the nucleus would
have a K.E. of the order of 20 MeV. Further experimentally, electrons
emitted by radioactive nuclei have never been found to have kinetic
energies greater that about 4 MeV. This large discrepancy shows that
nuclei cannot contain free electrons.
Compton wavelength –
Several theoretical considerations suggest that a bound fundamental
particle cannot be localised in the region smaller than its Compton
wavelength h/mc.
Compton wavelength of electron = 6.6x10-34 /9x10-31x3x108
13
=250x10-14=250 (Nuclear diameter) This excluders the possibility of
keeping the electrons inside the nucleus.
β–decay-The dual β–decay(e-&e+) exhibited in many nuclides could not
be explained with this theory. The annihilation, would occur if β– and β +
were inside the nucleus.
Electron-Neutrino Pairs – Fermi’s interpretation of β decay in terms of the
emission of an electron neutrino pair cannot be explained with electron-
proton theory.
2.2 PROTON-NEUTRON THEORY
The experimental discovery of the neutron led Heisenberg in 1932 to

suggest that the nuclei might be composed of protons and neutrons rather
than of protons and electrons. Thus for an atom zXA, the nucleus contains
Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons. The total number of particles inside the
nucleus=A, the atomic number. This nucleus is surrounded by Z electrons
to make the atom electrically neutral. This theory avoids the failure of
proton-electron theory.
Finite Size – Since neutrons have nearly the same mass as that of protons
and total number of nucleons are same as that of atomic number. Hence
it is not difficult for the nucleus to have neutrons in it.
Spin Consideration – Since both the proton and neutron have same spin
quantum number Hence according to the quantum theory, the resultant
spin of A nucleons 1/2 will be an integral or half integral multiple of h/2π
according as A is even or odd. This is in agreement with all the
experimental observations.
Statistics – Since the neutrons and protons are both fermions with spin
1/2 and their combination will agree with observations.
Magnetic Moment Consideration – Since mn ≈mp hence the value of
magnetic moment of the neutron is not very different in magnitude moment
of the neutron is not very different in magnitude to that of the proton. The
values for both the proton and neutron are consistent with those measured
for many different nuclei.
Wave Mechanical Consideration – It is assumed, as in the case of the
electron that the momentum is of the order of uncertainty in the
momentum ~(ℎ/∆𝑥) . Hence the total energy of the proton is given by
E2 =p2c2+m2c4
=(10-20)2x(3x108)2+(1.67x10-27)2(3x108)4)
14
Or
E = 940 MeV.
This value is slightly greater than rest energy of proton which is 938 MeV.
Hence the K.E. of neutron or proton in the nucleus is of the order of few
MeV and it should be possible for a free neutron or proton to be contained
in the nucleus.
Compton Wavelength – Compton wavelength of neutron is given by the

relation.
λ=h/mc=6.6x10-34/1.67x10-27x3x108
=0.14 (Nuclear diameter).
Thus the protons and neutrons can be squarized into nuclear volume.
β-Decay. The β–ray emission from some nuclei can be suggested as
follows: the electron does not pre-exist in the nucleus but is formed at the
time of emission as indicated by the equation
n →p+e-+v
β+-decay is due to the reaction p→n+e++v.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Finite Size and Spin Consideration in P – E Theory?
LET US SUM UP
❖ In 1932, scientist Chadwick discovered neutron. Neutron is a

charge less particle whose mass is about the same mass of the
proton. After the discovery of the neutron, scientists concluded
that other than hydrogen all other nucleus consists of proton
and neutron. This is the proton- neutron theory.
❖ It was considered that proton and electron were constituent

particles of nucleus. This consideration was based on following
hypothesis: During radioactive decay, beta particles are emitted
15
and they were proved to be fast moving electrons.
❖ According to proton electron hypothesis the nucleus of an atom of
mass no A and atomic no Z is made up of A protons and (A-Z)
electrons. As every atom is electrically neutral, it must contain Z
more electrons they revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits.
however, this hypothesis was rejected later due to some reasons.
1. Finite size: each electron is spherical in shape and have finite

dimensions so in heavy nuclei it is difficult to have large number of
nucleons in a small nucleus. • Spin consideration: Both proton as
well as electron possess half (1/2) spin so the nucleus has integral
spin if p+e= even.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What is Dis advantage of P-E theory?

2. what is Nuclear composition?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Nuclear Physics -S.N.Ghoshal

Web Resources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jf6MSWoZRmc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AeDMgbPL7R4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-X8NWpXpmAU
16
UNIT 3
PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Structure
Overview
Objective2
3.1 Paulis Exclusion Principle
Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
In the last unit 1 and unit 2 we discuss about, Nuclear Structure and
Theories of Nuclear Decomposition. In this chapter, we spoke about
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. The Pauli exclusion principle says that no two
identical fermions can simultaneously occupy the same quantum state
OBJECTIVES

➢ Four stages of Quantum Numbers
➢ define Paulis Exclusion Principle
PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE:
Pauli exclusion principle is the principle formulated by Wolfgang Pauli

in 1925, which states that:
No two electrons can occupy the same quantum-mechanical state within
a given quantum system simultaneously.
In terms of the quantum numbers:
No two electrons in an atom can have the same values as all four quantum
17
numbers.
Two electrons of a multielectron atom can’t have the same values as
the four quantum numbers:
• n – the principal quantum number,

• ℓ – the angular momentum quantum number
• mℓ – the magnetic quantum number,
• ms – the spin quantum number.
Mathematically this means the wave functions of the two particles must
be antisymmetric, which leads to the probability amplitude of the wave
function going to zero if the two fermionic particles are the same.
The Pauli exclusion principle requires the electrons in an atom to occupy
different energy levels instead of them all condensing in the ground state.
The ordering of the electrons in the ground state of multielectron atoms
starts with the lowest energy state (ground state). It moves progressively
up the energy scale until each atom’s electrons have been assigned a
unique set of quantum numbers. This fact has key implications for building
up the periodic table of elements.
It must be noted chemical properties of atoms are determined by the
number of protons, in fact, by the number and arrangement of electrons.
The configuration of these electrons follows the principles of quantum
mechanics and the Pauli exclusion principle. The number of electrons
in each element’s electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell,
is the primary factor determining its chemical bonding behavior. Without
the Pauli exclusion principle, there would be no chemistry. This principle
must be considered for any particles whose spin quantum number s is
not zero or an integer. Therefore, this principle applies not only to
electrons but also to protons and neutrons, all of which have half-integer
spin.
Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons, which attract
each other through the nuclear force, while protons repel each other via
electromagnetic force due to their positive charge. These two forces
compete, leading to various stability of nuclei. There are only certain
combinations of neutrons and protons which form stable nuclei.
Neutrons stabilize the nucleus because they attract each other and
protons, which helps offset the electrical repulsion between protons. As a
result, as the number of protons increases, an increasing ratio of
neutrons to protons is needed to form a stable nucleus. Suppose there
are too many (neutrons also obey the Pauli exclusion principle) or too
18
few neutrons for a given number of protons. In that case, the resulting
nucleus is not stable, and it undergoes radioactive decay. Unstable
isotopes decay through various radioactive decay pathways, most
commonly alpha decay, beta decay, or electron capture. Many other rare
types of decay, such as spontaneous fission or neutron emission, are
known.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Paulis Exclusion Principle?
LET US SUM UP
✓ Behaviour of particles in a system whose wave functions are

symmetric: both particles 1 and 2 can simultaneously exist in the
same state, with a=b.
✓ Behaviour of particles in a system whose wave functions are
antisymmetric, with a=b, ψA =0; the two particles cannot be in the
same quantum state.
1. 1.No two electrons can occupy the same quantum-mechanical

state within a given quantum system simultaneously.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What are Paulis Exclusion principle application?
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zlp2GQ3OLeE
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxuZrxXFH2k
19
UNIT 4
CONCEPT OF HIDDEN VARIABLE AND EXCHANGE FORCE
Structure
Overview
Objectives
4.1 Hidden Variable Theory
4.2 Exchange Force
4.3 Tensor Force

Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
A force is defined as a push or pull that changes an object’s state of

motion or causes the object to deform. Newton defined a force as anything
that caused an object to accelerate according to F = ma, where F is force,
m is mass and a is acceleration. The familiar force of gravity pulls you down
into your seat, toward the Earth’s center. You feel it as your weight. Why
don’t you fall through your seat?Well, another force, electromagnetism,
holds the atoms of your seat together, preventing your atoms from
intruding on those of your seat. The remaining two forces work at the
atomic level, which we never feel, despite being made of atoms. The strong
force holds the nucleus together. Lastly, the weak force is responsible for
radioactive decay, specifically, beta decay where a neutron within the
nucleus changes into a proton and an electron, which is ejected from the
nucleus. Thus, there are four fundamental forces present in nature. Let’s
now discuss about Exchange force, Static and Tensor force
20
OBJECTIVED
• Define hidden variable

• Types of Exchange force, Saturation of Nuclear force
• Static and Tensor force
4.1 HIDDEN-VARIABLE THEORY
In physics, hidden-variable theories are proposals to provide

explanations of quantum mechanical phenomena through the introduction
of unobservable hypothetical entities. The existence of fundamental
indeterminacy for some measurements is assumed as part of the
mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics; moreover, bounds for
indeterminacy can be expressed in a quantitative form by the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. Most hidden-variable theories are attempts at a
deterministic description of quantum mechanics, to avoid quantum
indeterminacy, but at the expense of requiring the existence of nonlocal
interactions.
No one ever really questioned the second point; the controversy lay
entirely with the first point. Bohm and Einstein supported an alternative
approach called the hidden-variables theory, which suggested that
quantum mechanics was incomplete. In this viewpoint, there had to be
some aspect of quantum mechanics that wasn't immediately obvious but
which needed to be added into the theory to explain this sort of non-local
effect.
As an analogy, consider that you have two envelopes that each contain
money. You have been told that one of them contains a $5 bill and the
other contains a $10 bill. If you open one envelope and it contains a $5
bill, then you know for sure that the other envelope contains the $10 bill.
The problem with this analogy is that quantum mechanics definitely doesn't
appear to work this way. In the case of the money, each envelope contains
a specific bill, even if I never get around to looking in them.
4.2 EXCHANGE FORCES AND TENSOR FORCES
Yewton’s law of gravitation and coulomb’s law of Electrostatics were

originally based on the concept of action – at – a – distance. Later, in the
nineteenth century this concept was replaced by the notion of a field. Two
particles interact through the fields that they establish; one particle sets up
a field and then other interact with that field, rather than directly with the
21
first particle. Quantum field theory takes this notion one step further by
supposing that the field are carried by quanta. In this view, instead of first
setting up field, we say that it emits quanta of the field. The second particle
then absorbs these quanta. For example, the electromagnetic interaction
between two particles can be viewed in terms of emission and absorption
of photons, which are quanta of electromagnetic field. Each type of field
has its characteristic particles. There are Four Basic Forces as listed
below.
The Four Basic Forces
Type Range Relative Characteristic

Strength Time
Strong 1fm 1 10-23
Electromagnetic ∞ 10-2 10-14 s - 10-20s
Weak << 1fm 10-7 10-8 s - 10-13s
Gravitational ∞ 10-38 Years
A list of particles associated with the four basic forces are listed
below:
Rest
Particle Symbol Interaction Charge Spin
Energy
(e) (h/2𝜋) (Gev)
Graviton - Gravitation 2 0
Weak Bosom W+,W- Weak ±1 1 80.6
Weak Bosom Zo Weak 0 1 91.2
Photon r Electromagnetic 0 1 0
Gluon g Strong
0 1 0
(color)
22
4.2 EXCHANGE FORCES
A force accomplished through exchange of particles is called an

“Exchange Force”. For example the force between two nucleons in a
takes place through the exchange of pions. In this case the pions,
along with other mesons can act as field particles associated with the
strong force between nucleons.
How is it possible for a particle, such as a proton to emit another
particle with non-zero mass and still remain a proton? This process
seems to violate conservation of energy. The solution to this dilemma
lies in energy –time form of uncertainly relationships. The uncertainly
principle is a fundamental limitation on our ability to measure a system.
That is, if we observe a system for a time interval Δ t, there is
corresponding uncertainly Δ E in its energy.
ℎ
∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 =
2𝜋
ℎ
∆𝐸 =
2𝜋∆𝑡
We can not know the energy of a system more precisely this Δ E unless
we measure for a time longer than Δ t. 2f we observe only for a very short
time, the uncertainly in rest energy of a proton can be at least as large as
the rest energy of pion (140 Mev).
For proton’s rest energy to be uncertain by an amount
an amount ∆E = mπc2 = 140Mev (Pion’s rest energy)
∆t = h = h = 4.14 x 10-15 ev.s = 4.7 x 10-24 s
(Characteristic of 2π ∆E 2π mπc2 (2π) (140Mev) strong interaction)

In the time interval shorter than 4.7x10-24s, a proton can emit and absorb
a pion without our observing a violation of conservation of Energy.
2f the pion travels at speed of light, the maximum distance d, it can travel
in this time interval is
d = C ∆t = (3.00 x 108 m) (4.7 x 10-24 s) = 1.4 fm s
The distance defines the range of nuclear force. Two nucleons closer than
about 1.4 fm can interact through exchange of pions. 2t the nucleons are
23
separated by a greater distance, pion exchange can not operate and there
is no nuclear force.
In 1935, the Japanese Physicist, Hideki Yukawa proposed the famous
theory of “Exchange of Mesons by Nucleons”. Mesons exchange leads to
“exchange forces”. Yukawa conceived the idea of treating the nuclear
force originating from exchange of a particle with non-zero rest mass. He
postulated that each nucleon is surrounded by a meson field. As a
result it continuously emit and absorbs particles called mesons. An
exchange of mesons leads to a constant transfer of momentum from one
nucleon to the other hence a force is exerted between them.
p → p = πo → p
It took about 12 years when mesons responsible for the strong nuclear
interaction were discovered by physicists (Lattes, Eugene Cardner and
the team) using high energy accelerators at Berkley, University of
California. These are the so called – meson. There are three types of –
mesons or pions have been discovered.
n → n + π o ; p → n+ π + or n = p + π -
Two types of pions π + and π - are charged and one type π o is neutral
Charge π+ πo π-
Mass +e 0 -e
139.6 mev 135 mev 139.6 mev
Spin 0 0 0
Magnetic Moment 0 0 0
The existence of mesons was also confirmed in 1947 by a team led by the
English Physicists Frank Powell with discovery of pimeson(pion) in cosmic
ray particle interactions.
Yukawa also wrote an approximate expression for potential energy of

interaction between two nucleons
−𝑐 𝑒 −𝑟/𝑅
𝑣=
𝑟
C is a constant, r is the internucleon distance and R is the range of the

force.
24
v 1 2 r in fm
−𝑐 𝑒 −𝑟/𝑅
← 𝑣= 𝑟
yukawa potential
Types of Exchange Forces

(i) The space exchange or Majorana force
(ii) The spin exchange or Bartleft force
(iii) The space – spin exchange or Heisenberg force
Majorana force
For Majorana force, an exchange of coordinates changes the sign of the
wave function Ψ if the parity is odd and leaves Ψ unchanged if perity is
Ever. Whether the parity is Even or Odd is determined by the orbital
angular momentum L. Thus if Majorana potential is denoted by Vm after
operating on Ψ, we get
Vm = α (r) Ψ for even L
= -α (r) Ψ for odd L
α (r) is a function of r alone. Thus schrÖdinger equation is
ℏ2 2
[( ) ∇ + 𝐸] Ψ(𝑟⃗) = (−1)𝑙+𝑠+1 𝑉(𝑟⃗)Ψ(𝑟⃗)
𝑚
This equation indicates that the force is always attractive for states of even
L and always repulsive for states of odd L.
Bartleft Force
For Bartleft force, its potential is denoted by VB Vm Ψ = β (r) Ψ for
total spin S=1
= -β (r) Ψ for S=0
For s=1 an interchange of spins does not affect the wave functions while
for s=0 it changes the sign of the wave function. Barleft force explains why
25
nucleon potential is different for S=0 and S=1 i,e nucleon spins antiparallel
or parallel. Schrodinger equation can be written as
ℏ2
[( ) ∇2 + 𝐸] Ψ(𝑟⃗) = (−1)𝑠+1 𝑉(𝑟⃗)Ψ(𝑟⃗)
𝑚
This relation is equivalent to an ordinary potential which changes sign

between S=0 and S=1. The nuclear force can not be totally of the Barleft
type because it is clear from neutron – proton scattering data that both 3S
potentials are attractive.
Heisenberg Force
Heisenberg potential is defined as
Vm Ψ = γ (r) Ψ for s=1, L is even s=0, L is odd

= - γ (r) Ψ for s=0, L is even
s=1, L is odd Whereas before γ (r) is a function of r alone.
The wave function of two particles is symmetric for l+s odd Schrodinger
equation can be written as
ℏ2 2
[( ) ∇ + 𝐸] Ψ(𝑟⃗) = (−1)𝑠+1 𝑉(𝑟⃗)Ψ(𝑟⃗)
𝑚
This relation indicates that sign of ordinary potential is positive if (L+s) is

odd and negative if (L+s) is even. This gives that the force is attractive for
even L + riplet states and odd L singlet states but is repulsive in odd L +
riplet and even L singlet states. These for 3s and 1sstates indicates that
the nuclear force can not be wholly of Heisenberg type.
Heisenberg’s potential combines the effects of Majorana and Barleft
potentials. One usually introduces the isobaric spin or Isotopic spin or
Simply Isospin (¿-spin) to refer to the Heisenberg potential. It may be put
as
Vh Ψ = +γ (r) Ψ for T=0,
= -γ (r) Ψ for T=1
Wigner Force
In addition to three exchange forces, there can be an ordinary i.e no
exchange force called Wigner force. It can be written as:
26
Vw Ψ = δ (r) Ψ
Schrödinger wave equation can be written as
ℏ2 2
[( ) ∇ + 𝐸] Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2 = 𝑉(𝑟⃗)Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2
𝑚
The interaction does not cause any exchange between coordinates of two
particles and therefore no exchange of any particle properties.
The Meson theory provides a physical basis to these exchange potentials.
All these four potentials depend only on r and so are central in character.
The difference between n-p interactions in these states can be 25 percent
Heisenberg or Bartlett and 75% Wigner or Majorana.
These three types of exchange operators are may be represented by PW,
PM, PB and PH. Thus,
Schrödinger equations may be writer as
PW Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2 = Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2
PM Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2 = Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2
PB Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2 = Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎1
PH Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎2 = Ψ(𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗,
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗;
𝑟1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝜎2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝜎1
Wigner operator is simply an identity operator. The Majorana exchange

operator interchanges the Positions of two particles leaving their spin
directions unaffected. The Bartlett exchange operator exchanges operator
exchanges the spin directions of two particles, leaving their positions
unaffected. The Heisenberg exchange operator interchanges both
position and spin directions. Therefore we may write.
Pw=1, PH=PM PB and (PM)2 = (PB)2 =(PH)2 =1
This shows that each of the three exchange operator Ral only to Eigen
states +1 and
-1. The Majorana exchange operator is +1 for states of even L and -1 for
odd L. The Bartlett exchange operator gives +1 in triplet states and -1 in
singlet states, independent of L. The Various States of two particle system,
the exchange operators have the values given below
27
Operator Even Parity states Odd Parity States
Triplet Singlet Triplet Singlet
PM 1 1 -1 -1
PB 1 -1 1 -1
PH 1 -1 -1 1
Saturation of Nuclear Forces
When we consider a system comprising of more than two particles, we

must expect some Complications. There are two important facts; the
density of nucleons is roughly equal for all nuclei (saturation of density),
and the binding energy per nucleon (E / A) is roughly Equal for all nuclei
(saturation of binding energy)
In case of two body problem, following assumptions have been made
about nuclear forces:
a) The nuclear force acts between the pairs of nucleons and is not
influences by presence of neighboring nucleons.
b) The nuclear force between the nuclear is velocity independent,

