RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
Channasandra, Bengaluru- 560 098

CHEMISTRY FOR ECE / EEE STREAM (BCHEE202)

Module 2
Energy Conversion
and Storage
Energy conversion and storage RNSIT-2023

ENERGY CONVERSION AND STORAGE

Syllabus

Batteries: Introduction, classification of batteries. Components, construction, working and

applications of modern batteries; Na-ion battery, solid state battery (Li-polymer battery) and
flow battery (Vanadium redox flow battery).

Batteries A battery is a cell, or a series of cells connected together used as source of

electrical energy. Batteries are classified into three types.
Classification of batteries

Batteries are classified into three categories. They are primary, secondary, and reserve batteries.

a) Primary Batteries: The batteries which cannot be recharged are called primary
batteries or primary cells. Example: Zn – Mno2 (dry cell), modern battery: Zinc/Air,
Lithium-Mno2 primary cell.
a. Secondary (rechargeable) battery: The batteries which can be recharged by passing current

in opposite direction are called secondary cells or secondary batteries or rechargeable cells.

A secondary cell can undergo large number of discharging and charging cycle.

Examples: Lead-acid battery, Ni-Cd battery, Modern batteries: Nickel-metal hydride battery,

Lithium-ion battery etc.

b. Reserve battery: The batteries which can be stored in an active state and made ready for

use by activating them prior to the applications are called as reserve batteries. The key

components of the batteries such as electrolyte is separated from the battery. The electrolyte

is filled before its usage. Example: lithium-vanadium pentoxide (Li-V2O5), Zn-Ag2O,

magnesium-water activated battery.

These batteries are used for delivering high power for relatively short period of time. They are

used in missiles, torpedoes and other weapon.

Sodium-ion battery (Na-Ion):

The main advantage of Na-ion batteries comes from the natural abundance and lower cost of
sodium compared with lithium.

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Construction:

Anode: Sodium ions absorbed on surface of hard carbon (NaxC6)

Cathode: Sodium transition metal oxides (Na1–xMO2), where M = Fe, Ni, Mn, Co, etc.
Electrolyte: Sodium salts such as NaPF6 and NaClO4 are used together with small
amounts of mixed organic carbonate solvents like ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene
carbonate (PC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), and ethyl methyl
carbonate (EMC).

Separator: Fine porous polymer film.

Representation: NaxC6 | NaPF6 dissolved in mixed organic solvents | Na1-xMO2
Cell potential: 3.8V
Type: Secondary Battery
Working: Cell reactions during discharge:

During discharge cycle, the lithium ions spontaneously move from the graphite electrode (anode)
to the cathode which is called de-intercalation and the eˉ flow through the external circuit to
balance the charge.
During Charging

During charge cycle, an external power supply forces the eˉ to flow in the opposite direction and
allows lithium ions to travel from cathode to graphite electrode (anode) that is called
intercalation.

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The net cell reaction during discharging and charging.

Advantages:
1. Sodium resource are more abundant.
2. The cost of sodium ion batteries is about 30% lower than that of lithium batteries.
3. Sodium ion batteries are safer and are easier to recycle.

Disadvantages:
1. Lower energy density of sodium ion batteries compare to lithium-ion batteries.
2. Short cycle life.
3. Due to larger ionic size of Na+ ion, require more power to keep energy flowing
4. Need high temperature for optimal work.

Applications: Still, one has to explore the applications of sodium ion batteries. Some are listed
below,
 Electric boats and power tools
 Low speed vehicles
 Solar energy storage systems for home

SOLID STATE BATTERY

Lithium-Polymer battery

Lithium polymer batteries work on the principle of intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium
ions between positive and negative electrode materials with solid polymer electrolyte instead of a
liquid electrolyte.

Construction:

Anode: Lithium incorporated Graphite layer with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as the
binder coated on copper current collector.

Cathode: Lithium incorporated transition metal oxide like Li1-X MO2, M=CO,Mn,Fe with binder
coated on aluminium current collector.

Electrolyte: Solid polymer electrolyte (polyethylene oxide, Polyacrylonitrile) gelled with

lithium salt (LiPF6).

Separator: Fine porous polymer membrane.

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Battery Representation: LixC6 / LiPF6 in solid polymer electrolyte (PEO) / LiCoO2

Cell potential: 3.6 to 3.7 V

Reactions:

Working: During charging, an external voltage is applied to the battery, causing lithium ion
move from cathode to anode through the electrolyte. The lithium ions are stored in the anode
material, such as graphite or lithium metal. When the battery is discharging, the stored lithium
ion move from the anode to cathode through the electrolyte. As the lithium ion migrate, electrons
flow through the external circuit generating current.

Advantages: The main advantages of Li-Polymer batteries are that

1. They have high energy density,
2. High voltage and High flexibility
3. Greater life span (300-500 cycles),
4. Less weight, more resistance to overcharge,

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5. Fast charging rate and can be made to almost any size or shape.

Applications: Li-polymer batteries are used in laptops, computers, mobile phones, cameras,
calculators, pacemakers, drones telecommunication equipment’s, portable radios and TVs, and
aerospace applications.

Vanadium redox flow battery (VRB)

The Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB) is a type of rechargeable flow battery that uses
vanadium ions in different oxidation states to store and release electrical energy. It employs
vanadium ions as charge carriers.

Construction:
Anode/Cathode: Porous Carbon material separated by a proton exchange membrane(PEM) or a
solid ion exchange membrane.

Electrolyte: Both electrolytes are vanadium-based. The electrolyte in cathode compartment

contains V5+(VO2+) and V4+(VO2+)ions, while the electrolyte in anode
compartment consists of V3+ and V2+ ions. The electrolytes can be prepared by
dissolving vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) in H2SO4.

Membrane: Hydrogen permeable polymer membrane like perfluorinated sulfonic acid (Nafion)
Cell potential: 1.4 to 1.6V

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Cell reactions:

Anode: V2+ ↔ V3+ + e−

Cathode: VO2+ + 2H++ e- ↔ VO2+ +H20

Overall reaction: V2+ + VO2++2H+ ↔ VO2 ++ V3+ + H2O

Working: During discharging, V2+ is oxidized to V3+ in the negative half-cell(anode) and an
electron is released to the external circuit. During charging, an external power is used to
electrolyze the water, generating oxygen gas at anode and hydrogen gas at cathode. In the
positive half-cell, V5+ in the form of VO2+ accepts an electron from external circuit and reduced
to V4+ in the form of VO2+. H+ ions are transported through the membrane from anode to
cathode and maintain electrical neutrality(vice-versa

Advantages:

 They require low maintenance

 High energy efficiency
 Long charge/discharge cycle lives (15,000-20,000 cycles)
 Long shelf-life
 Wide operating temperature range including passive cooling
 Independent of weather and temperature fluctuations
 Eco-friendly and recyclable
 High level of safety, non-flammable, non-explosive

Applications: Battery can be used in utility-scale energy storage projects, micro grids, grid
smoothing, backup power and in remote and off-grid power applications.

QUESTION BANK

1. What are batteries? Briefly explain the components of the battery.

2. What are batteries? Explain the classification of batteries with suitable examples.
3. Describe the construction and working of Lithium-polymer battery. Mention its
applications.
4. Explain the construction with a diagram and working of sodium-ion battery. Mention its
applications.
5. What are flow batteries? Describe the construction and working of Vanadium redox flow
battery. Mention its applications.

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