always attractive, Independent of the type of the nucleons and is
same for all relative force orbital angular Moment.
c) It is predominantly a central force
These assumptions do not correspond to reality. The first assumption is
modified. The Force between two nucleons is attractive for distances r 7d
and repulsive otherwise. Hence d is of the order of the distance between
nearest neighbors in the nuclei. For r<d, the force is attractive or repulsive
depend on the state of two nucleons with respect to each other.
The most general potential of the exchange type is written in the form
V= V (𝑟⃗)+ = VW(𝑟⃗)+ VM(𝑟⃗) PM+ VB(𝑟⃗) PB+ VH(𝑟⃗) PH
Exchange of Gluons
According to Quark model proposed independently by Murray Gellmann
and George zweig in 1964, mesons are composed of a quark and
antiquark, while the baryons are composed of three quarks. For ۸mesons
28
quark is π + → ud ; π - -> du and π o→uu or dd For nucleon, proton →uced
and for neutron → udd. Then, the question arises “what holds the quarks
together inside a meson or a nucleon? This force is the most fundamental
version of strong force brought about through exchange of particles called
“gluons”. Just as the electromagnetic force between charged particle can
be regarded as an exchange of Photons, are strong force between quarks
is accomplished through exchange of gluons. We therefore picture a
nucleon as composed of three quarks mutually nucleon is three quarks
“Swimming in a sea” of exchanges gluons.
The force between quarks has two unusual properties (i) It takes a large
(perhaps
Infinite) energy to separate two quarks to a distance greater than the sign
of the nucleon or a Meson (about ifm ). This may be the reason that no
force quarks have yet been seen
(ii) Paradoxically, inside the nucleon or the meson, the quarks appear to
move freely. At very short distance (less than size of a nucleon), the force
between quarks approaches zero.
This unusual behavior of quarks and gluons can be understood by
comparison with Electromagnetism. Two charged particles interact with
one another through the exchange of photons itself carrier no electric
charge and so interaction between charged particles and exchanged
photons does not result in exchange of additional photons. A quark, on
the other hand, can emit a gluons and interact with it. This force between
the quark and gluons can create additional gluons. In electromagnetic
interaction, the charge does not sacrifice its” electriness” (i.e. its electric
charge) to emit photons. A quark, however, gives its emitted gluon a share
of its “strongness”, which physicists call “color”. In interaction of quarks,
color plays the same role as electric charge in the interaction of charged
particles. A photon carries no electric charge, but a gluon carries “color”
and in doing so it changes the residual color left behind in tae quark that
emitted gluon. In effect, the quark is spreading its color over a sphere the
size of a nucleon (the range of gluons), and as a result the interaction
between quarks is considerably weakened at these distances.
4.3 TENSOR FORCES
Exchange forces with V(r) are central forces and do not cause mixing of
orbital angular momenta 2b the potential includes a tensor force, this will
mix different l’s. This makes one consider velocity dependent forces. L. S
29
the spin – orbit interaction is an example of the velocity – dependent forces.
Its magnitude depends on the angle between the spin and orbital motion as
well as on magnitude of L . 2f s=0, it becomes equal to zero. The physical
effect of changing the angular momentum is “torque (τ )”. The torque is
related to the potential as
τ = /𝑟⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐹⃗ / = r F0= - (𝜕V/𝜕Ɵ) ……… (1)
A change in the angular momentum implies that the potential V is not just a
function of r as assumed in central force but it is function of also. The
force responsible for this is dependent not on r alone as in case of pure
central force. It also depends on θ , the angle between the spin angular
momentum direction and the line toining the nucleons. This force is clearly
a non-central force and it is called “tensor force”. The value of tensor force
depends on the angle θ which is measured from the direction of the spin
vector s. Therefore, tensor force is a function of s . r. It depends on the way
of orientation.
N N N
S S S
N
S
(a) Repulsive Force (b) Attractive Force (c) Repulsive
(a) Attractive
For deutrom , the force is repulsive (fig c) when the spins are parallel and
perpendicular to the line Joining the nucleons. When the parallel spins
are also parallel to the line joining the nucleons (fig d), the force is
attractive. Figs (c) and (d) indicate that for the same separation of the two
nucleons, how tensor force can be repulsive and attractive. There is no
tensor force for l=o i,e for is state, since there is perfect spherical
symmetry and the force is entirely central.
2f we assure that the nuclear force between nucleons is the same for a
pair of protons a pair of Neutrons or a pair of neutron and proton, when
interchanging particles reverses sign of both the distance r between the
nucleons and their relative momentum p However, the sign of the angular
momentum vector s = r x p, remains unchanged because a sign change
twice leaves s unchanged in sign. We consider angular momentum of the
dantron to be due to its total Spin so . As a result we can not have a tern
30
like s . r and so the tenser force must therefore be proportional to (s . r)2
or to higher even power of scalar product. The actual nuclear potential,
representing the Nuclear force can be written as
V (nuclear) = Vc (central) + Vt (tensor) ……(2)
Vt is additional non-central tern is the tensor potential. It is found to be
(𝑠⃗.𝑟⃗)2
Vt(tensor) = r [ 2 [ 3 - 𝑠⃗. 𝑠⃗ ] …….(3)
𝑟2
The factor r2 in the denominator of the first term makes its dimensionless.
The second term is added to average over θ =0 so that there is no part
due to central potential in equation (3). The Reason why Vt is called “
tensor potential” is that, it is actually a Scalar product of two second – rank
tensors. The tensor force ( non – central force) is capable of explaining
the deuteron quadrupole moment.
The tensor force may or may not have an exchange character. The tensor
operator S12 Commutes with Bartlett spin exchange operator PB. PB S12
= PB = S12
And there are two types of tensor force only, the ordinary (Wigner) tensor
force and tensor with majorana exchange character. Therefore, the most
general potential of the exchange type has the form
V= VW(𝑟⃗)+ VM(𝑟⃗) PM+ VB(𝑟⃗) PB+ VH(𝑟⃗) PH + VTM(𝑟⃗) S12PM + VTW(𝑟⃗)

S12
This potential also has tensor operator S12 tern for mixtures of Wigner and
majorana forces. More General forms of potentials have been discussed
by Gillet, Green and Sanderson in 1966.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Hidden Variable?

2. Why Nuclear force is called Exchange force?
LET US SUM UP
❖ Endly we want to remark that nuclear reactions concern quantum

extended systems in accelerated frame and cannot be described,
we think, by relativistic generalizations of the formalism of Quantum
31
Mechanics; in fact, we think that even nucleon spin and nucleon
entanglement could be explained as emergent properties of
hidden path memory dependent interactions, generalizing, for
example, the velocity dependent Weber forces or the volume
dependent Bjerknes acoustic forces.
❖ The force between quarks, which is created by the exchange of
gluons, has the feature of being very strong at the low energy scale
that is characteristic of nuclear physics.
❖ The preferred meaning of exchange force is in particle physics,
where it denotes a force produced by the exchange of force
carrier particles, such as the electromagnetic force produced by
the exchange of photons between electrons and the strong force
produced by the exchange of gluons between quarks.
❖ The nuclear force also has a tensor component which depends on
the interaction between the nucleon spins and the angular
momentum of the nucleons, leading to deformation from a
simple spherical shape.
1. Hidden-variable theories, in physics, the proposition that statistical

models of physical systems (such as Quantum mechanics) are
inherently incomplete, and that the apparent randomness of a
system depends not on collapsing wave functions, but rather due
to unseen or unmeasurable (and thus "hidden") variables.
2. This is because the force between two nucleons is due to the

exchange of `pi`-mesons between them
3. The nuclear force also has a tensor component which depends on
the interaction between the nucleon spins and the angular
momentum of the nucleons, leading to deformation from a
simple spherical shape.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on Yukawa Meson Theory?

2. Write about Tensor Potential.
SUGGESTED READINGS
32
Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-y7FTimyDs
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLt-eKLbhv4
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2w1pfonARQY
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ziQPYIrNfE
33
BLOCK II: NUCLEAR MODELS
Unit 5: Liquid Drop Model
Unit 6: Shell Model
Unit 7: Collective Model
34
UNIT 5
LIQUID DROP MODEL
Structure
Overview
Objectives
5.1 Liquid Drop Model
5.2 Deformation of Liquid Drop Model
5.3 Bohr and Wheeler’s Theory of Nuclear fission

1.1 Let Us Sum Up
1.2 Check Your Progress
1.3 Answers to check your progress
1.4 Unit end exercises
1.5 Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
In the absence of comprehensive nuclear theory, we turn to the

construction of nuclear models. The use fulness of a model is tested by
its ability to provide predictions. It should be mentioned that each of the
models is based on a plausible analogy that correlates a large amount
of information and enables predictions of the properties of nuclei.
OBJECTIVES

➢ Classify liquid drop model and deformation
➢ Calculate Excitation Energy and Critical Energy
5.1 LIQUID DROP MODEL
The constant density of the nuclear matter and the constant binding
energy per nucleon are very similar to those found in a liquid drop. The
very strong short range interaction between the nucleon permits us to
35
consider their collective behavior in determining the properties of the
nucleus.
There are reasons to believe that each individual molecule within a liquid
drop exerts an attractive force upon a group of molecules in its immediate
neighborhood. The force of interaction does not extend to all the
molecules within the drop. This is known as the saturation of the force. In
order to calculate the potential of the interaction, it is necessary to know
the number of interacting pairs of molecules within the drop.
The binding energy BE of a nucleus is proportional linearly to the number
of nucleus within it, so that the binding fraction fB is linearly constant for
most nuclei. This fact shows a close resemblance of the nucleus with a
liquid drop. Thus we come to the conclusion that the inter nucleon force
within the nucleus attains a saturation value, so that each nucleon can
interact only with a limited number of nucleon in its close vicinity. Apart
from this, there are certain other points of resemblance between the
nucleus of an atom and a liquid drop:
1. The nuclear force is similar to the force of surface tension on the
surface of the liquid drop.
2. As in the case of a liquid drop, the density of the nuclear matter is
independent of its volume. The nuclear radius R0 A1/3 where A is
the mass number. Hence the nuclear volume VA. Since the
nuclear mass M~A, the density of the nuclear matter ρm = M/V is
independent of A.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀 𝑀 3
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 1 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 4 𝜋𝑅 3 4
𝜋(𝑅 𝐴 3 ) 3 4𝜋𝑅0 3
3 3 0
3. The different types of particles, e.g., neutrons, protons, deuterons,

α-particles etc. are emitted during nuclear reactions. These
processes are analogous to the emission of the molecules from
the liquid drop during evaporation.
4. The internal energy of the nucleus is analogous to the heat energy

within the liquid drop.
5. The formation of the short lived compound nucleus by the
absorption of a nuclear particle in a nucleus during a nuclear
reaction is analogous to the process of condensation from the
vapour to the liquid phase in the case of the liquid drop.
36
The liquid drop model is not very successful in describing the low lying
excited states of the nucleus. Because of the collective motions of the
large number of nucleons involved, the model gives rise to closely
spaced energy levels. Actually however, these are found to be quite
widely spaced at low excitation energies.
5.2 DEFORMATION OF LIQUID DROP
The fission process can be explained with the help of liquid drop
model. The incident neutron combines with the nucleus to form
highly energetic compound nucleus. Its extra energy is partly the
kinetic energy of the neutron but largely the added binding energy
of the incident neutron. This energy appears to initiate a series of
rapid oscillations in the drop, which tend to distort the spherical
shape so that the drop may become ellipsoidal in shape. The
surface tension forces tend to make the drop return to its original
spherical shape, while the excitation energy tends to distort the
shape still further. If the excitation energy is sufficiently large, the
drop may attain the shape of a dumb-bell. If the oscillations
become so violent that the critical state, stage fourth of Figure, is
reached then the final fission into stage fifth is inevitable. Thus
there is a threshold energy or a critical energy required to produce
stage fourth after which the nucleus cannot return to stage first.
When the distortion produced is not pronounced enough to get
the nucleus beyond the critical point, the ellipsoid will return to the
spherical shape with the excitation energy being liberated in the
form of - rays and we have a radiative capture rather than fission.
Figure : Schematic representation of nuclear fission
37
5.3 BOHR AND WHEELER'S THEORY OF NUCLEAR FISSION
The potential energy of the drop in the different stages can be

calculated as a function of the degree of deformation of the drop. The
potential energy is plotted against r, the separation of the centers of two
fission fragments. The curve is supposed to be divided into three
regions.
In region I, the fragments are completely separated, and their potential
energy E is simply the electrostatic Coulomb energy resulting from the
mutual repulsion of the two positively charged nuclear fragments. If
distance r=2R, when the drops just touch each other, energy E at the point
is less than the corresponding Coulomb potential by an amount CD. This
amount is equal to the potential of the surface forces which are just
beginning to come into play at this point. As we pass through region II,
we reach the critical distance rc, where the potential energy curve has a
maximum value Eb. This corresponds to barrier height and explains why
fission does not take place spontaneously in all cases where Ef >0. An
additional amount of energy Ea=Eb-Ef the activation energy is required by
the nuclear system before the potential barrier can be surmounted and
fission can take place. In the III region, the fragments have coalesced and
the short range nuclear forces have become predominant.
Figure : Potential energy curve of Nuclear fission

The first theoretical treatment of this process was carried out by Bohr
and Wheeler. They
38
applied a simple form of analysis(Legendre polynomial expansion) to
express the radius r
making angel θ with the axis of maximum deformation
∞
𝑟 = 𝑅[1 + ∑ 𝛼1 𝑃1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)]
𝑙=0
= 𝑅[1 + 𝛼2 𝑃2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + 𝛼3 𝑃3 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + ⋯ ] … . . (1)
where R is the radius of the spherical nucleus and α2, α3 are the
deformation parameters. Here α0 = α1=0, as the centre of mass of the drop
is assumed to remain unchanged.
The surface energy of a spherical drop
Es=4πR2T=4π [R0A1/3]2T,
where A is the mass number and T is the surface tension. Hence

surface energy of the deformed drop in terms of deformation
parameters is given by
2 3 1
𝐸𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑅0 2 𝐴3 𝑇 [1 + 𝛼2 ( . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − ) + ⋯ . ].
2 2
2 2 5
𝐸𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑅0 2 𝐴3 𝑇 [1 + 𝛼2 2 + 𝛼3 2 + ⋯ . ].
5 7
The change in surface energy of the drop due to deformation is
2 5
∆𝐸𝑠 = 𝐸𝑠 [5 𝛼2 2 + 7 𝛼3 2 + ⋯ . ].……….…(2)
3
The Coulomb energy of a spherical drop 𝐸𝑐 = 5 𝑍 2 𝑒 2 /4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅, hence that
of the deformed drop
3 𝑍 2𝑒 2 3 1 −1
𝐸𝑐 = 5 1 [1 + 𝛼2 (2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 2) + ⋯ . ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅0 𝐴3
1 10 1 10
∆𝐸𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 [− 5 𝛼2 2 + 49 𝛼3 2 + ⋯ . ] = −𝐸𝑐 [5 𝛼2 2 + 49 𝛼3 2 + ⋯ . ]….…(3)
Thus the total energy variation, keeping only the 𝛼2 2 term is

1
ΔE=ΔEs +ΔEc= 5 𝛼2 2 [2 Es− Ec ]
39
If it is positive, i.e., 2Es > Ec the drop is stable to small distortions.
Fissions may occur
1
spontaneously if ΔE is negative or Es< Ec
2
2 1
4𝜋𝑅0 2 𝐴3 𝑇 < 3𝑍 2 𝑒 2 /40𝜋𝜀0 𝐴3 𝑅0 or Z 2 / A> 45
The ratio Ec / 2Es is known as critical parameter, represented by .

Thus when
1, the nucleus is stable against spontaneous fission. It is
possible to estimate the degree of distortion of a nucleus in the critical
state by equating the critical or threshold energy Eth to the total energy
variation ΔE From semi-empirical data
2
4πR0 T =13MeV
hence for 238

U; Es =520 MeV and Ec = 830 MeV thus α2 2 = 1/ 7.
Threshold energy or critical energy is the energy that has to be imparted
to the nucleus in order to reach this critical shape when the deformed
drop is about to split into two equal drops. The threshold energy is given
as
Eth = 4πR2Tf χ = 4πR02 A2/ 3Tf χ …(4)

0
This energy can be calculated by neglecting the second order

change in energy due to the neck joining the two fragments.
1 2 2
𝐸𝑡ℎ = 2(4𝜋𝑅0 2 )𝑇( 𝐴)3 − 4𝜋𝑅0 2 𝐴3 𝑇
2
2
3 1 1 1
+ 2𝑋 𝑥 ( 𝑍𝑒) / 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅0 ( 𝐴)3
5 2 2
1
1 2 1 3 1
3
+ (2 𝑍𝑒) / 8𝜋𝜀0 𝑅0 (2 𝐴) − 5 (𝑍𝑒)2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅0 𝐴3
2
𝐸𝑡ℎ /4𝜋𝑅0 2 𝑇𝐴3 = f χ = 0.260 0.215χ.
For an uncharged droplet =0 and f(0)=0.260, hence there are no

electrostatic forces and the critical energy is just the work done against
surface tension in separating into two drops.
40
For χ = 1 , a small deformation from the spherical shape causes the drop
to reach the critical shape and to separate.
If the critical energy is compared with the excitation energy, it becomes
possible to predict fission probability. The excitation energy Ee,
contributed to the resultant compound nucleus by the capture of a
neutron, is equal to the binding energy of neutron in the compound
nucleus and can be calculated by the relation.
Ee = B A+1, Z B A,Z =Z AM +M n ----A+1ZM.
The values of the excitation energy calculated in this way for a number of
heavy nuclei are listed in the table and compared with the corresponding
values of the critical energy. In reviewing the results, it is seen that for
238
U a critical deformation energy of 6.5 MeV is necessary for fission, but
it acquires only 5.9 MeV when it takes up a neutron of zero K.E. Thus no
fission is possible with thermal neutrons with 0.03 eV energy. If the
neutrons have a K.E. of 0.6 MeV fission becomes possible. Experiments
indicate that neutrons of about 1MeV energy are required. The fission
cross section increases rapidly with neutron energy. The situation is quite
different with 235U. Here the excitation energy or the energy available by
the capture of a slow neutron is greater than the threshold energy. It is
evident that in this case thermal neutrons should be capable of causing
fission of 235U nucleus..
Table : Excitation Energy and Critical energy for some Nuclides
Compound Ee(MeV) Eth(MeV) Ee-Eth (MeV)

Nucleus
232
Pa 5.4 5.0 0.4
233
Th 5.1 6.5 -1.4
235
U 6.6 5.5 1.1
238
Np 6.0 4.2 1.8
238
U 5.9 6.5 -0.6
240
Pu 6.4 4.0 2.4
41
Let us now summarize what you have studied
in this unit
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Liquid Drop Model ?

2. What is the assumption of Liquid Drop Model?
LER US SUM UP
❖ Nuclear models can be classified into two main groups. In those

of the first group, called strong-interaction, or statistical models,
the main assumption is that the protons and neutrons are mutually
coupled to each other and behave cooperatively in a way that
reflects the short-ranged strong nuclear force between them. The
liquid-drop model and compound- nucleus model are examples of
this group.
❖ According to Liquid Drop Model, a nucleus resembles a liquid drop
in many aspects. The short-range nuclear forces play the part of
surface tension and keep the nucleus in a spherical shape. The
electrostatic repulsive forces play the role of disruptive forces
which tends to push the nucleon apart. The nuclear stability is
determined by the balance of these two forces.
1. liquid-drop model, in nuclear physics, a description of atomic

nuclei in which the nucleons (neutrons and protons) behave like
the molecules in a drop of liquid
2. The nucleus consists of incompressible matter. The nuclear force
is identical for every nucleon. The nuclear force saturates. In an
equilibrium state, the nuclei of atom remain spherically symmetric
under the action of strong attractive nuclear forces.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Define the Liquid Drop Model, Deformation of Model.

2. Explain Potential Energy Curve of Nuclear fission.
3. Calculate Excitation Energy and Critical Energy for Nuclides
42
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Introduction to Nuclear Physics – Herald Enge, Addision Wesley

Pub. Co, U.S.A.

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4q1i7yTcQmA
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RTlThUySwUE
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KD8UQce07BE
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=317LSjKmitY
43
UNIT 6
SHELL MODEL
Structure
1.1 Overview
1.2 Objectives
6.1 Shell model of Nucleus
6.2 Predictions of the Shell Model
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
In the previous unit you have learned about liquid drop model. In this liquid
drop model, we learned about fission process and Bohr Wheeler’s theory.
In this unit you will learn about Shell model.
OBJECTIVES

➢ Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, Magic Numbers and Doubly Magic.
➢ Predictions of shell model of the Nucleus
6.1 SHELL MODEL OF NUCLEUS
It is believed that protons and neutrons in a nucleus to be in a continuous

process of collision with each other. With the enormous strong force acting
between them and with so many nucleons to collide with, how can
nucleons possibly complete whole orbits without interacting. According to
44
Pauli's exclusion principle, no two electrons cannot occupy the same
quantum state. The evidence for a kind of shell structure and a limited
number of allowed energy states suggests that a nucleon moves in some
kind of effective potential well
created by the forces of all the other nucleons. This leads to energy
quantization in a manner similar to the square well Potential . The labels
on the levels are somewhat different from the corresponding symbols for
atomic energy levels. The energy levels increase with orbital angular
momentum quantum number l, and the s,p,d,f... symbols are used for l
=0,1,2,3... just like the atomic case. But there is really no physical analog
to the principal quantum number n, so the numbers associated with the
level just start at n=1 for the lowest level associated with a given orbital
quantum number. In addition to the dependence on the details of the
potential well and the orbital quantum number, there is a sizable spin-orbit
interaction which splits the levels by an amount which increases with
orbital quantum number. This leads to the overlapping levels as shown in
the illustration.
The subscript indicates the value of the total angular momentum j, and the
multiplicity of the state is 2j + 1. The contribution of a proton to the energy
is somewhat different from that of a neutron because of the coulomb
repulsion, but it makes little difference in the appearance of the set of
energy levels. It is found that nuclei with even numbers of protons and
neutrons are more stable than those with odd numbers. In particular, there
are "magic numbers" of neutrons and protons which seem to be
particularly favored in terms of nuclear stability, they are :
2,8,20,28,50,82,126. Nuclei which have both neutron number and proton
number equal to one of the magic numbers can be called "doubly magic",
and are found to be particularly stable.
45
6,2 PREDICTIONS OF THE SHELL MODEL
1. Stability of the closed shell nuclei: This scheme clearly reproduces

all the magic numbers, 2,8,20, 28,50,82,126
2. Spins and Parities of Nuclear Ground States: The shell model has
been very successful in predicting the ground state spin of a large number
of nuclei. According to this model the neutron and proton levels fill
independently. There are following rules for the angular momenta and
parities of ground states.
I. Even-even nuclei have total ground state angular momentum
J=0+. There is no known exception to this rule.
II. With an odd number of nucleons, i.e. a nucleus with odd Z or odd
N, the nucleons pair off as far as possible so that the resulting
orbital angular momentum and spin direction are just that of the
single odd particle.
III. An odd-odd nucleus will have a total angular momentum which
is the vector sum of the odd neutron and odd proton j-values. The
parity will be the product of the proton and neutron parities, i.e.
parity = (-1)ln+lp.
46
We expect from first rule that the angular momentum is zero not only
for 24He and 816O but also for 3888Sr, 24Os, 24U and all the other even-
even nuclei. Some actual examples of odd even nuclei are now
presented. Consider the nucleus 613C. The six protons and six of the
seven neutrons are paired up in the configuration ls(2)1/2 lp(4)3/2 . The
odd neutron is in the1s1/ 2 , designation. The ground state angular
momentum indicated as the subscript in p1/ 2 i.e. ½, a value which
13
is observed experimentally. For nucleus 7 N , the unpaired particle is a
proton with spin ½. As a second example consider 817O and 917N The
shells are filled according to ls(2)1/2 lp(4)3/2 lp(2)1/2 ld(1)5/2.
If it is 17O , the last unpaired nucleon is a neutron and has a spin 5/2:
if it is 17F , the last particle is a proton with spin 5/2. Thus the model
predicts 5/2 which is also the observed value for the ground state spin for
each of these nuclei.
3. Magnetic Moments of Nuclei:

In an odd nucleus, the total angular momentum J of the nucleus is equal
to the angular momentum j of the last unpaired nucleon. Thus we see
that magnetic moment of the nucleus is produced by the odd nucleon
only. The orbital angular momentum with numerical value l (l + 1) and
the spin s with numerical value s( s + 1) couple to a total angular
momentum J with numerical value j ( j + 1) , in units of ħ . The
magnetic moment associated with spin angular momentum s is
given by
μs=gss.
Similarly the magnetic moment associated with orbital angular

momentum l is given by
μl=gl l .
Hence μ = sum of the components of the vectors gll and gss along
the j. By applying the cosine rule to the triangle formed by the l, s and
j, the above relation can be written as
𝑗(𝑗+1)+𝑙(𝑙+1)−𝑠(𝑠+1)
𝜇 = gl √[𝑙(𝑙 + 1)] + gs
2√[𝑙(𝑙+1)𝑗(𝑗+1)]
47
𝑗(𝑗+1)+𝑠(𝑠+1)−𝑙(𝑙+1)
√[𝑠(𝑠 + 1)] 2√[𝑠(𝑠+1)𝑗(𝑗+1)]
𝑗(𝑗+1)+𝑙(𝑙+1)−𝑠(𝑠+1) 𝑗(𝑗+1)+𝑠(𝑠+1)−𝑙(𝑙+1)
= gl + gs
2√[𝑗(𝑗+1) 2√[𝑗(𝑗+1)]
Figure: Magnetic dipole moments against angular momentum-

Schmidt lines (above) for nuclei of odd Z-even N and (below) for
nuclei of even Z-odd N
Since for a single particle, the spin s = ½ and there are two possible cases.
l parallel to s (Stretch case) ; J = l + s = l + ½ l antiparallel to s

(Jacknife case) ; J = l – s = l – ½ .
Hence
1 1
𝜇 = (𝐽 − 2) gl + 2 gs for stretch case (2)
𝐽 3 1
𝜇 = (𝐽+1 [(𝐽 + 2) gl + 2 gs for Jackknife case (3)
48
These relations define two curves, for μ versus J, with the values J = l ±
½, for each class of odd even nucleus. The values of μ are known as the
Schmidt value and the curves are known as Schmidt lines. When we
substitute the above equations (2) and (3) the g factors which correspond
to single nucleons are
gl = l and gs = 5.58
for protons and gl = 0 and gs = -3.82 for neutrons.
Let us now summarize what you have studied in this unit
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. define shell model
LET US SUM UP
❖ The basic assumption of the liquid drop model is that each nucleon
interacts only with its nearest neighbour. Though it explains
nuclear fission, sphericity of the nucleus and binding energy of the
nuclei to a large extent but few significant things it fails to explain.
Which are • There are some peaks or kinks the in binding
energy/nucleon curve • It underestimate the actual binding
energies of some magic nuclei for which either the number of
neutrons N = (A - Z) or the number of protons, Z is equal to one of
the magic numbers (a fancy term used by the nuclear physicist)
which are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 etc. These numbers are exceptional
in the sense that any nucleus which posseses any of these values
in terms of neutrons or protons or sum of these two are highly
stable nuclei.
❖ It Explains nuclear spin and parity. It also explains magnetic
moments for lighter nuclei. It also speaks about excited states of
nuclei.
1. In nuclear physics, atomic physics, and nuclear chemistry, the

nuclear shell model is a model of the atomic nucleus which uses
the Pauli exclusion principle to describe the structure of the
nucleus in terms of energy levels.
49
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Distinguish between the Magic number and Doubly Magic number
2. What are the predictions in shell model?
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rd0CJje59bE
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vMwzkOi0v4
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bwcXPmF2VA
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMRFDwnLM54
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CKAvrJY6gm4
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzE063ncm54
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ma1bPWhLx-U
50
UNIT 7
COLLECTIVE MODEL
Structure
1.1 Overview
1.2 Objectives
7.1 Collective Nuclear model
7.2 Explanation of Quadrupole Moment
7.3 Prediction of Electric Quadrupole Moment

1.3 Let Us Sum Up
1.4 Check Your Progress
1.5 Answers to check your progress
1.6 Unit end exercises
1.7 Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
You are now familiar with the Nuclear Models. In unit1 & unit2 Our first
model of nuclei, the motivation is to describe the masses and binding
energy of nuclei. The shell model describes important features of the
nucleus with a strong nuclear force. Nuclei have tightly bound closed
shells for protons and neutrons. Now, we learned about the Collective
model.
OBJECTIVES

➢ Electric Quadrupole Moment, Failures of Shell Model,
Predictions of Quadrupole Moment.
➢ Calculate Electronic Energy Levels
51
7.1 COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR MODEL
The shell model is based on the assumption of the existence of a

spherically symmetric potential in the nucleus, plus a spin-orbit coupling
term. The different types of coupling of the angular momenta assumed for
the loose nucleons outside the core given rise to the different forms of the
shell model.
7.2 EXPLANATION OF QUADRUPOLE MOMENT
The shell model, with some refinements, has been successfully applied to
explain many features of the nucleus in the ground state and in some of
the excited states. However, it fails in explaining the observed large
electric quadrupole moments (Q) of the nuclei in many cases and the
quadrupole transition. In such cases where Q is n times the single particle
value, we must assume that 2n particles are involved in producing the
observed Q since the neutrons cannot directly contribute to
Q. It is the collective motion of fairly large number of nucleons which
determines the large values of Q for nuclei far from closed shells.
7.3 PREDICTION OF ELECTRIC QUADRUPOLE MOMENT
To explain these failures of the shell model by introducing the idea of

deformation in the shape of the nuclear core due to the motion of the
loose odd nucleon outside the core in odd A nuclei. Such deformation
would cause the quadruple moment to be higher than the single particle
value. Transition rate is also increased. Further elaborated the model,
combining the single particle and collective motions into a unified model
which gave a more complete description of the deformed nuclei.
In nearly spherical nuclei, the coupling between the collective motion of
the nucleons in the core and the motion of the loose nucleons outside the
core is weak. On the other hand, for strong coupling, the surface is
distorted and the potential felt by the loose particles is not spherically
symmetric. These particles, moving in a non-spherically symmetric shell
model potential, maintains the deformed nuclear shape. The situation is
similar to that in a linear molecule, we can then write the total energy as
the sum of the rotational, vibrational and nucleonic energies of the
nucleus, as in the case of the molecule. In the present case, the nucleonic
energy replaces the electronic energy of the molecules.
52
Etot = Erot + Evib + Enuc
The collective motion of the nuclear core gives rise to the rotational and
vibrational term, while nucleonic energy term is due to the motion of the
loose nucleons.
Mathematically this means that Etot is composed of three additive parts
containing rotational energy state, vibrational energy state and nucleonic
energy state. The total energy function is the product of three functions
each containing the respective energy functions . The vibrational energy
states of nuclei are found by flexing of nuclear surface and complex
nature. The nuclear rational motion is also somewhat complex in that it is
not a rigid body rotation . But a rotation of shape of the deformed surface
enclosing free particles. The collective motion now becomes a vibration
about the equilibrium shape, and a rotation of the nuclear orientation
which maintains the deformed shape. This explain the collective model of
the nucleus
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Define Dobly Magic?
LET US SUM UP
❖ Other nuclear models incorporate aspects of both groups, such as

the collective model put forwarded by Aage Bohr (son of Neils
Bohr), which is a combination of the shell model and the liquid-
drop model. The Optical model is however one specific model
however where the nucleus is assumed as a medium having
complex refractive index.
❖ In the collective model, high-energy states of the nucleus and
certain magnetic and electric properties are explained by the
motion of the nucleons outside the closed shells (full energy levels)
combined with the motion of the paired nucleons in the core.
1. collective model, also called unified model, description of

atomic nuclei that incorporates aspects of both the shell nuclear
model and the liquid-drop model to explain certain magnetic
and electric properties that neither of the two separately can
explain.
53
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Define the Electric Quadrupole Moment
2. What are the advantage of Collective model?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Introduction to Nuclear Physics – Herald Enge, Addision Wesley

Pub. Co, U.S.A.

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q279l40Uo5g
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwdBnwznt3s
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4NVUjGXJy8
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=reZ9OLXBYPQ
54
BLOCK III: NUCLEAR REACTION AND
NUCLEAR DECAY
Unit 8: Nuclear Reaction and Conservation
Laws
Unit 9: Nuclear Decay
Unit 10: Nuclear Isomerism
55
UNIT 8
NUCLEAR REACTION AND CONSERVATION LAWS
Structure
Overview
Objectives
8.1 Types of Nuclear Reaction
8.2 Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reaction
8.3 Nuclear Reaction Kinematics

Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
It’s a description of atomic nuclei proposed (1936) by the Danish

physicist Niels Bohr to explain nuclear reactions as a two-stage process
comprising the formation of a relatively long-lived intermediate nucleus
and its subsequent decay. However, the compound nucleus absolutely
forgets about its past while it gets formed. Few properties are defined in
case of compound nuclear theory.
OBJECTIVES

➢ Types of Nuclear reaction and Conservation laws
➢ Derive Nuclear Reaction Kinematics and express Q-Value
Equation
8.1 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Depending upon the product nuclei, the nuclear reactions can be

categorized. The artificial transmutation ot a nucleus produced in the
56
pioneering experiment of Rutherford is a type of nuclear reaction.
Various types ot nuclear reactions have since been produced. These can
be conveniently classified as below.
1. Elastic Scattering
The incident particle strikes the target nucleus and leaves without energy
loss but in general with altered direction of motion.
Scattering of o particle in gold is a good example of this process.

4
2𝐻𝑒 + 197 4 197
79𝐴𝑢 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 79𝐴𝑢
2. Inelastic scattering
The scattered particle may loss KE. This being corresponding increase in
the internal energy of the nucleus which is excited to a high quantum state.
This inelastic scattering can be represented by the well-known example.
7
3𝐿𝑖 + 11𝐻 → 73𝐿𝑖 + 11𝐻
The star indicates that after scattering nucleus is left in an excited state.
3. Radiative capture
The particle may combine with a nucleus to produce a new nucleus or a
compound nucleus which is in an excited state. The excess energy is
emitted in the form of y ray photon. This type of process is known as
radiative capture.
26
12𝑀𝑔 + 11𝐻 → 27
13𝐴𝑙 +𝛾
4. Disintegration process
The first nuclear transmutation observed by Rutherford is an example of
this process 14N (α, p) 17O. On striking the target nucleus the incident
particle is absorbed and a different particle is ejected. The product nucleus
differs front target nucleus
14
7𝑁 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 17
8𝑂 + 11𝐻
5. Photo – disintegration
In this case the target nucleus is bombarded with very high energy γ-rays,
so that it is raised to an excited state by the absorption of the latter. If the
57
energy is high enough, one or more particles may be liberated.
The reaction can be written as X (γ, y) Y.
1
1𝐻 + 𝛾 → 11𝐻 + 10𝑛
6. Elementary particle reactions

These involve either the production of elementary particles other than
nucleons or nuclei as a result of the reaction or their use as projectiles or
both of these. Examples are
p+p → +n +π +;
π + + p → π0 + n;
p + π → K0 + Λ0
This reaction is usually produced at extremely high energies which may

be several hundred MeV or more.
8.2 CONSERVATION LAWS IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS
In any nuclear reaction, certain quantities must be conserved. We shall

merely list the various conservation laws that appear to be valid in ordinary
nuclear interactions.
I. Conservation of mass number
The total number of neutrons and protons in the nuclei taking part in a
nuclear reaction remains unchanged after the reaction. Thus in the
reaction X(x,y)Y represents the sum of mass numbers of X and x must be
equal to the sum of the mass numbers of Y and y:
AX+Ax → AY+Ay … (1)
Where AX, Ax, AY, Ay are the mass number of X, x, Y, y respectively.

In the general case of reactions involving elementary particles the law can
be expressed by requiring the total number of heavy particles remains
unchanged in a reaction.
II. Conservation of atomic number
The total number of protons of the nuclei taking part in a nuclear reaction
remains unchanged after the reaction. This means that the sum of atomic
numbers of X and x (Z and z) is equal to the sum of atomic numbers of Y
58
and y ( Z′ and z′ )
Z + z = Z̍′ + z′ … (2)
III. Conservation of energy

In order to apply the law of conservation of energy in the case of a nuclear
reaction, it is necessary to consider the mass-energy equivalence
predicted by the special theory of relativity. Conservation of energy
requires that the total energy, including the rest-mass energies of all the
nuclei taking part in a reaction and their kinetic energies, must be equal
to the sum of the rest-mass energies and the kinetic energies of the
products.
IV. Conservation of linear momentum

If pX, px, pY and py represent the momentum vectors of the different nuclei
taking part in a reaction, then the law of conservation of linear momentum
gives
pX + px = pY + py … (4)
Eq. (4) holds in an arbitrary frame of reference. In the laboratory frame of

reference in which the target nucleus is at rest pX = 0 and the above
equation becomes
px = pY + py … (5)
In the frame of reference in which the centre of mass of the two particles
before collision is at rest, we have to write pX + px = 0, which gives pY + py
= 0 i.e., the centre of mass of the product parallel is also at rest in this
system.
V. Conservation of angular momentum
In a nuclear reaction of the type X + x→ Y + y, the total angular momentum
of the nuclei taking part in the reaction remains the same before and after
the reaction.
VI. Conservation of parity
The strong interaction in which parity is conserved, the parity before the
reaction must be equal to the parity after the reaction. Parity conservation
results in certain selection rules, which limit the possible nuclear reactions
that may occur starting from a given initial state.
59
VII. Conservation of isotopic spin
Denoting isotopic spin vectors for the initial and final states by Ti and Tf,
we have from the law of conservation of isotopic spin applicable in the
case of strong interaction.
Ti = Tf
Since for the reaction
X + x → Y + y,
Ti = TX + Tx
and
Tf = TY + Ty
We have
TX + Tx = TY + Ty
Isotopic spin is a characteristic of the nuclear level. Hence the above

conservation law can be used to identify the levels of the nuclei produced
in thereaction. In particular if Tx = Ty =0, we must have TX = TY.
8.3 NUCLEAR REACTION KINEMATICS
The conservation of energy and momentum imposes certain restriction on

the reactions. These restrictions are called kinematic restrictions and this
mathematical method is known as kinematics.
X + x → Y + y,
When X, x, Y and y are the target nucleus, bombarding particle, product

nucleus and product particle, respectively. It will be assumed that target
nucleus is at rest so it has no kinetic energy. Since total energy is
conserved in a nuclear reaction, therefore, we get
MX c2 + (Ex + mxc2) = (EY + MYc2) + ( Ey + myc2) ……(2)
60
Figure: Schematic diagram of nuclear reaction Consider a nuclear
reaction
Where mx, MX, mY, MY all represent respective masses of incident particle,
target nucleus, product particle and product nucleus. We now introduce a
quantity Q which represents the difference between the kinetic energy of
the products of reaction and that of the incident particle.
Q = EY + Ey - Ex (3)
From Equations (2) and (3), we have
(MX + mx – MY – my) c2 = Q
The quantity Q is called the energy balance of the reaction or more

commonly Q value of the reaction. If Q is + ve the reactions is said to be
exoergic. This occurs if sum of the masses of incident particle and target
nucleus is greater than that of masses of the product nuclei. The K.E. of
the product nuclei being greater than that of the incident particle. If Q is -
ve the reaction is said to be endoergic, i.e., energy must be supplied
usually as a K.E. of the incident particle. A reaction cannot take place
unless particles y and Y emerge with positive kinetic energies, i.e.,
61
Ey + EY ≥ 0 or Q + Ex ≥ 0
Although this condition is necessary, it is not sufficient.
The term EY in equation (2) represents the recoil energy of the product
nucleus. It is usually small and hard to measure but can be eliminated by
considering the conservation of momentum. In an experiment to measure
a Q value, the bombarding energy Ex and the energy of the ejected
particle Ey at some specified angle θ are measured. Thus by applying the
laws of conservation of momentum, we have
Mxvx = MYVY cos Ф + myvy cosθ (5)
MYVY sin Ф= my vy sin θ (6)
Where vx, vy and VY are the velocities of incident particle, ejected particle
and of product
nucleus respectively. Eliminating Ф from equations (5) and (6), we have
MY2VY2 = mx2vx2 + mY2vY2 – 2mxmyvxvy cosθ
Since
Ex = ½ mx vx 2 , Ey = mY vY 2and E = ½ MY VY2,
hence after eliminating vy vx and VY we get
2EYMY =2Exmx + 2 E y m y - 4 ( m x m y Ex Ey ) ½ cosθ
EY = Ex (mx / MY)+ Ey ((my / MY) – (2/MY)) ( m x m y Ex Ey ) ½

cosθ
Substituting the value of Er in equation (3), we get
Q= Ey (1+my/My )- Ex(1-mx/My) – (2/MY) (mxmy ExEy)½cosθ
This is known as Q equation. It gives the desired relation between the

energy released and the measured quantities Ex, Ey and θ in lab-system.
It is independent of the reaction mechanism and can be applied to all
types of two body non-relativistic reaction processes. For a special case
62
when we are observing the out coming particle y at 90o to a collimated
beam of projectile, the above relation reduces to
Q = Ey (1 + my / MY) - Ex ( 1- mx / MY)
It can be utilized for the particular cases:

i) Elastic scattering, in which mx = my and MX = MY; Q = 0
ii) Inelastic scattering, in which mx = my and MX = MY but
Q = -E*,
Where E* is the excitation energy imparted to the target nucleus MX

If EY* is the excitation energy of the product nucleus Y, then the Q value
of the equation is given by
Q0 = Ey + EY – Ex + EY*.
The quantity Q0 – Er* is denoted as Q and is called Q – values, for nuclear

reaction producing charged particles, to an accuracy of I part in a thousand
or better. my /M Y
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Nuclear Reaction?
LET US SUM UP
❖ Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the nuclear fusion
reactions of light elements that power the energy production of
stars and the Sun.
❖ The most notable man-controlled nuclear reaction is the fission

reaction which occurs in nuclear reactors.
❖ Classification of nuclear reactions is according to the time scale of
these reactions.
❖ In direct nuclear reactions, a projectile and a target nucleus are
within the range of nuclear forces for a very short time allowing
for an interaction of a single nucleon only.
❖ In compound nuclear reactions, a projectile and a target nucleus
63
are within the range of nuclear forces for the time allowing for a
large number of interactions between nucleons.
❖ 10B(n,alpha)7Li is typical notation of nuclear reactions.
❖ Energetics of nuclear reactions is determined by the Q-value of

that reaction.
1. A nuclear reaction is considered to be the process in which two

atomic nuclei or subatomic particles interact to produce one or
more new particles or gamma rays.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What are the main types of Nuclear Reaction?

2. Define Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reaction.
3. Explain about Energetic Q-value Cases.
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioP_sVOPu_E
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vAA2_ybeK6k
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57EnpKVB0DU&list=PLfOwt-
qFuYRMTV0CQM0CGriScSeX49gS4
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1F4pFRJmRTU&list=PLfOwt-
qFuYRMTV0CQM0CGriScSeX49gS4&index=2
64
UNIT 9
NUCLEAR DECAY
Structure
Overview
Objectives
9.1 Gamow’s theory of Alpha Decay
9.2 Beta Decay

9.3 Fermi theory of Beta Decay
9.4 Fermi and Gamow Teller Selection Rules
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises

Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
You are now familiar with the Nuclear Reaction and Conservation laws. In
unit1, discuss about Nuclear reaction types, Conservation laws and
Expressions for Q-value. Now, we learned about the Nuclear Decay.
OBJECTIVES
❖ Gamow’s theory of Alpha decay.

❖ derive Fermi’s Theory of Beta -decay
❖ depict Fermi and Gamow Teller Selection Rules
9.1 GAMOW’S THEORY OF ALPHA DECAY
An α-particle is emitted from a heavy nucleus as a tightly bound assembly
65
of two neutrons and two protons from the pre-existed heavy nucleus.
In experiments, on the scattering of α – particles, it was found that, even
the fastest of such particles from radioactive sources, having energy of 10
MeV, are repelled by atomic nuclei. The alpha particles have the repulsive
forces due to the charges and some strong attractive nuclear short-range
forces. Due to the rapid decline of nuclear forces with distance, actively
charged particle will experience diminishing attraction near the surface of
nucleus when receding from the latter and at a certain distance is equal
to the nuclear radius R, the forces of attraction will be balanced by the
Coulomb force of repulsion. From this it follows that the internal part of the
nucleus is separated from outer space by a certain potential barrier, which
prevents penetration of an α-particle into the nucleus.
66
Figure : Potential energy curve
The height of this barrier is the potential energy of an α particle at r = R.
The potential energy V(r) of an alpha-particle outside the nucleus at a
distance r from the centre of the nucleus is given by
2(𝑍−2)𝑒2
𝑉(𝑟)= for r > R.
4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝑟
Where (Z-2) is the atomic number of the daughter nucleus. In the case
of U238 the height of the potential barrier for an alpha particle is given
by,
2(𝑍−2)𝑒2
𝑉(𝑟)= .
4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝑟
2
2𝑥90 𝑥(1.6 𝑥10−19 )
= 28MeV
10−14
The interaction in the nucleus may be represented by a constant attractive

potential U0 exerted over a distance R. Hence the potential energy.
V (r) = -Uo for r < R.
The coulomb potential and the constant potential energy Uo are joined,
by a straight line
at r = R.
67
If the motion of a particle in the neighborhood of a potential barrier is
treated wave mechanically, it is found that there is a finite probability that
the particle can leak through the barrier even though its kinetic energy is
less than the height of the barrier. The probability that an α – particle can
leak through the barrier can be calculated
Consider one dimensional Coulomb potential barrier of rectangular shape
of width a, and height V, which is greater than the kinetic energy of an
alpha particle. There are three regions. The Schrodinger equation in
regions I and III is,
𝑑2 𝑢 2𝑚
+ 𝐸𝑢 = 0………………………..(1)
𝑑𝑟 2 ℏ2
Where
𝑀𝛼 𝑀 𝐷
𝑚=𝑀
𝛼+𝑀𝐷
the reduced mass of the alpha particle and the residual nucleus.
The equation in region II is,
𝑑2 𝑢 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) = 0…………………(2)
𝑑𝑟 2 ℏ2
Figure : Tunnel effect

The region I has both incident and reflected alpha-waves. The solution of
Equation (1) is
u1 = A1eik1r + B1e-ik1r (3)
68
Where
K1 = 2mE h
The region II has both forward moving transmitted wave and reflected
wave from the other side of the barrier. The solution of equation (2) is
u2 = A2eik2r + B2e-ik2r (3)
Where
K2 = 2m(V − E) h
The region III has only forward moving transmitted wave. The solution of
equation (1) is,
u3 = A3e ik1r (5)
The constants A1, A2, A3, B1 and B2 are to be determined by using

following boundary conditions.
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2
u1 = u2 and = at r=0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3
u2 = u3 and = at r=a
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
By substituting the values of u1, u2 and u3 in the above relations
u1 = u2 at r=0
A1 + B1 = A2 + B2 (6)
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2
= at r=0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
ik1A1 – ik1B1 = k2A2 – k2B2 (7)
u2 = u3 at r = a
A2ek2a + B2e- k2 a = A3 eik1 a (8)
69
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3
= at r=0 at r = a
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
A2 k2 ek2a – B2k2e-k2a = ik1A3 eik1a (9)
From equation 8 and 9
A2 = ½ A3 (1 + ik1/k2e (ik1 – k2)a (10)
B2 = ½ A3(1 - ik1/k2e (ik1 + k2)a (11)
From equation 6 and 7
A1 = ½ A2 (1 + k2 / ik1) + ½ B2 (1- k2/ik1) 12
Figure: Mechanism of Alpha decay
Substituting equation 10 & 11 in equation 12
A1 = ¼ A3 (1+ik1/k2) (1+k2/ik1)e (ik1 – k2)a + ¼ A3 ( 1- ik1/k2) (1-

k2/ik1)e (ik1 – k2)a (13)
As velocity of α – particle in I region is same as in III region. Hence the

transmission
probability of incident α – particle.
70
Transmited flux A3  A3
2 2
T= = 2 = 2 .....(14)
Incident flux A1  A1
In practice k2a > > 1 , hence first term of equation 13, can be neglected in
comparison to the second.
Therefore
A1 = ¼ A3 (1-ik1/k2) (1-k2/ik1)e (ik1 + k2) a
A1/A3= ¼ (1-ik1/k2) (1-k2/ik1)e (ik1 + k2) a
A 
2
A1 A1
2
= x 1 
A2 A3  A3 
1 1
= { (1 − 𝑖𝑘1 /𝑘2 ) (1 − 𝑘2 /𝑖𝑘1 )𝑒 (𝑖𝑘1+𝑘2)𝑎 }{ (1 + 𝑖𝑘1 /𝑘2 ) (1
4 4
+ 𝑘2 /𝑖𝑘1 )𝑒 (−𝑖𝑘1+𝑘2)𝑎 }
1 𝑖𝑘1 𝑖𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘2 2𝑘 𝑎
= (1 − ) (1 + ) (1 − ) (1 + )𝑒 2
16 𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1 𝑖𝑘1
(𝑘1 2 + 𝑘2 2 )2
= 𝑒 +2𝑘2𝑎
16𝑘1 2 𝑘2 2
Transitivity of the barrier
(𝑘 2 +𝑘2 2 )2 ..........
T= 16𝑘1 22 𝑒 −2𝑘2𝑎 (15)
1 𝑘2
When 2k2 > >1, the most important factor in this equation is the
exponential term
T = 𝑒 −2𝑘2𝑎 (16)
This is the Gamow's Formula.
This equation represents the fraction of the α –particles that will penetrate
the barrier of width a and height V(>E). If the potential is not constant in
the region o< r < a, we can approximate it with a series of small steps.
The total probability is the product of individual probabilities.
71
−2 ∫ 𝑘2𝑑𝑟
T=𝑒
T = exp [ -2 √2𝑚/ℏ ∫(𝑉(𝑟)– E )½ dr
The integral is taken through the whole region between R and r1.
Let us assume that an alpha particle moves inside the potential well with
velocity vo and hence hits the wall uo/2R times per second. Multiplication
of frequency with escape probability T will give us decay constant.
(disintegration constant λ)
λ = v /2R x T
𝑟1
𝑣0 2 √2𝑚 1
𝜆 = exp[− ∫ (𝑉(𝑟) − 𝐸)(2) 𝑑𝑟
2𝑅 ℏ
𝑅
Taking logarithm
𝑟1 1
𝑣 2 √2𝑚
loge 𝜆 = log 𝑒 2𝑅0 exp[− ] ∫𝑅 (𝑉(𝑟) − 𝐸)(2) 𝑑𝑟
ℏ
1
𝑣 −2 √2𝑚 𝑟1 2(𝑍−2)𝑒 2
loge 𝜆 = log 𝑒 2𝑅0 −[ ] ∫𝑅 ( − 1)(2) 𝑑𝑟
ℏ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐸
Hence upper limit of the integral
r1 = 2(Z – 2) e2 /4 π ε0E .
The integral may be simply determined by means of substitution
r = r1 cos2 ψ. and R=r1cos2ψ0
𝑣𝑜 4 √2𝑚𝐸 0
loge 𝜆 = log 2𝑅 + ℏ
∫Ψ0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 Ψ 𝑑Ψ
𝑣𝑜 √2𝑚𝐸
= log 𝑒 +2 [−Ψ0 + sinψ0 cosψ0]
2𝑅 ℏ 1
𝑣𝑜 √2𝑚𝐸 𝑅 1 𝑅 1 𝑅 1
loge 𝜆 = log 2𝑅 + 2 [𝐶𝑂𝑆 −1 𝑟 ]2 [(𝑟 )2 (1 − 𝑟 )2
ℏ 1 1 1 1
since R << r1, hence
72
𝑅 1 1 𝑅 1
𝐶𝑂𝑆 −1 ( )2 ≈ ( )2
𝑟1 2 𝑟1
𝑅 1
(1 − )2
𝑟1
𝑣𝑜 √2𝑚𝐸 𝜋 𝑅 1
loge 𝜆 = log 𝑒 2𝑅 + 2 𝑟1 [ − 2(𝑟 )2 ]
ℏ 2 1
𝑣𝑜 4𝑒 𝑚 1 1 1 𝑒2 𝑚 1 1
= log 𝑒 + ( )2 (𝑍 − 2)2 𝑅 2 − ( )2 (𝑍 − 2)2
2𝑅 ℏ 𝜋𝜀0 ℏ𝜀0 2
1 1 1
𝑣𝑜
loge 𝜆 = log 𝑒 2𝑅 + 2.97𝑍𝐷 2 𝑅 2 − 3.95𝑍𝐷 𝐸 −2
D
To compare the theory with observations more easily, we may take

logarithms to base 10 as.
1 1 1
log10 𝜆 = 20.46 + log10 (𝐸 2 𝐴−3 ) − 1.72𝑍𝐷 𝐸 −2 +
1 1
1.42(𝑍𝐷 𝐴3 )2 ………(17)
The changes in atomic number and nuclear radius are negligible when
compared to changes in energy.
1
log10 λ = a +b𝐸 2 ……………..(18)
Where a and b are constants.

Equation 18 shows that the emitters having lesser decay constants emit
alpha particles of greater energy E, which is Geiger and Nuttal law. This
shows that the quantum mechanical theory of barrier penetration is able
to account well for α decay.
9.2 BETA DECAY
The energies of beta ray emitted from the radioactive substances are
measured by means of beta ray spectrometer. The typical beta ray
spectrum of Radium is shown in the figure. This type of spectrum shows
that the beta rays have maximum energy below which there is continuous
spectrum with average energy usually less than the half maximum. Every
continuous beta spectrum has a definite maximum and the height and
73
position of which depend on the nucleus emitting the particles. There is
also a definite upper limit or End point of energy (minimum energy) beta
particles emitted by the nucleus which is different for different beta
emitting nuclides. There is an apparent failure to conserve the linear and
angular momentum in beta decay. In the process
Figure : Beta ray spectrum of RaE

14 14 0
6𝐶 → 7𝐻 + −1𝑒------------- (1)
The nuclear angular momentum of 14C and 14N are found to be 0 and 1
respectively. The electron has intrinsic spin ½ therefore the angular
momentum cannot be conserved during the transition. All these
difficulties were eliminated by Pauli introducing the existence of a new
hypothetical particles called neutrino. It has no charge, negligible mass
and ½ spin. In beta emission process the decayed energy shared between
beta particle and the neutrino. Thus, conserving all the physical
parameters.
14 14 0
6𝐶 → 7𝐻 + −1𝑒 + 𝑣---------(2)
9.3 FERMI THEORY OF BETA DECAY
In 1934, Fermi made a successful theory of beta decay based on Pauli's

neutrino hypothesis. This theory is based on the following assumptions
1. The light particles, the electron and neutrino are created by the
74
transformation of a neutron into proton in a nucleus.
2. The energy remains conserved in the decay process, the available
energy being shared among the electron and the neutrino.
3. The neutrino has rest mass zero or very small compared to that of
the electron.
4. The beta decay process is analogous to the emission of
electromagnetic radiation by an atom with the electron neutrino
field acting in the place of the electromagnetic field.
5. Time dependent perturbation theory is a very good approximation,
because of the smallness of coupling constants.
6. No nuclear parity change occurs and higher order terms in R/λ can
be neglected.
7. As nucleons move with velocities of only ≈ c /10 in nuclei.

Using time dependent theory and Dirac's expression, the probability that
an electron of momentum between Pe and Pe+dPe is emitted per unit
time may be written as
2𝜋 𝑑𝑁
𝑃(𝑃𝑒 )𝑑𝑃𝑒 = |𝐻𝑖𝑓|2 ..............................(1)
ℏ 𝑑𝐸0
𝑑𝑁
no. of quantum mechanical states of the final system per unit energy
𝑑𝐸0
interval.
Hif matrix element of the interaction for the initial and final states.
Interaction matrix element,
Hif =f∫ Ψ𝑓 i* H Ψ𝑖 d τ(2)
Ψ𝑓 and Ψ𝑖 → wave functions of the system in its final state and in its initial
state.
H→ Hamiltonian operator
d τ→volume element
Ψ𝑖 = Ψ (parent nucleus) = i
Ψ𝑓 = Ψ (daughter nucleus) Ψ (electron) Ψ (antineutrino)

= Ψ𝑓 ψe ψν -
Fermi suggested a new constant called fermi coupling constant denoted

by, g. using equation (2) ⇒The matrix element becomes
75
Hif = g∫(Ψ𝑓 ∗ Ψ𝑒 ∗ Ψ𝑣 −) 𝑀Ψ𝑖 𝑑𝜏................................ (3)
=g∫[Ψ𝑓 ∗ Ψ𝑒 ∗ Ψ𝑣 ] 𝑀Ψ𝑖 𝑑𝜏
[ since the complex conjugate of 𝜈̅= ν ]

M→ dimensionless matrix elements
Ψ𝑣 = V-½ exp [-(i/ћ) Pν .r]
Ψ𝑒 * = V-½ exp [-(i/ћ) Pe.r]
Pv & Pe → momenta of the neutrino & electron
r → position co-rdinate Thus the matrix element becomes
1 𝑖 1 𝑖
Hif = g∫[Ψ𝑓 ∗ 𝑉 12 exp (ћ) 𝑃𝑣 . 𝑟) ( 1 exp (ћ) 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑟) ] 𝑀Ψ𝑖 𝑑𝜏
𝑉2
Equation (3) ⇒
1 𝑖
Hif = g∫[Ψ𝑓 ∗ 𝑉 exp (ћ) 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑣 ). 𝑟] 𝑀Ψ𝑖 𝑑𝜏.............(4)
The exponential term can be written as
−𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
exp[ (𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑣 )𝑟]1 − (𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑣 ). 𝑟 − (𝑃 + 𝑃𝑣 ). 𝑟]2 + ⋯ … ..
ℏ ℏ 2ℏ2 𝑒
Here r is no greater than the nuclear radius R. Pe & Pv are both order of
magnitude mc,
2mc R/ ћ ≈ 1/50
The matrix element can be written as

𝑔
Hif = 𝑉 ∫[Ψ𝑓 𝑀Ψ𝑖 𝑑𝜏 .......(5)
𝑔
= |𝑀𝑖𝑓|
𝑉
Mif → nuclear matrix element of the final and initial wave functions of the
nucleus.
76
To find the Statistical factor (final state Density) dN/dEo
The position and momentum of e-n or neutrino can be represented by a
point in phase space, the space containing three spatial and the three
momentum dimensions
∆x. ∆y. ∆z. ∆Px. ∆Py. ∆Pz ≈ h3
The number of states of a particle restricted to a volume V in actual space

and whose momentum lies between the limits P and P+dP is given by
dN = V x 4 π P2 dP /h3 (6)
For the electron,

e e
dNe = 4 π V P 2 dP / h3 neutrino,
ν ν
dNv = 4 π V P 2 dP / h3
As electron and neutrino are independent of one another, hence the no.of
states available to them jointly is
dN = dNe . dNν
From equation (6)
[ dN (4 π V Pe2 dPe ] /h3) x ( [ 4π V Pv2 dPv]/h3)
= [ 16 π 2 V2 Pe 2 Pv 2 dPe dPv / h6 ]
The no.of states per unit energy of the electron is,
𝑑𝑁 16𝜋 2 𝑉 2 𝑑𝑃𝑣
= 𝑃𝑒 2 𝑃𝑣 2 𝑑𝑃𝑒 (6)
𝑑𝐸0 ℎ6 𝑑𝐸0
The total available energy
Eo = Eν+Ee (7)
For fixed electron energy Ee,
dEo = dEν (8)
77
The momenta Pe and Pν are related to the electron and neutrino energy
respectively by the equations
Eν = C Pν (9)
dEν = C. dPν (10)
Using eqns (7), (8), (9) and (10) in eqn (6), we get
𝑑𝑁 16𝜋 2 𝑉 2 𝐸0 −𝐸𝑒 2 1
= 𝑃𝑒 2 ( ) 𝑑𝑃𝑒. 𝑐
𝑑𝐸0 ℎ6 𝑐
Inserting statistical factor and Hif into eqn (1), we get the probability
|Hif |2𝑑𝐸
2𝜋 𝑑𝑁
𝑃(𝑃𝑒)𝑑𝑃𝑒 = [ћ = h/2π ; and h= ћ.2π ]
ℏ 0
2𝜋 𝑔2 2
16𝜋 2 𝑉 2 𝑃𝑒 2 𝐸0 −𝐸𝑒 2 1
= 2
|𝑀𝑖𝑓| 6
( ) 𝑑𝑃𝑒.
ℏ 𝑉 ℏ 𝑐 𝑐
32𝜋 3 𝑔2 2 2
(𝐸0 −𝐸𝑒 )2
= |𝑀𝑖𝑓| 𝑃𝑒 𝑑𝑃𝑒
ℏℏ6 . (2𝜋)6 𝑐3
32𝜋 3 𝑔2
= 7 |𝑀𝑖𝑓|2 𝑃𝑒 2 (𝐸0 −𝐸𝑒 )2 𝑑𝑃𝑒
ℏ 64𝜋 6 𝑐 3
𝑔2 |𝑀𝑖𝑓|2
𝑃(𝑃𝑒)𝑑𝑃𝑒 = (𝐸 −𝐸 )2 𝑃𝑒 2 𝑑𝑃𝑒
2𝜋 3 𝑐 3 ℏ7 0 𝑒
9.4 FERMI AND GAMOW TELLER SELECTION RULES
The β-decay life-times fell into two categories, accordingly transitions, and
are allowed and forbidden. These transitions are governed by certain
selection rules. This is applicable when the electron and neutrino are
emitted with their intrinsic spins antiparallel (Singlet State), the change in
nuclear spin ∆J must be strictly zero, if these are emitted with their spins
parallel (triplet state), ∆J may be + 1, 0, or -1, (but no Ji = 0 to Jf = 0),
where subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final nuclear states. The
former selection rule was one originally proposed by Fermi, the latter was
subsequently suggested by Gamow and Teller. In both types of allowed
transitions orbital angular momentum and parity are left unchanged. The
interactions that give rise to Fermi and Gamow Teller (G-T) selection rules
are different. Experiment shows that the allowed transitions of the type ∆J
78
= 1, obeying G - T selection rule, are forbidden by Fermi-selection rule, as
in the decay
4
2𝐻𝑒 → 63𝐿𝑖 + 𝛽 − + 𝑣̅ (0+ → 1+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 2.77
14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + 𝛽 − + 𝑣̅ (0+ → 1+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 2.62
75 75
32𝐺𝑒 → 33𝐿𝑖 + 𝛽 − + 𝑣̅ (1/2+ → 3/2+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 5
There are also allowed transitions of the 0 →0 type that are allowed by
Fermi selection rules but forbidden by G - T selection rules, e.g.,
14 14
8𝑂 → 7𝑁 + 𝛽− + 𝑣 (0+ → 0+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.487
26 26
13𝐴𝑙 → 12𝑀𝑔 + 𝛽+ + 𝑣 (0+ → 0+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.48
34 34
17𝐶𝑙 → 16𝑆 + 𝛽 + + 𝑣. (0+ → 0+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.49
However, many transitions are allowed by both selection rules. This is

always possible in the allowed decays in which Ji = Jf ≠ 0. The examples
are
1
0𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝛽 + + 𝑣̅ (1/2+ → 1/2+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.074
1
0𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 𝛽 + + 𝑣̅ (1/2+ → 1/2+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.05
35 35
16𝑆 → 17𝐶𝑙 + 𝛽 − + 𝑣̅ (3/2+ → 3/2+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 5.0
17 17
9𝐹 → 8𝑂 + 𝛽+ + 𝑣 (5/2+ → 5/2+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.4
7
4𝐵𝑒 → 73𝐿𝑖 + 𝛽 + + 𝑣 (3/2+ → 3/2+ ) log 𝑓𝑡 = 3.36
These allowed transitions are further classified as favoured (super

allowed) and unfavoured (allowed) Transitions. The allowed transition is
said to be favoured if the nucleon which changes its charge remains in the
same level, it is unfavoured if the nucleon changes its level. Most of the
allowed β-transitions are unfavoured. For the β- decay, the change of a
neutron into a proton without the change of level would increase the total
energy of the nucleus and would, therefore, not lead to a spontaneous
decay. For the β+ -decay, the surplus of neutrons makes the allowed
transitions unfavored. There are few exceptions,
79
Example: 31𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 ; 62𝐻𝑒 → 63𝐿𝑖
The conditions for super allowed transitions are same as that for
unfavored or allowed transitions. The matrix element is also energy
independent. The main difference between the two cases is that the
unfavored or simply allowed transitions are not between mirror nuclei.
Let us now consider what happens when the transition from initial to final
nucleus does not take place by the emission of S-wave electron and
neutrino. Because of the finite size of the nucleus, the electron and
neutrino emission with orbital angular momenta other than zero is also
possible. The magnitudes of the wave functions Ψe & Ψv for p-wave, d-
wave, etc., over the nuclear volume decrease rapidly with increasing
orbital angular momentum. Beta transitions with angular momentum,
carried off by the two light particles together. lβ = 1, 2, 3 etc., are classified
as first, second, third etc., forbidden transitions.
Table Nuclear decay in mirror nuclei
Nuclear Decay Transition T1/2 Emax MeV Log ft
11
6𝐶 → 11
5𝐵 + 𝛽+ 3/2- → 3/2- 1230 0.99 3.6
19
10𝑁𝑒 → 19
9𝐹 + 𝛽 + 1/2 + → 1/2+ 20.3 2.18 3.4
27
14𝑆𝑖 → 27
13𝐴𝑙 + 𝛽 + 5/2+ → 5/2+ 4.9 3.64 3.7
If lβ is odd, initial and final nuclei must have opposite parities (parity
changes in these transitions); for even lβ values the initial and final nuclei
must have same parity (no change in parity). Furthermore, as in allowed
transitions, the emission of leptons (electron and neutrino) in the singlet
state (Fermi-selection rule) require ∆J ≤ lβ, whereas triplet-state (G-T
selection rule) emission requires ∆J ≤ lβ + 1. Thus, selection rules for
forbidden transitions are
First forbidden – For these transitions lβ = 1 and parity changes.
Fermi – selection rules: ∆J = ± 1, 0 (except 0 → 0).
Gamow Teller rules: ∆J = ± 2, ± 1, 0 (except 0 → 0, ½ → ½, 0 ↔1)
80
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Fermi's Theory of Beta Decay give its Salient Features.
LET US SUM UP
1. Gamow's theory of alpha decay derivation explains the

phenomenon of alpha decay. Gamow made the following
assumptions: An alpha particle may exist as an alpha particle
heavy nucleus. An alpha particle is in constant motion and is held
in the nucleus by a potential barrier.
2. Beta decay occurs when, in a nucleus with too many protons or

too many neutrons, one of the protons or neutrons is
transformed into the other. In beta minus decay, a neutron
decays into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino: n p + e - +.
3. In Fermi theory of allowed beta decay, when we consider coulomb
correction for the electronic wave functions then the coulomb
correction increases the probability of electron emission and
decreases the probability of positron emission
4. The former selection rule was one originally proposed by Fermi,
the latter was subsequently suggested by Gamow and Teller. In
both types of allowed transitions orbital angular momentum and
parity are left unchanged. The interactions that give rise to Fermi
and Gamow Teller (G-T) selection rules are different.
1. The theory posits four fermions directly interacting with one

another (at one vertex of the associated Feynman diagram). This
interaction explains beta decay of a neutron by direct coupling of a
neutron with an electron, a neutrino (later determined to be an
antineutrino) and a proton.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Explain Fermi theory of Beta Decay.

2. What is Fermi and Gamow Teller selection Rules?
81
3. Derive Gamow's theory of alpha decay
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://byjus.com/physics/radioactive-decay/
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oFdR_yMKOCw
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwT4tbA8UvI
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avKic7oiwvA
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJ_maZHVkx8
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FBi37PrvmU
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bs_9e7Wq5Oo
82
UNIT 10
NUCLEAR ISOMERISM
Structure
Overview
Objectives
10.1 Internal Conversion
10.2 Nuclear Isomerism
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Nuclear isomers are atoms with the same mass number and atomic
number, but with different states of excitation in the atomic nucleus. The
higher or more excited state is called a metastable state, while the stable,
unexcited state is called the ground state. Internal conversion is a non-
radioactive decay process wherein an excited nucleus interacts
electromagnetically with one of the orbital electrons of the atom. This
causes the electron to be emitted (ejected) from the atom
OBJECTIVES

❖ Derive internal conversion
❖ Explain Decay Scheme for nuclear isomerism
10.1 INTERNAL CONVERSION
The nucleus in an excited state can perform a transition to a lower state

not only by emitting a light quantum but also by transmitting energy
83
directly to the electrons surrounding the nucleus. The transition to lower
state is then connected with the ejection of an atomic electron, called a
conversion electron, from a bound orbit. The kinetic energy of the rejected
electron is equal to this transition energy (Ei – Ef) minus the binding energy
EB of the orbital electron. As the gamma ray is internally converted into
electron, the process is known is internal conversion. These electrons
produce a series of mono energetic lines, and not a continuous spectrum
as in β- decays.
The line with the lowest energy that of K shell electron, EeK = (Ei – Ef) –
EK. This is followed by the line corresponding to the conversion of L
electrons. EeL = (Ei – Ef) – EL, etc…. The transition energy can be
measured accurately from the spectrum of the conversion electrons.
It is similar to the atomic Auger effect, instead of emitting a photon when

as atomic electron jumps from a higher to a lower energy orbit, one of the
atomic electrons is ejected. The gamma emission is caused by transverse
electric and magnetic fields. The internal conversion is produced by the
time varying Coulomb field of the nucleus, which has a radial direction.
Thus, the process of internal conversion is the conversion of nuclear
excitation energy to kinetic energy through the direct electromagnetic
interaction between the electrons and nucleons without any intermediate
γ-rays. For all electromagnetic transitions, except the zero-to-zero
transition, gamma ray emission and internal conversion compete.
The possible modes of decay excluded the total transition probability λ
from a nuclear
state a to a nuclear state b is the sum of two terms.
λ = λ e + λ γ,
Where λe and λγ are the partial decay constants for conversion electron
emission and for gamma emission respectively. The ratio between these
two decay constants is called the conversion coefficient and is measured
as the ratio between the total number of conversion electrons emitted over
a given time divided by the number of gamma rays emitted in the same
transition over the same time.
Conversion coefficient
α = Ne/Nγ = λe / λγ.
λ = λγ (1 + α),
84
α may have any value between 0 and ∞. Since the probability of decay
per unit time λ is
related with the width г as λ = г / ħ
г = г e + гγ and α = г e / гγ
the radiative width гγ = Total width г / 1 + α ) in terms of means lives
η = ηγ / (1 + α ).
As a result of internal conversion, for each gamma ray there may be

several conversion lines corresponding to the ejection of electrons from
different atomic shells,
K, L1, L11, L111, M1 …..
therefore, total conversion co-efficient is given by
𝑁𝐾 + 𝑁𝐿 + 𝑁𝑀 + ⋯ 𝑁𝐾 𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝑀
𝛼= = + + +⋯
𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝛾
= 𝛼𝐾 + 𝛼𝐿 + 𝛼𝑀 = ∑ 𝛼𝐾
𝑘=𝐾,𝐿,𝑀…
Here α K , α L ,α M … etc., are the partial conversion coefficients.
10.2 NUCLEAR ISOMERISM
The delayed transitions are called isomeric transitions and the states from
which they originate are called isomeric states or isomeric levels. Nuclear
species which have the same atomic and mass number, but have different
radioactive properties, are called nuclear isomers and their existence is
referred to as nuclear isomerism. Nuclides that are isomeric states of a
given isotope differ from each other in energy and in angular momentum.
After the discovery of artificial radioactivity, indications came from several
different directions that other nuclides exist in isomeric forms. When a
sample containing bromine was bombarded with slow neutrons, the
product was found to show three different half-lives for beta decay: 18
min, 4.5 hr and 34 hr. Chemical tests showed that the radioactive elements
were isotopes of bromine. This result was surprising because the
reactions with slow neutrons are invariably of the (n, γ) type and since
ordinary bromine consists of two isotopes only, Br79 and Br81 not more than
85
two radioactive products 80Br and 82Br [79Br (n,γ) 80 Br and 81 Br (n,γ) 82
Br] were to be expected. When bromine was bombarded with 17 MeV
gamma ray two products 78Br and 80 Br [Br79 (γ,n) Br78, Br81 (γ, n) Br80],
with three decay periods, 6.4 min, 18 min, 4.4hr were obtained. Two of
these periods (4.4 hr and 18 min) are common to both sets of reactions
and must, therefore, be assigned to the isotope that is common to both
sets of reactions namely, 80 Br.
Figure: Decay scheme of nuclear isomer 80Br

The two half-lives were attributed to two isomeric states of 80 Br. The
difference between the nuclear isomers is attributed to a difference of
nuclear energy states, one isomer represents the nucleus in its ground
states, of 80Br. The difference between the nuclear isomers is attributed
to a difference of nuclear energy states, one isomer represents the
nucleus in its ground state, whereas the other is the same nucleus in an
excited state of higher energy, or the metastable state. Most known γ-
decay rates have been determined by the direct measurement of the life-
times of the exited states.
Total decay rate
λ = λ γ + λe = λ γ (1 + α)
T1/2 = (loge2)/ λ =0.693 η γ / (1 + α).
86
Since the internal conversion coefficient α can be measured or can be
calculated theoretically and half-life T ½ can be measured, hence ηγ the
average life or λ γ the rate of photon emission can be calculated.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What are Auger and Internal Conversion Electrons?
2. Is internal conversion Radiative or non-Radiative
LET US SUM UP
1. The nucleus in an excited state can perform a transition to a lower

state not only by emitting a light quantum but also by transmitting
energy directly to the electrons surrounding the nucleus. The
transition to lower state is then connected with the ejection of an
atomic electron, called a conversion electron, from a bound orbit.
The kinetic energy of the rejected electron is equal to this transition
energy (Ei – Ef) minus the binding energy EB of the orbital
electron. As the gamma ray is internally converted into electron,
the process is known as internal conversion.
2. The delayed transitions are called isomeric transitions and the
states from which they originate are called isomeric states or
isomeric levels. Nuclear species which have the same atomic and
mass number, but have different radioactive properties, are called
nuclear isomers and their existence is referred to as nuclear
isomerism. Nuclides that are isomeric states of a given isotope
differ from each other in energy and in angular momentum.
3. Most known γ-decay rates have been determined by the direct
measurement of the life-times of the exited states.
1. An Auger (pronounced OH-ZHAY) electron can be considered as the

atomic analogue of the internal conversion electron. In the electron-
capture (EC) decay processes, vacancies are left in electron shells (K, L,
M …) that can be filled by atomic electrons from higher energy levels.
A Second type of nonradiative transition is internal conversion (IC),
which occurs when a vibrational state of an electronically excited state can
couple to a vibrational state of a lower electronic state.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What is Internal Conversion?
87
2. How do you calculate the internal conversion?
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=davHYgFCdAU
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHCoIRorvqc
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nzC6R-LOLkI
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDPwNJK37AQ
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnOALUew5f8
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKYSE4pXegs
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnG9kTpzaJM
88
BLOCK IV: NUCLEAR FORCES AND
PROPERTIES OF NUCLEAR FORCES
Unit 11: Deuteron
Unit 12: Scattering and Meson Theory of
Nuclear Force
Unit 13: Reciprocity Theorem and B-W Formula
89
UNIT 11
DEUTRON
Structure
Overview
Objectives
11.1 Deutrons
11.2 Properties of deuteron
11.3 Ground state of deuteron

11.4 quadrupole moment of deuteron
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Unfortunately, none of these holds in nuclear physics. Forces between

nucleons are neither simple nor fully understood. One of the reasons
forthis is that the interactions between nucleons are “residuals” of the
fundamental interactions between quarks inside the nucleons. In this unit
we discuss about deuteron and its properties.
OBJECTIVES

❖ Define Deuteron and its Properties
❖ Using Schrodinger Equation ,Calculate Ground state of Deuteron
❖ Evaluate Quadrapole Moment of Deuteron
90
11.1 DEUTERON
One of the main objectives of the study of atomic nuclei is to understand

the basic natureof the forces that bind nucleons together. A number of
characteristics of nuclear forces and of nuclear structure have been
established.
The protons and neutrons are very strongly bound within the nucleus.
The nature ofthe force, which binds them together is basically different
from the more familiar types of forces e.g. the gravitational or the
electromagnetic forces. The gravitational force is far too weak to account
for the nuclear binding. For instance the potential energy of gravitational
interaction between two nucleons within the nucleus at a distance of 2×10-
15
m from one another energy is 5.75×10-32 MeV.
This is much smaller than the binding energy per nucleon, which is of the
order of a few million electron volts. So far as the electromagnetic force is
concerned two protons repel one another due to like charges on them.
Again the neutrons being electrically neutral cannot have any
electromagnetic interaction between themselves or with the protons.
Thus we must assume a type of force other than the above two act
between the nucleons within the nucleus. This force is very strongly
attractive up to a certain maximum distance between the nucleons which
is of the order of about 2 fm. This distance is known as the range of the
force. Beyond that distance the force is negligibly small. It is known as the
strong interaction. The exact nature of this force is not fully understood.
However, some idea of its nature can be inferred from the ground stable
properties of the deuteron the simplest proton-neutron bound system.
11.2 PROPERTIES OF DEUTERON
1. The extraordinary stability of the alpha particle shows that the most
stable nuclei are those in which number of neutrons and protons
are equal. The deuteron consists of two particles of roughly equal
masses M, so that the reduced mass of the system is ½ M.
2. The binding energy of the deuteron is very small. Its experimental
value is 2.2 MeV. Since the energy needed to pull a nucleon out of
a medium mass nucleus is about 8 MeV, we must regard the
deuteron as loosely bound.
3. The angular momentum quantum number, often called the nuclear
spin, of the ground stateof the deuteron determined by a number
of optical, radiofrequency and micro-wave methods is one. It
suggests that the spins are parallel (triplet state) and the orbital
91
angular momentum of the deuteron about their common center of
mass is zero. Thus the ground state is 3 S state.
4. The parity of deuteron as measured, indirectly, by studies of
nuclear disintegrations and reactions for which certain rules of
parity changes exist, is even
5. The sum of the magnetic dipole moments of the proton (2.79µ N)
and neutron (-1.9 µN), doesnot exactly equal to magnetic moment
of the deuteron (0.857405 µ N), measured by magnetic resonance
absorption method.
6. 6 ) A radiofrequency molecular beam method has been employed

to determine the quadrupole moment of the deuteron as Q = +
0.00285 x 10-28 cm2. This shows the departure from spherical
symmetry of a charge distribution. The +ve sign indicates that this
distribution is prolate rather than oblate. The electric quadrupole
moment and the magnetic moment discrepancy can be explained
if the ground state is a mixture of the triplet states 3S1 and 3D1
having even parity. The percentage probability of finding the
deuteron in D-state is 4 ± 2%. As deuteron spends most of the time
in the spherically symmetrical state.
7. Since the neutron has no charge, the force between the neutron
and proton cannot be electrical. This force cannot be magnetic as
magnetic moments are very small. It cannot begravitational force,
as the masses are very small. So we must accept the nuclear force
as a new type of force. This force is short range, attractive and
along the line joining the two particles (central force). Since a
central force cannot account for the quadrupole moment of the
deuteron.
8. The force depends only on the separation of the nucleons not on
the relative velocity or orientation of the nucleon spins with respect
to the line. This force can be derived from a potential. Since the
force is attractive, V(r) is negative and decreases with decreasing
r. Since it is short range, V (r) vanishes for r > b, where b ~ 3 fermi.
11.3 GROUND STATE OF THE DEUTERON
The Schrodinger equation for a two body problem is

2𝑚
2 Ψ + (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0 … (1)
ℏ2
M is the reduced mass and E is the energy of the system equal to
92
the binding energy ofdeuteron and V the potential energy describing the
forces acting between the two bodies.
The Schrodinger equation for the 3S state (l=0) of deuteron is
1 𝑑 2 𝑑Ψ(r) 2𝑚
2
[𝑟 ] + 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉(𝑟))Ψ(r) = 0 … (2)
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ℏ
In this case the reduced mass m=1/2M where M is the mass of the
nucleon. We expect the ground state to be spherically symmetrical( S
state) so that ψ(r) depend only on r ( central modified force. Substituting
ψ(r) =u(r) /r in the above equation , where u( r ) is called the radial wave
function
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑀
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉(𝑟))𝑢 = 0 … (3)
𝑑𝑟 2 ℏ2
The wave function of the bound state of deuteron is not markedly

depended on the exact shape of the potential V(r) between the proton and
neutron provided the potential of short range is chosen.
For the ground state of deuteron the total energy E is negative and equal
to –B, where B is the binding energy of the deuteron. Thus equation 3 can
be written as
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑀
+ (𝑉 − 𝐵)𝑢 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 𝑏 … (4)
𝑑𝑟 2 ℏ2 0
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑀
+ (−𝐵)𝑢 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑏 … (5)
𝑑𝑟 2 ℏ2
These equation can be written as
𝑑2 𝑢
2
+ 𝐾2𝑢 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 𝑏 … (6)
𝑑𝑟
𝑑2 𝑢
2
+ 𝛼2𝑢 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑏 … (7)
𝑑𝑟
Where K2= M(V0-B)/ ℏ2 and 𝛼 2 = 𝑀𝐵/ℏ2
The general solution for equation 6 and 7 are
u = A1SinKr+B1 for r <b ...(8)
93
u = A2eαr+B2e-αr for r >b ...(9)
The boundary conditions are at u(r→ 0 ) = 0 to keep wave function ψ

finite.
u(r → ∞) = 0 , u must not diverge faster than as r → ∞
To satisfy the conditions at zero and infinity the solution reduces to
u = A1SinKr for r <b ...(10)
u = B2-αr for r >b ...(11)
We can get the values of two constants A1 and B2

1
1 𝛼 2
𝐴1 = [ ] … (12)
2𝜋 𝛼𝑏 + 1
𝛼𝑏 1
𝛼 2𝐾
𝐵2 = 𝐴1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐾𝑏𝑒 𝛼𝑏 =[ ] … (13)
2𝜋(𝛼𝑏 + 1) 𝐾0
On substituting the value of α=0.232 fm -1 and b= 1.93 fm in the above

equationsWe get A1 = 0.16 and B2 = 0.247
With these values it was inferred that nucleons in the deuteron spend
only one third of the time with in the range of nuclear force and thus
deuteron is loosely bound.
Excited state of the deuteron
First write the radial part of the Schrodinger equation for any angular
momentum ιr
𝑑2 𝑢(𝑟) 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2
+ [𝐾 2 − ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏 … (6)
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
𝑑 2 𝑢1 (𝑟) 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2
+ [𝛼 2 − ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≥ 𝑏 … (6)
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
Where K2 and α2 are having their usual values .

The general solution of the equation 14 involves spherical Bessel
function jι and sphericalNeumann function nι. As nι approaches - ∞ as
r → 0 , thus the solution of equation 14 is
94
u1 = Ajl (Kr )... (16)
Where jl(kr)=(π/2Kr)1/2 Jl+1/2(kr) where J l+1/2 being the function of half

odd integer
The solution of equation 15 outside the range of nuclear force
u1(r) = B[jl(i𝛼r)+inl(i𝛼r)] for r>b ...(17)
Using the boundary conditions that the function and its first derivatives
are continues at theedge of the well.
For b< 1.43 x 10 -15m , αb<1 and since α<<K the expression is very
small and nearly zero.
Thus
J l-1 (Kb) = 0
This condition holds for all angular momenta except l=0

𝜋2 ℏ2
Thus the minimum well depth is 𝑉0 = 𝑀𝑏2
If we choose b=2x10 -15 m; we get V0 =144 MeV, which is almost four

times as large as the actual well depth in the ground state. Repeating
this procedure for larger and larger values ofl we find that a deeper
well depth is required to produce a bound state. Thus we conclude that
no bound state exists for l > 0 for deuterons.
Experimentally determined properties
Deuteron is the only two nucleon bound system made up of a proton and
a neutron. The two other possible two-nucleon systems, the diproton (2He)
and the dineutron, do not exist as bound system.
The following are the experimentally determined properties of the ground
state deuteron.
I. The binding energy is small EBE =2.2245±0.0002 MeV.

The binding energy per nucleon in the deuteron is thus fBE=1.1122MeV.
This is muchsmaller than the mean value of the binding fraction (fB=B/A)
for the nuclei with mass numbers of 4 or more. Even for the α-particle with
A=4, fB=7.07 MeV. Thus it is clear that the deuteron is a rather weakly
bound structure, compared to most other nuclei.
II. The spin of the deuteron (total angular momentum) in the ground
state in the unit of ħ is Jd=1.; µd=0.857414±0.000019.
95
III. The deuteron also possess a small but finite electric quadrupole
moment which hasthe value ; Qd =+0.282×10-31 m2.
IV. The parity of the deuteron ground state is even.
The observed values of the ground state spin and magnetic moment of
the deuteron yield important information about the nature of this state.
The deuteron is made up of a proton and a neutron both of which are spin
½ particles having the intrinsic magnetic moments µp=+2.7927 and µn= -
1.9131 nuclear magnetons. Their sum is thus µp+µn=0.8796 µn. This value
differs only slightly from µ d givenabove. The difference is µp+µn-µd=0.0222
µN .
If we ignore this difference to a first approximation then we may expect
the proton and neutron magnetic moment is aligned antiparallel in the
deuteron. Since µ n is negative, theneutron magnetic moment is aligned
antiparallel to its intrinsic spin sn. Hence the proton and neutron spins sp
and sn must be aligned parallel to each other in the deuteron. The total
intrinsic spin of the deuteron; sd=sp+sn=1.
To the approximation in which the difference µp+µn-µd can be neglected,
only the value L=0 is admissible. The other two values L=1 and 2 will
contribute significantly to the magnetic moment due to the orbital rotation
of the proton, which would introduce considerable difference between
µp+µn and µd.
11.4 QUADRUPOLE MOMENT OF DEUTERON
Another property which is highly important in connection with the shape

of the nucleus is electric quadrupole moment. This quantity which cannot
be discussed in a simple way, is ameasure of deviation of a nucleus from
spherical symmetry. Its magnitude depends on the size of the nucleus,
the extend of deviation from spherical symmetry, and the magnitude of
the charge ; the sign may be positive or negative.
When evaluating the quadrupole moment of deuteron only the proton
contributes to the quadrupole moment and its distance from the centre of
gravity is half of the proton neutron separation r. Hence the quadrupole
moment operator for the deuterons is
1
𝑄 = (3𝑍 2 − 𝑟 2 )
4
1
= (3𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑟 2 )
4
96
𝑟2
𝑄= (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1) … (1)
4
The quadrupole is estimated from the 8 waves beyond the potential well.
The expectationvalue of this operator is given by
(ѱ,Qѱ) = (ѱ s,Qѱs)+ (ѱD,QѱD)+ 2(ѱS,QѱD) ...(2)
The S state is spherically symmetrical and cannot have a quadrupole

moment. The firstterm is zero. The second term is apure D state term and
is smaller than the cross term.
1 ∞
(ѱD,QѱD) = − 20 ∫0 𝑟 2 𝜔2 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟
√2 ∞ 2
2(ѱD,QѱD) = − ∫ 𝑟 𝑢(𝑟)𝜔(𝑟)𝑑𝑟
10 0
Substituting in equation 2 we get,
√2 ∞ 2 1 ∞
Q= ∫ 𝑟 𝑢(𝑟)𝜔(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 − 20 ∫0 𝑟 2 𝜔2 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟 ...(3)
10 0
The ground state of deuteron is predominating an s - state, the first term

predominates overthe second. Therefore the effective value of Q for the
deuteron is given by
√2 ∞ 2
Q= ∫ 𝑟 𝑢(𝑟)𝜔(𝑟)𝑑𝑟
10 0
...(4)
U(r) is the deuteron ground state S wave function .
u(r) = Nse-αr
ω(r) is the deuteron D wave function
ω(r) = Nse-αr(1+3/αr+3/α2r2)
NS and ND are normalization constants.
√2 ∞
Q= 10 ∫0 𝑟 2 NDe-αr NDe-αr[(1+3/αr+3/α2r2)]dr
Consider
97
∞
P s = ∫0 𝑢2 𝑑𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 N s = √2𝛼
√2 ∞
Q= ∫ 𝑁𝑆 N D r 2 (e -αr )[(1+3/αr+3/α 2 r 2 )]dr
10 0
= NSND/√8𝛼 3
5
ND = 2Q𝛼 2
The function ω (r) outside the range of the force is determined completely
by the quadrupole moment. The D state probability may be defined as
∞
P D = ∫0 𝜔2 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟 = 1
𝑅 ∞
P D = ∫0 𝑇 𝜔2 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑅 𝜔2 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟
𝑇
∞
P D =2 ∫𝑅 𝜔2 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟
𝑇
Where RT is the nuclear range of the tensor potential
0 1 4
P D =2 ∫𝑅 9𝑁 2 𝐷 (𝛼 ) 𝑑𝑟
𝑇 𝑟
16𝑁𝐷 2
P D =𝑅 3 𝛼4 𝑑𝑟
𝑇
24𝑄 2 𝛼
PD = 𝑅𝑇 3
This equation implies that the tensor force cannot have an arbitrarily small
r
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. 1.Give any three properties of Deuteron
LET US SUM UP
❖ There is only one A = 2 nucleus, the deuteron, and it has no excited

states. It is the simplestbound state of nucleons and, therefore,
98
gives an ideal system for studying the nuclear force and nucleon-
nucleon interaction. Its binding energy is a very precisely
measured quantity and can be determined in three different ways.
❖ Another property which is highly important in connection with the

shape of the nucleus iselectric quadrupole moment. This quantity
which cannot be discussed in a simple way, is a measure of
deviation of a nucleus from spherical symmetry. Its magnitude
depends on the size of the nucleus, the extend of deviation from
spherical symmetry, and the magnitude of the charge; the sign
may be positive or negative.
I. The extraordinary stability of the alpha particle shows that the most
stable nuclei are those in which number of neutrons and protons
are equal. The deuteron consists of two particles of roughly equal
masses M, so that the reduced mass of the system is ½ M.
II. The binding energy of the deuteron is very small. Its experimental
value is 2.2 MeV. Since theenergy needed to pull a nucleon out of
a medium mass nucleus is about 8 MeV, we must regard the
deuteron as loosely bound.
III. The angular momentum quantum number, often called the nuclear
spin, of the ground state
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Define Deuteron
2. what are the experimentally determined properties of ground state
of Deuteron?
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DE5wLMJjGUY
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MpXaHGHcBIs
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovHGUsu1NfM
99
UNIT 12
SCATTERING AND MESON THEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCE
Structure
Overview
Objectives
12.1 Neutron-Proton scattering at low energies
12.2 Proton–Proton scattering at low energies

12.3 Meson theory of nuclear force
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
In the last unit we spoke about Deuteron and its properties. Now, we
learned about the N-P Scattering and P-N Scattering. As was first pointed
out by Yukawa, it is in principle possible to account for the short-range
forces between nuclear particles by the assumption of virtual emissionand
absorption processes involving intermediary particles of integral spin, the
so-called mesons1, the mass of which is determined by the range of the
forces
OBJECTIVES
❖ In NP Scattering calculate the scattering Cross -Section

❖ Proton -Proton Scattering
❖ Discuss Meson Theory of Nuclear force
100
12.1 NEUTRON -PROTON SCATTERING AT LOW ENERGIES
In principle the analysis of the scattering is very much altered by the non
central force. At energies below 10 MeV it is advantageous to decompose
the wave function into spherical harmonic by the use of spin angular
function. The spin s can have values 0 and 1 corresponding to the singlet
and triplet states respectively. The S scattering in the singlet state s=0 is
unchanged by the presence of tensor forces since they do not act in that
state.
The relative motion of two particles of masses M1 and M2 can be described

by the wave equation.
ℏ2
-2𝜇 ∇2 Ψ + 𝑉(𝑟)Ψ = EΨ … (1)
Where μ is the reduced mass. E = EL-EC is the internal energy of the

system. EL is the L-system and EC is the kinetic energy of the Centre of
mass given
𝑀
EC = 𝑀 EL ...(2)
1 +𝑀2
For n-p scattering M1 =M2 =M so that
EC = EL/2...(3)
So only half the laboratory energy is available for scattering in the Centre
of mass system.
E =EL-EC =EL/2...(4)
The angle of scattering θL in the L-system is related to that in the C

system (θC) for n-pscattering
θC =2θL
Also the angle between the neutron and the proton after scattering in
the L-system isalways 900
Since the reduced mass of the n-p system is μ =M/2, the wave equation
(1) can be written as
𝑀
∇2 Ψ +
ℏ2
101
Here Ψ =Ψ (r, θ, Φ); θ and Φ are the centre of mass angles, r is the
distance between the neutron and the proton. For scattering E>0.
The low energy n-p scattering cross section which can be used to
calculate both σt and σs.
The conditions of matching the solutions of the radial wave equations for
thedeuteron ground state as also for low energy neutron-proton scattering
are:
𝑀
𝑘2 = 𝐸
ℏ2
𝑀
𝑘12 =
ℏ2 𝑜𝑡
and
𝑀
𝑘22 =
ℏ2 𝑜
Here we have written
EBE =εt =εd
Since both εt and E<<V0, we can write
𝑀
𝑘1 2 ≈ 𝑘2 2 ≈ 𝑘0 2 = 𝑣
ℏ2 0
Then from the above equations we have
−𝛼𝑡 = 𝑘 cot(𝑘𝑏 + 𝛿0 ) … (5)
−𝛼𝑡
cot(𝑘𝑏 + 𝛿0 ) = ...(6)
𝑘
If we consider the scattering of neutrons of energy E = 1eV, then we get
𝛼𝑡2 𝐸𝐵𝐸 6
=
𝑘2 𝐸
𝛼𝑡
= 1.5x103>>1 ...(7)
𝑘
Thus cot (kb+δ0) in Equation (6) has a large negative value which means
102
that
kb+δ0≈π ...(8)
For b = 2 fm, αtb =0.464 and hence

𝛼𝛼 𝑏
𝑡 0.464
kb=1.5𝑥103
… (9)
1.5𝑥103
Comparing with Equation (8) we then conclude that kb<< δ0 which gives
−𝛼𝑡
cot(𝑘𝑏 + 𝛿0 ) ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛿0 = ...(10)
𝑘
We then get the low energy triplet scattering cross section as
4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋ℏ2 1
𝜎𝑡 = 2 … (11)
𝑘 + 𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛿0 𝑘 2 + 𝛼𝑡 2 𝑀 𝐸 + ℰ𝑑
An expression similar to Equation (11) can be written for the singlet

scattering cross section 𝜎 s for low energy neutrons:
4𝜋 4𝜋ℏ2 1
𝜎𝑠 = 2
… (12)
𝑘 + 𝛼𝑠2 𝑀 𝐸 + ℰ𝑠
Here
𝜎𝑠 2= (M/ℏ2 )ε ,
being the energy of the singlet state of the neutron – proton

system, analogous to the triplet state energy
εd = EBE
We can then write the low energy n-p scattering cross section as
3 1 𝜋ℏ2 3 1
𝜎= 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑠 = ( + ) … (13)
4 4 𝑀 𝐸 + ℰ𝑑 𝐸 + ℰ𝑠
Equation (13) gives the zero energy scattering cross section as
𝜋ℏ2 3 1
𝜎0 = [ + ] … (14)
𝑀 ℰ𝑑 ℰ𝑠
We can then estimate the energy εs of the singlet state, using the
103
measured value of the zero energy n-p cross section. Substituting εd =
2.226 MeV and σ0 =20 b in the above equation, we get εs = 90 KeV
12.2 PROTON - PROTON SCATTERING AT LOW ENERGY
The quantitative information about the spin dependence is confirmed by

analyzing the scattering of low energy protons from protons. This analysis
also shows that the nucleon potential is charge independent , ie. the same
nuclear potential may be used for both np and pp scattering This doesn't
mean that their cross section are the same. There are two differences
between pp and np scattering . First pp scattering is caused not only by
nuclear force but also by Coulomb's force. Second the scattering and
scattered particles are identical and obey Pauli's exclusion principle and
therefore wave function S describing the two protonsmust change sign on
the interchange of two particles. For incident protons below 10 MeV only
S state interaction is of any importance in the scattering. Since proton in
higher orbital angular momentum states stay apart from each other
beyond the range of nuclear force.
Experimentally the pp scattering , is capable of much higher accuracy than
in np scattering for the following reasons.
1. Protons are easily available over wide range of frequency
2. Protons can be made mono energetic.
3. Protons can be produced in well collimated beam.

4. Protons can be easily detected by their ionizing properties.
5. Protons can undergo both Coulomb and nuclear scattering
6. The protons combination obeys Fermi Statistics.
Hence this simplifies the analysis of proton- proton scattering
We are now interested in obtaining theoretical expression for differential
elastic scattering cross section of protons by protons. The theory is
more complicated than np scattering because Coulomb's potential
distort the incident wave even at finite distances. The particlesincident
along the z axis the total wave function is given by
𝑢𝑙 (𝑟)
Ψ(𝑟, 𝜃) = ∑ 𝐶𝑙 𝑃𝑙 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑟
Where ul(r) is the solution of the radial wave equation for the proton –
proton system given as
104
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑀 𝑒2 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)ℏ2
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉(𝑟) − − )𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑟 2 ℏ2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑀𝑟 2
Where V( r ) is the square well nuclear potential and M is the mass of the
proton. For low energies the nuclear potential will affect only to l =0 partial
wave, Coulomb potential produces higher l value scattering .
12.3 MESON THEORY OF NUCLEAR FORCE
Nucleons are held together by the exchange of intermediate nuclear

particle known as mesons.
According to Yukawa theory the particles are intermediate in mass
between electrons and nucleons are responsible for the nuclear forces.
These particles are known called as pios. Pions may be charged π+ , π-
π0 and are members of the class of elementary particles called as
mesons. The word pion is a contraction of original name pi meson.
According to Yukawa theory every nucleon continually emits and
reabsorbs pions. Once emitted pion is absorbed by another nucleon not
by the parent nucleon. The associated transfer of momentum is
equivalent to the action of nuclear force. Nuclear forces are repulsive at
very short range as well as being attractive at a greater nuclear
distances(~ 2 Fermi). One of the strength of meson theory of such nuclear
forces is that it can account for both these properties.
This is like two boys exchanging basket balls if they throw the ball at each
other, boys move backward ,and when they catch the ball thrown at them,
the backward momentum increases. This method of exchanging balls has
the same effect as the repulsive force between the boys. If the boys
snatch the ball from each other's hand ,however , the result will be
equivalent to an attractive force between them . If nucleons constantly
emit and absorb pionstheir mases expected to decrease, but it does not
happen.
This is justified by uncertainty principle. The laws of physics refer to
measurable quantities only and the uncertainty principle limits the
accuracy with certain combination of the measurement can made. The
emissions of pion by the nucleon which does not change in mass., this is
the clear violation of law of conservation of energy. So nucleons
reabsorbs it or absorbs another pions emitting by the neighboring nucleon
so soon after ward that even in principle it is impossible to determine the
mass change involved . From uncertainty principle in the form ∆E ∆t ≥
ħ/2. An event in which an amount of energy ∆E is not conserved is not
105
ħ/2.E
prohibited so long as the duration of event does not exceed
For this condition let us estimate the pion mass. Let us assume the pions
travel betweenthe nucleus at the speed of v very close to the velocity of
light c, (v <c).
The emission of pion mass mπ represents the temporary energy
discrepancy of
∆E ~ mπ c2
(this neglects the pion kinetic energy). And that
∆E∆t ~ ħ .
Nuclear forces have maximum range of about 1.7 fermi and the time ∆t
needed for the pion to travel is
𝑟 𝑟
Δ𝑡 = 𝑣 ≈ 𝑐
Therefore we have
∆E∆t ~ ħ
𝑟
𝑚𝜋 𝑐 2 𝑥𝑐 ≈ ℏ
𝑐
ℏ
𝑚𝜋 ≈
𝑟𝑐
This gives the value of mπ ~ 2 x 10 -28 kg

This is roughly 220 times the rest mass of electron.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. 1.Why PP Scattering have high accuracy than NP Scattering? give

Reason.
LET US SUM UP
In principle the analysis of the scattering is very much altered by

the noncentral force. At energies below 10 MeV it is advantageous
to decompose the wave function into spherical harmonic by the
106
use of spin angular function. The spin s can have values 0 and 1
corresponding tothe singlet and triplet states respectively. The S
scattering in the singlet state s=0 is unchanged bythe presence of
tensor forces since they do not act in that state.
The quantitative information about the spin dependence is
confirmed by analyzing the scattering of low energy protons from
protons. This analysis also shows that the nucleon potential is
charge independent.
First pp scattering is caused not only by nuclear force but also by
Coulomb's force. Secondthe scattering and scattered particles are
identical and obey Pauli's exclusion principle and therefore wave
function S describing the two protons must change sign on the
interchange of twoparticles.
According to Yukawa theory every nucleon continually emits and
reabsorbs pions. Once emitted pion is absorbed by another
nucleon not by the parent nucleon. The associated transfer of
momentum is equivalent to the action of nuclear force
1. Protons are easily available over wide range of frequency, Protons

can be easily detected by their ionizing properties...Protons can
undergo both Coulomb and nuclear scattering
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Derive N-P Scattering

2. what is the Meson theory of Nuclear Force?
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DD3QLqA2kMg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIDwCZ4z3Qk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jf6MSWoZRmc
107
UNIT 13
RECIPROCITY THEOREM AND B-W FORMULA
Structure
Overview
Objectives
13.1 Reciprocity Theorem
13.2 Breit - Wigner Single level formula for scattering
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Reciprocity theorem is one of the most important theorems in

electromagnetics. With it we can develop physical intuition to ascertain if
a certain design or experiment is wrong. It also tells us what is possible
and what is impossible in design of many systems. Reciprocity theorem is
like “tit-for-tat” relationship in humans. To study the nuclear reactions, it is
necessary to have the quantitative measure of probability of a given
nuclear reaction. In this unit we also discuss about the B-W single level
formula for scattering.
OBJECTIVES

➢ Concept of Reciprocity and application of Reciprocity
➢ B- W one level formula is spin less

➢ Depict B-W angular momentum.
108
13.1 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Let as consider a reversible process X + x = Y + y, in which X, x, Y and y

occur in arbitrary numbers in a large box of volume V.
We are interesting in the relation between the total cross-section σ( x →
y), most generally σ (α → β) of the reaction with entrance channel α and
reaction channel β and the total cross- section σ (β → α) of the inverse
reaction. For this we use the fundamental theorem of statistical
mechanics (the principle of overall balance), which states that when the
system isin dynamical equilibrium all energetically permissible states
are occupied with equal probability. Here we are interested in two
particular states, the reaction channels α and β . The theorem is then
equivalent to starting the given energy range the number of possible
channels in the box is proportional to the number of possible channels
into the box. The latter is given by
4𝜋𝑃𝛼 2 𝑉𝑑𝑝𝛼 𝑃𝛼 2 𝑉𝑑𝑝𝛼

𝑁𝛼 = = … . (1)
ℎ3 2𝜋 2 ℎ3
Since v = dE/dp, hence
𝑃𝛼 2 𝑉𝑑𝐸𝛼
𝑁𝛼 = 2𝜋 2 ℎ3 𝑣𝛼
Similarly, we have
𝑃𝛽 2 𝑉𝑑𝐸𝛽
𝑁𝛽 = 2𝜋 2 ℎ3 𝑣𝛽
The energy range of the two channels must be the same, ie.
dEα =dEβ
that is number of channels α in the box/ number of channels β in the box
𝑁𝛼 𝑃𝛼 2 𝑉𝛽
= … (2)
𝑁𝛽 𝑃𝛽 2 𝑉𝛼
The system is in dynamical equilibrium when the number of α→β

transitions per second is equal to the number of β → α transitions per
second. The condition usually holds and is known as the Principle of
detailed balance. Further
109
No. of transitions α→β per sec = Nα x T(α → β),
Where T(α → β) is the transition probability for the transition α → β
Hence
𝑃𝛼 2 𝑉𝛽 𝑇(𝛼 → 𝛽) = 𝑃𝛽 2 𝑉𝛼 𝑇(𝛽 → 𝛼) … (3)
The transition probability measures the chance that one particle moving
with velocity v in volume V is scattered per sec. Hence the cross-section
σ which corresponds to unit incident flux is given by the relation
σ = TV/v (4)
Combining relations (3) and (4) and using k = p/ ħ , we have
𝑘𝛼2 𝜎(𝛼 → 𝛽) = 𝑘𝛽2 𝜎
𝜎(𝛼 → 𝛽)𝜆2 𝛼 = 𝜎(𝛽 → 𝛼)/𝜆2𝛽
We have assumed zero intrinsic angular moments for the particles so far.
If J is the intrinsic angular momentum of any one of the particles, the
corresponding density of states then must be multiplied by 2J + 1. Thus
if there are intrinsic momenta for X, x, Y and y, we may write
(2JX + 1) (2Jx + 1) k2α 𝜎(𝛼 → 𝛽) = (2JY + 1) (2Jy+1) k2β 𝜎(𝛽 → 𝛼).
If the initial and final states have definite angular momenta, then the above
equation must be employed.
13.2 BREIT - WIGNER SINGLE LEVEL FORMULA FOR SCATTERING
To study the nuclear reactions, it is necessary to have the quantitative

measure of probability of a given nuclear reaction. This quantity must be
one which can be measured experimentally and calculated in such a way
the theoretical and experimental values can be compare readily. The
quantity that is most often used for this purpose is the cross section of the
nucleus for a particular reaction usually denoted by σ with appropriate
subscript. The concept of nuclear cross section can be easily visualized
as the cross sectional area or target area, presented by the nucleus to an
incident particle.
110
Figure: Reaction cross section as a function of incident channel
energy
A nuclear reaction produced by the absorption of the projectile x by a
target nucleus X (both in their ground state) to produce a compound
nucleus C* in a state of excitation near an isolated level of the latter which
is far removed from any of its other levels. The existence of such an
isolated level implies that separation between the levels D >> Γ; Γ being
width of the level. The reaction is initiated through a definite entrance
channel (X + x) which is characterized by a definite value of the kinetic
energy of relative motion Ex between X and x and of a definite relative
angular momentum.
The energy of excitation of the compound nucleus, so formed is given by
Ec= Ex + Sx = Er ... (1)
Where, Er is the energy of the isolated level in which the compound

nucleus is formed. Sx isthe separation energy of x from the compound
nucleus in its ground state, given by
Sx= Bc - BX - Bx ... (2)
Where the B's denote the binding energies of the corresponding nuclei. If
x is a nucleon, thenBx = 0. The subsequent breakup of the compound
nucleus into Y+y with the relative kinetic energy Ey .Obviously we can also
write Ec = Ey + Sy where Sy is the separation energy of y from the
compound nucleus in the ground state, given by.
111
Sy = Bc - BY - By
If y is nucleon, By = 0. Here we assume that both Y and y are formed in

their ground states. However, this may not always be the case and Y may
be left in different excited states, giving rise to the different possible exit
channels.
The state of the compound nucleus formed as above can be represented
by a damped harmonic wave given below.
Ψ(t)= ψ o exp(-iEr t /ℏ) exp (- Γt / 2 ℏ)
= ψ o exp{-i(E r - Γt / 2)t/ ℏ} … (3)
Here Γ/2 is the half width of the level which is actually a decaying state,
its life - time
Being
τ= ℏ/ Γ
The above wave function does not represent a stationary state, but may
be through of a being built up by the super position of stationary states of
different energies by Fourier integral method.
+∞ 𝑖𝐸𝑡
Ψ(t)=∫−∞ 𝐴𝐸 exp (− ) 𝑑𝐸 … (4)
ℏ
We can determine the amplitude AE of the state at the energy E by

taking the Fouriertransform of equation (4).
∞
1 1)
𝑖𝐸𝑡 ′
𝐴𝐸 = ∫𝛹 (𝑡 exp ( ) 𝑑𝑡′
2𝜋 ℏ
0
∞
1
= ∫ 𝛹 exp{(i(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑖𝛤/2)t′ /ℏ}) 𝑑𝑡′
2𝜋
0
𝜓𝑜 exp {(𝑖(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 + 𝑖𝛤/2)t′ /ℏ})

=
2𝜋 𝑖𝛤
𝑖 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 + 2 )
[ ℏ ]0
112
Here we take positive value of time only, since the compound nucleus
can decay onlyafter its formation.
𝜓𝑜 𝑖ℏ
∴ 𝐴𝐸 =
2𝜋 (𝐸 − 𝐸 + 𝑖𝛤 )
𝑟 2
The upper limit of the above integral vanishes because of the

damping term
exp(-𝛤𝑡 ′ /2ℏ). So we get
|𝜓0 |2 ℎ2
|𝐴𝐸 | =
4𝜋 2 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 )2 + 𝛤 2 /4
The cross section for the formation of the state Ec is by the process X +
x proportionalto the amplitude squared. So we can write.
𝐶
𝜎𝑥 =
(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 )2 + 𝛤 2 /4
Where C is a constant .To determine C we note that the number of

possible states in the incident channel is,
4𝜋𝑝𝑥2 Ω𝑑𝑝𝑥
𝑑𝑛 = (2𝜋ℏ)3
Where Ω is the volume of the enclosure within which the reaction take
place. If σ x is the cross section for the absorption of x by X, then
the volume swept out by the effective collision area in one second is
σ x vx where vx is the relative velocity of the incident particle . So the
probability of finding the nucleus X in this volume is σ x Vx / Ω and the
probability of formation of the compound nucleus in the given entrance
channel per second is
𝜎𝑥 𝑣𝑥 4𝜋𝑝𝑥2 Ω𝑑𝑝𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝑝𝑥2 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑝𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝑝𝑥2 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝐸𝑥

. = =
Ω (2𝜋ℏ)3 2𝜋 2 ℏ3 2𝜋 2 ℏ3
Integrating over all possible energies we get the total probability as

+∞
1 𝜎𝑥
𝑃 = 2 ∫ 2 𝑑𝐸𝑥
2𝜋 ℏ 𝜆
−∞
113
Since the integrand has finite values only for the energies within the
width 𝛤 of thelevel which are so narrow that we can neglect the variation
𝜆 and write (dE = dEx)
+∞
1
𝑃 = 2 2 ∫ 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ𝜆
−∞
+∞
𝐶 𝑑𝐸
= 2 2 ∫
2𝜋 ℏ𝜆 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 )2 + 𝛤 2 /4
−∞
𝐶 2𝜋 𝐶
= . =
2𝜋 2 ℏ𝜆2 𝛤 𝜋ℏ𝛤𝜆2
The above probability of the formation of the compound nucleus must be

equal to the probability of the decay of C* through the same channel. This
is a consequence of the reciprocity theorem. If we write this probability
𝛤
of decay through the entrance channel as ℏ𝑥 we get
𝐶 𝛤𝑥
. or C=𝜋𝜆2 𝛤𝑥 𝛤
𝜋ℏ𝛤𝜆2 ℏ
So we finally get the cross section for the formation of the compound
nucleus as
𝜋𝜆2 𝛤𝑥 𝛤
𝜎𝑥 =
(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 )2 + 𝛤 2 /4
The relative probability of decay of C* through the exit channel Y+y

𝛤𝑦
can be written as 𝛤 We then get the cross section for the reaction X(x,y)
Y as
𝛤𝑦 𝛤𝑥 𝛤𝑦
𝜎(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜋𝜆2 (𝐸−𝐸 2 2
𝛤 𝑟 ) +𝛤 /4
This is the Breit Wigner one level formula for spinless nuclei at very low
energies so that the relative angular momentum of the particles in the
entrance channel is l =0. If howeverl is not zero, which is the case when
the energy is higher, we have to take into account the statistical factor
of the compound state formed which, for spinless nuclei x and X, is given
byg = 2 l +1
114
Each of the (2 l +1) sub states can decay with equal probability. So 𝛤𝑥
is to bemultiplied by this factor, which gives.
𝛤𝑥 𝛤𝑦
𝜎 𝑙 𝑥 = 𝜋𝜆2 (2𝑙 + 1) (𝐸−𝐸 2 2
𝑟 ) +𝛤 /4
𝛤𝑥 𝛤𝑦
𝜎 (𝑙) (𝑥, 𝑦)= 𝜋𝜆2 (2𝑙 + 1) (𝐸−𝐸 2 2
𝑟 ) +𝛤 /4
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. 1.Why do we use Reciprocity Theorem?
LET US SUM UP
❖ For this we use the fundamental theorem of statistical mechanics

(the principle of overall balance), which states that when the
system is in dynamical equilibrium all energetically permissible
states are occupied with equal probability. Here we are interested
in two particular states, the reaction channels α and β. The
theorem is then equivalent to starting the given energyrange the
number of possible channels in the box is proportional to the
number of possible channelsinto the box.
❖ This quantity must be one which can be measured experimentally
and calculated in such a way the theoretical and experimental
values can be compare readily. The quantity that is most often
used for this purpose is the cross section of the nucleus for a
particular reaction usually denoted by σ with appropriate subscript.
The concept of nuclear cross section can be easily visualized as
the cross-sectional area or target area, presented by the nucleus to
an incident particle.
1. Forms of the reciprocity theorems are used in many

electromagnetic applications, such as analyzing electrical
networks and antenna systems. For example, reciprocity implies
that antennaswork equally well as transmitters or receivers, and
specifically that an antenna’s radiation and receiving patterns are
identical.
115
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What are the application of Reciprocity Theorem?
2. Derive B - W single level formula.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vflRZ8yIEtk
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X79SNOd1Izw
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIgSHt2GXxU
116
BLOCK V: PARTICLE PHYSICS
Unit 14: Classification of Elementary Particles
Unit 15: Conservation Laws and Symmetry
Unit 16: Quark Model
117
UNIT 14
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
Structure
Overview
Objectives
14.1 Classification of Elementary Particles
14.2 The Fundamental Interaction

14.3 Conservation laws of Symmetry
Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Answer to Check Your Progress
Unit End Exercise
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
From the point of view of elementary particle physics an elementary

particle is any particle which, to the best of our knowledge, has no
internal structure and is point-like. In quantum mechanics the Compton
wavelength is often used to characterize the size of a quantum-
mechanicalobject. Especially, this implies that any (massive) elementary
particle is much smaller than its Compton wave-length. The composite
particles, i. e. particles having an inner structure, which consists out of
two or more of the elementary particles. Nuclei are an example for these.
In this unit we discuss about Classification of Elementary Particles and
Conservation .
OBJECTIVES
• Elementary Particle Classification, explain integral and

half integral
• Classify particles and antiparticles. And also explain the
Conservation laws
14.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
After studying the structure of atoms, one gets the impression that
perhaps electron, proton and neutron are the only building blocks of
matter. Studies made partly on high energycosmic ray particles revealed
the existence of numerous new nuclear particles.
They are the subatomic or elementary particles . These particles are
elementary in the sense that they are structure less. The following figure
shows the classification of elementary particles. The elementary particles
are separated into two general groups called bosons and fermions.
Bosons are particles with intrinsic angular momentum equal to an integral
multiple of ħ. Fermions are all those particles in which the spin is half
integral.
Baryons: Proton and particles heavier than protons form this group.
Protons and neutrons are called nucleons and the rest are called
hyperons. Every baryon has an antiparticles. I a number called the baryon
number is +1 is assigned to baryons and number -1 is assigned to
antibaryons, then in any closed system interaction or decay the baryon
number does not change. This is the law of conservation of baryons.
Hyperons is a special class of baryons characterized by a time decay of
the order of 10 -10 seconds and mass value intermediate between those
of then neutron and deuteron. Their decay time is very much greater than
the time of their formation( 10 -3).
Leptons : This group contains electron , photon, neutrino and muon
Mesons : The rest mass of these particles varies between about 250 m e
and 1000 me. The mesons are the agents of the interaction between
particles inside the nucleus. Pions, kaon and η- mesons are together
called mesons. Baryons and mesons are jointly called hadrons and are
the particles of strong interaction
Figure: Classification of Elementary Particles
Particles and Anti-particles
Electron and Positron. The positron and the electron are said to be
antiparticles. They have the same mass and the same spin but opposite
charge. They annihilate each other with the emission of photons, when
they come in contact with each other. Existence of an antiparticle for the
electron was actually predicted by Dirac. Positron was discovered by
Anderson in 1932.
Proton and antiproton. The antiproton, was established in 1955 by
Segre, Chamberlain, and their collaborators. Antiprotons were produced
by bombarding protons in a target with 6- GeV protons, thereby inducing
the reaction.
p + p (+energy) → p + p + p + 𝑝̅
Antiprotons interact strongly with matter and annihilate with protons.
P+ 𝑝̅ → π ++ π- + π+ + π- + π0
Neutron and antineutron. The antiparticle of neutron,
antineutron,discovered in 1956 by Cork, Lamberton and Wenzel.The
nature of the antineutron is not very well known . Both neutron and
antineutron have zero charge and the same mass. However, since
neutron is supposed to have a certain internal charge distribution , it is
expected that the antineutron has an internal charge distribution opposite
to that of the neutron. Antineutron is quickly annihilated, either by a proton
or a neutron, usually with the production of several pions. If an
antineutron is not annihilated by a nucleon , it decays by the reaction.
𝑝̅ + 𝑝 → 𝑛̅ + 𝑛
Neutrino and antineutrino. The neutrino has a finite energy and
momentum in flight. It travels with the speed of light c. It does not cause
ionization on passing through matter.
The antiparticle of neutrino is antineutrino. The distinction between the
neutrino 𝑣̅ and antineutrino v is a particularly interesting one. The spin of
the neutrino is opposite in direction to the direction of its motion. The
neutrino spins-counter clockwise. But the spin of the antineutrino is in the
same direction as its direction of motion, it spins clockwise. Thus the
neutrino moves through space in the manner of a left-handed screw, while
the antineutrino does so in the manner of a right-handed screw. Thus
neutrino possesses a “ left- handed” helicity; The antineutrino possesses
a “ right-handed “ helicity, i.e., A neutrino and antineutrino differ only in the
sense of their helicity.
It is customary to The particle accompanying a positron a neutrino, v,
while that accompanying an electron is called an antineutrino. Because of
its lack of charge and magnetic moment, a neutrino has essentially no
interaction with matter. This interaction is extremely weak.
n → p+ e - + 𝒗
̅
p →n+ e + + ν
Antimatter
In Atomic Physics, it has long been useful to consider an atom as
composed of extra nuclear electrons and a nucleus. A positron and an
anti proton could form an atom of anti hydrogen. Anti hydrogen would
have a spectrum similar to that of ordinary hydrogen. Indeed, from a
collection of anti protons, anti neutrons, and positrons, everything were
made of antiparticles. Particle-antiparticle annihilation would occur with a
tremendous release of energy.
14.2 THE FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTION
The fundamental interactions may be defined as the fundamental forces

that act between the elementary particles of which all matter is assumed
to be composed. The fundamental interactions may be classified as (i)
Strong interaction (ii)Electromagnetic interaction (iii) Weak interaction and
(iv) Gravitational interaction. All known processes in nature (from sub
nuclear to extra galactic ie. microscopic to macroscopic) can be
considered as a manifestation of one or more of these interactions. The
following table shows the particle exchanged in each of these
interactions.
Table: Particles exchanged in the interaction
Interaction Particles Exchanged
Strong Mesons
Electro-magnetic Photons
Weak Intermediate bosons
Gravitational Gravitons
The gravitational forces are not significant for elementary particles and
nuclear physics. Out of the rest three, weak forces have a very short range
(<10 -17 m) and is extremely feeble compared to strong and
electromagnetic forces.
1. Strong interaction. The strong interaction is the forces which
hold nucleons together (nuclear forces) in the atomic nucleus. The
strong nuclear interaction is Independent of the electric charge.
The range of these interactions is about 10-15m. Time interval of
such on interactionis roughly10-23 s.
2. Electromagnetic interaction. It operates on all charged particles.

Thus, electro-magnetic interactions are charge dependent. The
range is infinite and the interaction works through the photon. The
formation of electron-position pair from gamma ray is an example
ofelectromagnetic interaction.
3. Weak interaction. All interactions take place in times of about
10-23s their decay takes place in time of about 10-10s. Since
particles take long time to respond to such an interaction, force
involved must be very weak compared with strong nuclear forces.
The range of such an interaction is less than 10-17m. The
characteristic time of this interaction is 10 -8 s. The weak interaction
is responsible for the decay of strange and non-strange particles
and for non- leptonic decays of strange particles.
Beta decay is an example of weak interaction

n → p+ e - + 𝑣̅
4. Gravitational interaction. This interaction manifests itself as a
long-range force of attraction between all elementary particles.
The first force that any of us discover is ofgravity. It holds the
moon and earth together, keeping the planets in their solar
orbits andbinds stars to from our galaxy. Newton gave a formula
F= G m1m2/r2 ~ 2x 10 -34 newton. Andgravitational attraction is only
about 2x 10 -49 joule. Hence, we see that it plays no role in
particle reactions. It is the weakest of the four types of
interactions. It has infinite range.Gravitation can be explained in
terms of the interactions of gravitons‟. Their mass must bezero,
and therefore, their velocity must be that of light. The
gravitational force does not depend on the color, size, charge,
velocity, spin and angular orientation but depends on the
magnitude of inertia. As the gravitational field is extremely weak
the gravitons cannot bedetected in the laboratory.
14.3 CONSERVATION LAWS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
In classifying the various elementary particles, several discrete quantum

numbers are used. We are already familiar with two such quantum
numbers, namely those that describe a particle’s charge and spin. These
quantum numbers, specify measurable physical properties and are
always conserved. We know that all elementary charges are 0 or 1.
Particles with integer spin obey the Bose-Einstein statistics and are called
bosons. Particles with half odd integer spins obey the Fermi-Dirac
statistics and are called fermions.
Baryon number. Each baryon is given a baryon number B=1, each
corresponding anti baryon is given a baryon number B= - 1. All other
particles have B = 0. The law of conservation of baryons states that the
sum of the baryon number of all the particles after a reaction or decay
must be the same as before. This rule ensures that a proton cannot
change into an electron , even though a neutron can change into a proton.
Baryon conservation ensures the stability of the proton against decaying
into a particle of smaller mass. All normal baryons such as p + , n0 , Λ 0 ,
Σ + , Σ 0 , Σ -, Ξ 0 , Ξ - , Ω have the baryon of +1. Allthe corresponding anti
particles known as anti baryons have the baryon number -1.
All the mesons have baryon number 0.
0
Λ → p + + π- ie. [ 1= 1+ 0 ]
Another example for the conservation of baryon number is
n → p + + e - + 𝑣̅ [ 1 = 1 +0+ 0]
Hence the baryon number is conserved

Lepton number. The Leptons are supposed to possess a property called
Lepton number (L). Since the neutrinos associated with electrons and with
muons are recognized as different, we introduce two lepton numbers Le
and L μ both of which must be conserved separately in particle reaction
and decays. The number Le = 1 is assigned to the electron and the e-
neutrino and Le = - 1 to their antiparticles. All other particles have Le = 0.
Also the number L μ = 1 is assigned to the muon and the μ – neutrino
and Lμ = - 1 to their antiparticles.
π-+ p + → Λ 0 +K0 [ 0+0 =0 +0]
Strangeness number. They were produced by high energy reactions but

always in pairs i.e., if one particle of some kind is produced then
simultaneously another different particle is also emitted. Associated
production of kaons and hyperons which are known as strange particles.
Decay through strong interactions in a very short time but this is not
observed. Instead they decay slowly. Because of this strange behavior
they were called as strange particles.
K0 → π + + π - [+1 =0+0]
Here the LHS is 1 and RHS is 0. So the reaction is not conserved for
strangeness
It is found that S is conserved in all processes mediated by the strong and
electromagnetic interactions. The multiple creation of particle with S not
equal to 0 is the result of the conservation principle. An example is the
proton-proton collision:
P++P+→Λ0+K0+P++π+
strangeness number S ; 0 + 0 → (-1) + 1 + 0 + 0

On the other hand, S can change in an event governed by the weak
interaction. The decays of kaons and hyperons proceed via the weak
interaction and accordingly are extremely slow.
Even the weak interaction, however, is unable to permit S to change by
more than ±1 in a decay.
Σ + → Λ 0 + e + + 𝑣𝑒 [-1=-1+0+0]; ΔS=0
Σ - → n + e - + 𝑣̅𝑒 [-1=0+0+0]; ΔS=0
π - + p → Λ 0 + K0 [0+0 =-1+1] ; ΔS=0
Isospin and Isospin quantum number.

As far as strong interactions are concerned, the neutron and the proton
are two states of equal mass of a nucleon doublet. It is found that particles
occur in multiplets. For example, singlets η 0 (eta-meson), Ω – (omega
hyperons), Λ 0 (lamda hyperon). Doublet: p, n, triplet, π+, π- π0 (pions
or Pi-mesons). It is natural to think of the members of a multiplet as
representing different charge states of a single fundamental entity. It has
proved useful to categorize each multiplet according to the number of
charges states it exhibits by a number I such that the multiplicity of the
state is given by 2 I+ 1. Thus, the nucleon multiplet is assigned I = ½, and
its 2 x ½ + 1 = 2 states are the neutron and the proton. The pion multiplet
has I = 1, and its 2 x 1 + 1 = 3 states are π+ ,π- ,π0
Isospin can be represented by a vector I in “isospin space” whose

component in any specified
direction is governed by a quantum number customarily denoted I3.
The possible values of I3 are restricted to I, I – 1, I – 2…….., 0, ….. – (
I – 1 ), - I. Hence I3 is half-integral, if I is half-integral and integral or zero
if I is integral
Class Name Symbol Spin B Le Lμ S Y I
LEPTON e- ve +
½ 0 0
neutrino 1
μ – vμ
½ 0 0 +1
neutrino
Electron e- +
½ 0 0
1
Muon μ- ½ 0 0 +1
MESON Pion π+
,π- 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
,π0
Kaon K+ K0 0 0 0 0 +1 +1 ½
η meson η0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
BARYON Nucleon +
½ 0 0 0 +1 1/2
1
Λ Λ0 +
½ 0 0 -1 0 0
hyperons 1
Σ Σ+ Σ0 -
½ +1 0 0 0 1
hyperons Σ- 1
Ξ Ξ0 Ξ- - -
½ +1 0 0 1/2
hyperons 2 1
Ω Ω- - -
3/2 +1 0 0 0
hyperons 3 2
For the nucleon, I = ½ which means that I 3 can be either +1/2 or -1/2 ;
The former is takento represent the proton and the later neutron.
Similarly, for the pion triplet I = 1 giving I3 = + 1 for π+ , I3 = 0 for π0 and
– 1 for π-
. The charge of a meson or baryon is related to its baryon number B, its
strangeness number
S, and the component I3 of its isospin by the formula
𝐵+𝑆 𝑌
𝑞 = 𝑒 (𝐼3 + ) = 𝑒 (𝐼3 + )
2 2
Hypercharge.
A quantity called hypercharge (Y) is conserved in strong interaction.
Hypercharge is equal to the sum of the strangeness and baryon numbers
of the particle , Y = S + B. For mesons B=0, so the hypercharge equals
the strangeness.
Gell-Mann – Okubo mass formula for baryons

The Gell-Mann – Okubo mass formula provides a sum rule for the masses
of hadrons within a specific multiplet, determined by their isospin (I) and
strangeness ( or alternatively, hypercharge)
 1 
M = a0 + a1Y + a2  I (I + 1) − Y 2 
 4 
Where a0, a1 and a2 are free parameters.

Using the values of relevant l and S for baryons, the Gell-mann – Okubo
formula can be written for the baryon octet,
N +  3 + 
=
2 4
Where N , , , and  represent the average mass of corresponding

baryons.
Using the current mass of baryons, this yields:
N +
= 1128.5Mev/c2
2
And
3 + 
= 1135.25Mev/c2
4
Meaning that the Gell-mann – Okubo formula reproduces the mass of

octet baryons within ~0.5% of measured values.
For the baryon decuplet, the Gell-mann – Okubo formula can be rewritten
as the “equal- spacing” rule
 − * = * − * = * −  = a1 + 2a2  −147Mev/c2
Where  , * , * and  represent the average mass of

corresponding baryons
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. 1.What are Elementary Particle?

2. Which particle exchanged in Weak interaction?
LET US SUM UP
❖ Elementary particles are the smallest known building blocks of

the universe. They are thought to have no internal structure,
meaning that researchers think about them as zero-dimensional
pointsthat take up no space.
❖ Characteristics of elementary particles include mass, spin, and
charge. the same mass and spin, but has the opposite value of
charge and∕or flavor quantum number.
❖ Current particle physics identifies three basic types of known
elementary particles: leptons, quarks and gauge bosons. The
known leptons are the electron (e), muon (μ) and tau lepton (τ),
and their corresponding neutrinos (ne, nμ, nτ)..
❖ In the world of elementary particle physics, it’s important to

understand that the four fundamental “forces” do much more than
“push or pull”, which is what we normally think of forces doing.
Instead, we must think of the forces more as “interactions”.
1. Elementary particle physics studies the fundamental building

blocks of nature. But what fundamental does mean? By
fundamental we mean objects that are simple and structureless,
not made of anything smaller.
2. Intermediate Bosons exchanged in weak interaction.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What is Particle Physics and why do we study it?

2. What are the basic building blocks of matter in the Universe?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Nuclear Physics – Irving Kaplan, Oxford & I.B.H Pub & Co..
Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yv98EdeXvjE
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ic8dcHcB3_Y
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4EAP3sE9LnI
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3t-33p0m8Wg
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXwSV6DDlxg
UNIT 15
CONSERVATION LAWS AND SYMMETRY
Structure
Overview
Objectives
15.1 Conservation Laws and Symmetry
15.2 Charge conjugation symmetry

15.3 Conservation of parity
15.4 Time reversal symmetry
15.5 CPT Theorem
Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Unit end exercises
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Many of the profound ideas in nature manifest themselves as symmetries.

A symmetry in a physical experiment suggests that something is
conserved, or remains constant, during the experiment. So conservation
laws and symmetries are strongly linked. You are familiar with elementary
particle types, now we learn about charge conjugation, parity and time
reversal.
OBJECTIVES

❖ Charge conjugation(C): reversing the electric charge and all the
internal quantum numbers.Parity (P): space inversion; reversal of
130
the space coordinates, but not the time.
❖ Time reversal (T): replacing t by -t. This reverses time derivatives
like momentum and angular momentum
15.1 CONSERVATION LAWS AND SYMMETRY
A very important set of conservation laws is related to symmetries

involving parity(P), charge conjugation (C), and time reversal (T).
15.2 CHARGE CONJUGATION SYMMETRY
Charge conjugation is the act of symmetry operation in which every

particle in asystem is replaced by its antiparticle. If the antisystem, or
antimatter counterpart exhibits the same physical phenomena, then
charge parity (C) is conserved. For example, if in a hydrogen atom, the
proton is replaced by an antiproton and the electron is replaced by a
positron, then this antimatter atom will behave exactly like an ordinary
atom. In fact, C is not conserved in the weak interaction.
15.3 CONSERVATION OF PARITY
Parity relates to the symmetry of the wave function that represents the
system. If the wave function is unchanged, when the coordinates (x, y, z)
are replaced by (- x, - y, - z), then the system has a parity of + 1. If the
wave function has its sign changed, when thecoordinates are reversed,
then the system has a parity of -1. If we write ψ ( x, y, z) = P ψ (-x,-y, -z),
we can regard P as a quantum number characterizing ψ whose possible
values are +1 and -1. During a reaction in which parity is conserved, the
total parity number does not change.
Changing the coordinates (x, y, z) into (- x, - y, - z) convents a right-
handed coordinate
system into a left-handed coordinate system. In terms of
symmetry, the meaning of conservation of parity is that in any situation
where parity is conserved, the description of the reaction will not be
changed if the word “left” is changed to the word “right” and vice versa.
This means that such reactions can provide no clue that will distinguish
between the directions right and left. Prior to 1956 it was believed that
all reactions in nature obeyed the law of conservation of parity. However,
Yang and Lee pointed out that in reactions involving the weak interaction,
131
parity was not conserved, and that experiments could be devised that
would absolutely distinguish between right and left. Indeed parity
conservation is found to hold true only in the strong and electromagnetic
interactions.
15.4 TIME REVERSAL SYMMETRY
Time parity T describes the behavior of a wave function whent is replaced

by –t. The symmetry operation that corresponds to the conservation of
time parity is time reversal. Time reversal symmetry implies that the
direction of time is not significant, so that the reverse of any process that
can occur is also a process that can occur. In other words, if symmetry
undertime reversal holds, it is impossible to establish by viewing it whether
a motion picture of an event is being run forward or backward. Prior to
1964, time parity T was considered to be conserved in every interaction.
It was discovered in 1964 that one form of the K0 , kaon can decay into
π+ π - which violates the conservation of T. The symmetry of phenomena
under time reversal thus does not seem to be universal.
15.5 CPT THEOREM:
The combined symmetry operation in which the antimatter mirror-image

of a system is run in reverse allows a test of CPT invariance. All
the evidence supports the conservation of CPT. The conservation of
CPT means that for every process there is an antimatter mirror-image
counterpart that takes place in reverse. This particular symmetry seems
to hold for all interactions, even though its component symmetries
sometimes fail individually.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is CPT in Nuclear physics?

2. Define time reversal.
LET US SUM UP
❖ charge conjugation has some further implications. It also involves

reversing all the internal quantum numbers like those for lepton
number, baryon number and strangeness. It does not affect mass,
energy, momentum or spin.
❖ However, Yang and Lee pointed out that in reactions involving the
132
weak interaction, parity was not conserved, and that experiments
could be devised that would absolutely distinguish between right
and left. Indeed, parity conservation is found to hold true only in
the strong and electromagnetic interactions
❖ Time reversal symmetry implies that the direction of time is not
significant, so that the reverseof any process that can occur is also
a process that can occur
1. The CPT theorem is a basic principle in particle physics which states

that the combined operation of charge conjugation (C), time
reversal (T), and parity (P) in any order is an exact symmetry of
any interaction and that under the three transformations all
physical laws must be invariant.
2. T-symmetry or time reversal symmetry is the theoretical
symmetry of physical laws under the transformation of time
reversal, Since the second law of thermodynamics states that
entropyincreases as time flows toward the future, in general, the
macroscopic universe does not show symmetry under time
reversal.
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What is Parity and Time reversal for elementary particles?

2. what is Charge conjugation?
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUfDBcqtsZQ
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Q5OzpGi-TE
3. https://theoreticalminimum.com/courses/classical-
mechanics/2011/fall/lecture-4
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUfDBcqtsZQ
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dL7wypLMY2Y
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_xFpZOLXBXk
133
UNIT 16
QUARK MODEL
Structure
Overview
Objectives
16.1 The Quark Model
16.2 Compositions of hadrons according to the quark model
16.3 Coloured quarks and gluons

16.4 Quantum Numbers
Check Your Progress
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercises
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Quarks are a type of elementary particles and fundamental constituents of

matter. In 1963,Gell-Mann and Zweig proposed that none of the hadrons,
not even the proton and neutron, are truly fundamental but instead are
combinations of three more fundamental point like entities called quarks.
In the quark model, all hadrons are made of a few quarks. The quark
theory is well-accepted today, and quarks are considered fundamental
particles. In this chapter, we discussabout Quarks and its types.
OBJECTIVES

❖ Describe the four fundamental forces and what particles
participate in them
❖ Identify and describe fermions and bosons
134
❖ Identify and describe the quark and lepton families
❖ Distinguish between particles and antiparticles, and describe their
interactions
16.1 THE QUARK MODEL
Murray Gell-Mann and G. Zweig proposed the quark model in 1964. This
theory is based on the idea that the hadrons are built up from a limited
number of “fundamental” units,which have acquired the name quarks. The
original three quarks were labeled u (for “up”), d (for”down”) and s (for
“strange”).
Quark symbol charge spin B S I I3
Up u +2/3 ½ 1/3 0 ½ +1/2

down d -1/3 ½ 1/3 0 ½ -1/2
stran s -1/3 ½ ½ -1 0 0
ge
2
u quark has electric charge + 3 e and strangeness 0.
2
d quark has electric charge - 3 e and strangeness 0.
2
s quark has electric charge - 3 e and strangeness -1.
Each quark has a baryon number of B = 1/3.
Figure: Constituents of proton and neutron in terms of quark
Each quark has an antiquark associated with it ( u,d,s ). The

magnitude of each of the quantum numbers for the antiquarks has the
same magnitude as those for the quarks, but thesign is changed.
135
16.2 COMPOSITIONS OF HADRONS ACCORDING TO THE QUARK
MODEL
Hadrons may be baryons or mesons. A baryon is made up of three quarks.

For example, the proton is made up of two u quarks and one d quarks
(uud). For these quarks, the electric charges are + 2/3, + 2/3, and – 1/3,
for a total value of + 1. The baryon number are + 1/3, + 1/3 and + 1/3, for
a total of + 1. The strangeness numbers are 0, 0 and 0 for a total
strangeness of 0. All are in agreement with the quantum numbers for the
proton. quark models of the proton, antiproton, neutron and antineutron.
Electric charges are given in units of e.
A meson is made up of one quark and one antiquark. For example, the
π + meson is the
combination of one quark either u or d and one antiquark either u,d, .

The Electric charges
of these quarks are + 2/3 and + 1/3 for a total of +1, for a total of baryon
number of 0. The strangeness numbers are 0 and 0 for a total of 0. All of
these are in agreement with the quantum numbers for the pi-meson.
Quarks all have spins of ½, which accounts for the observed half-integral
spins of baryons and the 0 or 1 spins of mesons.
All known hadrons can be explained in terms of the various quarks and
their antiquarks. Quark contents of five hadrons and how they account for
the observed charges, spins, and strangeness numbers of these particles.
Hadron Quark Baryon Charge, e Spin Strangeness

content number
π+ u𝑑̅ 1 1 2 1 ↑↓= 0 0+0=0

− =0 + +
3 3 3 3
= +1
K+ u𝑠̅ 1 1 2 1 ↑↓= 0 0+1=+1

− =0 + +
3 3 3 3
= +1
p+ uud 1 1 1 2 2 1 ↑↑↓ 0+0+0=0

+ + + + +
3 3 3 3 3 3 1
= +1 =1 =
2
136
n0 ddu 1 1 1 1 1 2 ↓↓↑ 0+0+0=0
+ + − +
3 3 3 3 3 3 1
= +1 =0 =
2
Ω- sss 1 1 1 1 1 1 ↑↑↑ -1-1-1=-3

+ + − −
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
= +1 = −1 =
2
16.3 COLOURED QUARKS AND GLUONS
There were problems with the quark model, one of them being Ω- hyperon.
It was believed to contain three identical s quarks (sss). This violates the
Pauli exclusion principle, that prohibits two or more fermions from
occupying identical quantum states. The proton, neutron, and others with
two identical quarks would violate this principle also. We can resolve this
difficulty by assigning a new property to the quarks. We can regard this
new property as an additional quantum number that can be used to label
the three otherwise identical quarks in the Ω -. If this additional quantum
number can take any one of three possible values, we can restore the
Pauli‟s principle by giving each quark has a different value of this new
quantum number, which is known as colour. The three colours are
labeled red(R), blue (B), and green (G). The Ω – for example, would then
SR , SB ,SG. The antiquark colours are antired (R) antiblue (B) and
antigreen (G).
An essential component of the quark model with colour is that all observed
meson and baryon states are “colourless”, i.e., either colour, anticolour
combinations in the case of mesons, or equal mixtures of R, B and G in
the case of baryons.
Since hadrons seem to be composed of quarks, the strong interaction
between hadrons should ultimately be traceable to an interaction between
quarks. The force between quarks can be modeled as an exchange force,
mediated by the exchange of mass less spin –1 particles called gluons.
Eight gluons have been postulated. The field that binds the quarks is a
colour field. Colour is to the strong interaction between quarks as electric
charge is to the electromagnetic interaction between electrons. It is the
fundamental strong “charge” and is carried by the gluons. The gluons
must therefore be represented as combinations of a colour and a possibly
different anticolour. The gluons are massless and carry their colour and
anticolour properties just as other particles may carry electric charge. For
example, a gluon RB being exchanged by red and blue quarks. In effect
the red quark emits its redness into a gluon and acquires blueness by
137
also emitting antiblueness. The blue quark, on the other
hand, absorbs the RB gluon, canceling its blueness and acquiring a
red colour in the
process. Charm, Bottom, and Top. The charmed quark was suggested
to explain the suppression
of certain decay processes that are not observed. With only three quarks,
the processes wouldproceed at measurable rates and should have been
2
observed. The charm quark has a charge of e strangeness 0 and a
3
charm quantum number of + 1. Other quarks have 0 charm.
Charge,
Generation Quark Symbol Strangeness Charm
e
2
1 Up U + 0 0
3
1
Down D − 0 0
3
2
2 Up C + 0 +1
3
1
Down S − -1 0
3
2
3 Up T + 0 0
3
1
Down B − 0 0
3
16.4 QUANTUM NUMBERS
The quarks have quantum numbers. The s-quark has a quantum number
called strangeness. The C, B and T quantum numbers are conserved in
the strong and electromagnetic interactions and change by one unit in the
weak interactions. This means that the number of quarks minus
antiquarks for each s, c, b and t must remain constant in strongand
electromagnetic interactions, whereas in the weak interaction there is a
change of quark flavor with the preferred sequence t→ b→ c→ s.Since
three of the quarks areneeded to make a baryon, therefore, the baryon
number is 1/3 for all the quarks. The quarks quantum numbers are
summarized in table .
138
Table: Quark quantum numbers and properties
Quantum Number U D s c b t
Charge 2/3 -1/3 -1/3 2/3 -1/3 2/3
Mass (GeV/c2) 0.39 0.39 0.51 1.55 ~5 ~ 30
Spin in h ½ ½ 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
Isopin I ½ ½ 0 0 0 0
Isopin Component I3 ½ -1/2 0 0 0 0
Baryon number B 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3
Strangeness S 0 0 -1 0 0 0
Charm c 0 0 0 1 0 0
Botton B 0 0 0 0 -1 0
Top τ 0 0 0 0 0 1
The isospin quantum number T is ½ and therefore T3=1/2 and -1/2 for the
up and down quarks respectively. The quantum number S of strange
quark and of beauty quark is -1. It is 1 for the charm and top quarks.
The hypercharge is a quantum number related to quark strangeness and
baryon number, whereas the isospin is a quantum number related to the
u-d quark difference. The colour quantum number breaks the degeneracy
and allows up to three quarks of the same flavor to occupy a single
quantum state.
Quark Masses - Among the six quarks, the least massive members are
the u and d quarks, each of same mass, around 0.39 GeV/c2. The lighest
baryons, nucleons, ∆ particles, and the lightest mesons, pions must
therefore be exclusively made of these two quarks. The s quark is more
massive, around 0.51 GeV/c2. It carries a quantum number called
strangeness and a necessary constituent of particles called strange
particles (with non-zero strangeness), such as K-mesons, and baryon A.
The c-quark is even more massive, having rest mass around 1.65 GeV/c2.
The b-quark has a rest mass around 5 GeV/c2.
139
Mesons and Baryons – All hadrons are made of six quarks and their
antiquarks. The properties of the quarks is inferred from the properties of
mesons and baryons. To know the masses of the quarks from the known
hadron masses, we need to know the strength of the interaction between
quarks in the hadron. The hadrons are subdivided into two classes,
baryons and mesons. Baryons are Fermions, this implies that quarks are
also fermions. Since the quark cannot exist as a free particle, the lightest
fermion in the hadron family must therefore be made of three quarks.
Thus
| p> = | uud > and | n > = | u dd>.
2 2 −1 2 1 1
𝑄𝑝 = + + ( ) = 1; 𝑄𝑛 = − − = 0;
3 3 3 3 3 3
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. List the quark and lepton families
LET US SUM UP
➢ The four fundamental forces of nature are, in order of strength:

strong nuclear, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and gravitational.
Quarks interact via the strong force, but leptons do not. Both quark
and leptons interact via the electromagnetic, weak, and
gravitationalforces.
➢ Elementary particles are classified into fermions and boson.
Fermions have half-integral spinand obey the exclusion principle.
Bosons have integral spin and do not obey this principle. Bosons
are the force carriers of particle interactions.
➢ Quarks and leptons belong to particle families composed of three

members each. Members of a family share many properties
(charge, spin, participation in forces) but not mass.
➢ All particles have antiparticles. Particles share the same properties

as their antimatter particles,but carry opposite charge.
1. Quarks were eventually found to come in six types, called up,

down, charm, strange, top and bottom.
140
UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Distinguish between elementary particles and antiparticles.

Describe their interactions.
2. What are the four fundamental forces? Briefly describe them.
SUGGESTED READINGS

Web Resources
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlTcCa9INIQ
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-TnmD4WTkgU
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOfsM-GZueo
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fWPvhFcDjEs
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XltiIJYRWFQ
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1S6KfMzOH8
141
About Tamil Nadu Open University
Tamil Nadu Open University (TNOU), with its

Headquarters at Chennai was established in 2000 by an
Act of Tamil Nadu Legislature at the State level for the
introduction and promotion of Open University and
Distance Education in the educational and for the co-
ordination and determination of standards in such system.
The salient features of TNOU are , relaxed entry rules,
PDLQWHQDQFHRIVWDQGDUGVLQGLYLGXDOL]HGVWXG\ÁH[LEOHLQ
term of place, duration of the study, use of latest information
and communication technology, well-knit student support
services network, cost effective programmes, collaboration
and resource sharing with other Universities.
School of Sciences
School of Sciences, established in 2004, has been offering the B.Sc. and M.Sc. programmes in Mathematics since
2005 and B.Sc., Mathematics with Computer Application since 2007. In 2017, B.Sc. programmes in Physics, Chemistry,
Botany, and Zoology were introduced, while M.Sc. programmes in Physics, Chemistry, Botany, and Zoology were
launched in 2018. As per the academic restructured, the Department of Geography and Apparel & Fashion Design
were merged in the School of Science in 2020 and these departments are offering B.Sc., and M.Sc., Programmes.
The main objective is to excite the brains and hearts of rural students through constant inquiry and active
participation in Science. The School of study has blazed a trail of information transmission and generation, graduating
over 25000 Science students across the Nation. It has built a niche for itself in the core areas of teaching, research,
consultation, administration, and community services over the last 17 years.
The School of study consists of the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Botany, Zoology,
Geography and Apparel & Fashion Design. Moreover, all the above said. Departments offer various academic
3URJUDPPHVIURP&HUWLÀFDWHWR5HVHDUFKGHJUHHOHYHO 03KLO 3K' LQWKHLUFRQFHUQHGGLVFLSOLQHV
While the Department of Physics offers the following Programmes
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M.Phil., Physics (Full Time & Part-Time)
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For details contact:

Ph :044-24306641
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MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

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Total No of Pages: 150

March 2023 ( First Edition)

ISBN No: 978-93-5706-469-9

©Tamil Nadu Open University

COURSE TITLE : NUCLEAR PHYSICS

COURSE CODE : MPHS 42

BLOCK I: Nuclear Structure

BLOCK II: Nuclear Models

BLOCK III: Nuclear reaction and nuclear decay

BLOCK IV: Nuclear forces and Properties of nuclear forces

BLOCK V: Particle Physics

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE:

1. Introduction to Nuclear Physics – Herald Enge, Addision Wesley Pub. Co,

3. Nuclear Physics – D.C.Tayal, Himalaya House, Bombay.

4. Elements of Nuclear Physics - M C Pandia and R P S Yadav

5. Nuclear Physics an Introduction - S B Patel

6. Atomic Nucleus – R.D.Evans, Mc-Graw Hill, 1955.

7. Nuclear Physics – R.R.Roy and B.P.Nigam, John Wiley 1967

COURSE LEARING OUTCOMES

1.1 Unit 1: Distribution of Nuclear Charge 2

1.2 Unit 2: Conservation Laws and Symmetry 10

1.3 Unit 3: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 17

1.4 Unit 4: Concept of Hidden Variable and Exchange Force 20

2 BLOCK II: NUCLEAR MODELS 34

2.1 Unit 5: Liquid Drop Model 35

2.2 Unit 6: Shell Model 44

2.3 Unit 7: Collective Model 51

3 BLOCK III: NUCLEAR REACTION AND NUCLEAR DECAY 55

3.1 Unit 8: Nuclear Reaction and Conservation Laws 56

3.2 Unit 9: Nuclear Decay 65

3.3 Unit 10: Nuclear Isomerism 83

4.3 Unit 13: Reciprocity Theorem and B-W Formula 108

5 BLOCK V: PARTICLE PHYSICS 117

5.1 Unit 14: Classification of Elementary Particles 118

5.2 Unit 15: Conservation Laws and Symmetry 130

5.3 Unit 16: Quark Model 134

Appendix – Plagiarism Certificate 142

DISTRIBUTION OF NUCLEAR CHARGE

1.2.1 Bainbridge and Jordan Mass-spectrograph

After studying this unit, you will be able to explain:

➢ Bain -bridge Mass Spectrograph and its advantages.

The early theorists, without a c c e s s to computers, had strong

Mass spectroscopy contains to play an important role in nuclear physics

This instrument can measure atomic masses very accurately as it

v. It has a resolving power of the order of 104

Where K is a constant for any particular slit arrangement.

The electrostatic deflector is a sector of cylindrical capacitor. The central

Numerical parameters for the Nier spectrometer

D(M)=0.133 (∆M/M) meter.

As the width of slit S4 is 0.0008 cm hence the maximum possible value of

R.P/ = (∆M/M) = D(M)/0.133=6x10-5

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.What is nuclear charge distribution?

✓ The charge distribution is mainly determined by the

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The charge distribution is mainly determined by the

UNIT END EXERCISES

1. What was the Mass Spectro-Graph used to discover?